| Battle of Kulikovo | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Part of theGreat Troubles | |||||||
 "The Battle of Kulikovo" (1849). Painting byAdolphe Yvon. | |||||||
| |||||||
| Belligerents | |||||||
|
| ||||||
| Commanders and leaders | |||||||
| Dmitry Ivanovich of Moscow Vladimir Andreyevich the Bold | Mamai Muhammad Bolak † Władysław II Jagiełło | ||||||
| Strength | |||||||
| 60,000 and 80,000 soldiers.[3] | 30,000[4]–100,000[5]–200,000[6]–300,000[7] | ||||||
TheBattle of Kulikovo (Russian:Куликовская битва,romanized: Kulikovskaya bitva)[a] was fought between the forces ofMamai, a powerful Mongol military commander of theGolden Horde, and Russian forces led by Grand PrinceDmitry of Moscow.[8][9][10] The battle took place on 8 September 1380,[11] atKulikovo Field near theDon River (nowTula Oblast,Russia) and was won by Dmitry,[12] who became known asDonskoy ("of the Don") after the battle.[12]
Although the victory did not end Mongol domination over Russia, it is traditionally regarded as the turning point at which Mongol influence began to wane and Moscow's power began to rise.[2][11] The battle would allow Moscow to strengthen its claims of ascendancy over the other Russian principalities,[13] in which it would ultimately become the centre of a centralized Russian state.[14][15][16][17][18]
Following theMongol invasion of Rus' in the 13th century, the numerous principalities becamevassals of theGolden Horde.[19] During this period, theprincipality of Moscow was growing in power and was often challenging its neighbours over territory, including clashing withRyazan. Thus, in 1300, Moscow seized the city ofKolomna from Ryazan, and the prince of Ryazan was killed after several years in captivity.[20]
After the killing of KhanBerdi Beg of theGolden Horde in 1359, theGreat Troubles had arisen there.Warlord (temnik)Mamai, who was the son-in-law andbeylerbey of Berdi Beg, soon took power in the western part of theGolden Horde. Mamai enthronedAbdullah Khan in 1361 and after his mysterious death in 1370, Muhammad Bolak was enthroned.[21] Mamai was not aGenghisid (descendant of Genghis Khan), and as such his grip on power was tenuous, as there were true Genghisids with claims to mastery. Therefore, he had to constantly fight for supreme power and at the same time struggle against separatism. While there was a war of succession in the decliningGolden Horde, new political powers were appearing, such as theGrand Duchy of Lithuania, thePrincipality of Moscow, and thePrincipality of Ryazan.
Meanwhile, theGrand Duchy of Lithuania continued its expansion. It competed with Moscow for supremacy overTver and in 1368–1372 made three campaigns against Moscow. After the death ofAlgirdas in 1377, his eldest sonsAndrei of Polotsk andDmitri of Bryansk began to struggle with their step-brotherJogaila for their legitimate right to the throne and allied with the Grand Prince of Moscow.[22]
Simultaneously with the beginning of the Great Troubles in the Horde in 1359, Prince of MoscowIvan II died and the new Khan of the Horde by hisjarliq (law pronouncement) transferred the throne of theGrand Duchy of Vladimir to the Prince ofNizhny Novgorod. But the Moscow elites (in 1359, the new PrinceDmitry was only 9 years old) did not accept this. They used equally armed force and bribes to various Khans and as a result, in 1365, forced the princes of Nizhny Novgorod to finally give up claims to the Grand Duchy of Vladimir.[21] In 1368, the conflict between Moscow andTver began. Prince of TverMikhail used the help of Lithuania, and in addition, in 1371 Mamai gave him a jarliq to the Grand Duchy of Vladimir. But the Moscow troops simply did not let the new "Grand Prince" enter Vladimir, despite the presence of the Tatar ambassador. Thecampaigns of the Lithuanian army also failed and so the jarliq returned to Dmitry. According to the results of the truce with Lithuania in 1372, the Grand Duchy of Vladimir was now recognized as the hereditary possession of the Moscow princes.[23] In 1375 the Prince of Tver once again received a jarliq for the Grand Duchy from Mamai. Then Dmitri with a strong army (larger than it was in the Kulikovo battle) quickly moved to Tver and forced it to capitulate. Mikhail recognized himself as the "little brother" of the prince of Moscow and ensured to participate in wars with the Tatars.[24]
The open conflict between Dmitry and Mamai began in 1374, the exact reasons are unknown. It is believed that the illegitimacy of the puppet khans of Mamai was by that time too obvious, and he demanded more and more money, as he lost the war for the throne of the Golden Horde.[25] In the following years the Tatars raided Dmitry's allies and the Moscow troops made a campaign against Tatars over theOka River in 1376 and seized the cityBolghar in 1377. In the same year "Mamai's tatars" defeated the army of Nizhny Novgorod with an auxiliary detachment left by Dmitry at theBattle on Pyana River. The Tatars then began to raidNizhniy Novgorod andRyazan.[26]
Mamai continued attempts to reaffirm his control over the tributary lands of the Golden Horde. In 1378, he sent forces led by the warlord Murza Begich to ensure Prince Dmitri's obedience, but this army suffered a crushing defeat at theBattle of the Vozha River. Meanwhile, another khan,Tokhtamysh, seized power in the eastern part of the Golden Horde. He enjoyed the support ofTamerlane and was ready to unite the entire Horde under his rule. In 1380, despite the threat from Tokhtamysh, Mamai chose to personally lead his army against the forces of Moscow. In preparation for the invasion, he allied with PrinceJogaila of Lithuania. Ryazan PrinceOleg was defeated by Mamai in 1378 (and his capital was burnt), he had no strength to resist Mamai, and Ryazan's relationship with Moscow had long been hostile. Therefore, in the campaign of 1380 Oleg took the side of Mamai, although this fact is sometimes challenged. Mamai camped his army on the bank of theDon River, waiting for the arrival of his allies.[27][28]
In August 1380 Prince Dmitri learned of the approaching army of Mamai. It is alleged that Oleg Ryazansky sent a message to him. The interpretations of such an act are different. Some believe that he did this because he was not a supporter of Mamai, while others believe that he expected to intimidate Dmitry – in the past, none of the Russian princes dared to meet in battle with the Khan himself. Nevertheless, Dmitry quickly assembled an army inKolomna. There he was visited by the ambassadors of Mamai. They demanded an increased tribute, "as under the KhanJani Beg". Dmitry agreed to pay tribute, but only in the amount provided for by his previous contract with Mamai.[29] In Kolomna, Dmitry received updated information about the Mamai itinerary and about the approaching forces of Jogaila. So, after reviewing the army, on August 20 he moved west along the Oka River, crossed it at the town of Lopasnya on August 24–25 and moved south towards Mamai. On September 6, the Russian army reached the Don River, where it was reorganized, taking into account the units that joined during the movement from Kolomna. At the council, it was decided to cross the Don before the enemies could combine their forces, although this step cut off the path to retreat in case of defeat.[30]
The earliest chronicle tales do not provide details on the composition of the Russian army. Among the dead in the battle there are named only Princes ofBeloozero (which by that time were in strong submission to Moscow), noble Moscow boyars, andAlexander Peresvet.[31] The latter, according to some sources, was fromLithuania (rather from Bryansk). The poetic story "Zadonshchina", along with a figure of 253,000 fallen in the battle, gives dozens of dead princes, boyars, "Lithuanianpans" and "Novgorodposadniks" from all over North-Eastern Rus', but all this data is doubtful. There are mentioned even 70 fallen Ryazan boyars, although according to all other sources the Duchy of Ryazan was the forced ally of Tatars. According to the Russian historian Gorskii, the list of princes and commanders (according to which one can estimate the composition of the army), cited in"The Tale of the Rout of Mamai" and the sources derived from it, is completely untrustworthy. However, he identified two chronicles with a sufficiently high level of reliability. According to his reconstruction, detachments from most of North-Eastern Russia, part of the Princes of theSmolensk Land and part of theUpper Oka Principalities were represented in the army of Dmitry, but there were no troops fromNizhny Novgorod and from the Principality of Tver (except for Kashin, who became independent under the treaty of 1375). The probability of the presence of a detachment fromVeliky Novgorod is quite high (although in the early Novgorod chronicles, such information is not available).Grand Duchy of Ryazan could be represented by the troops of the appanage Principality ofPronsk, whose rulers have long rivalled their Grand Princes. Also, the presence of small detachments from the borderlands ofMurom,Yelets andMeshchera is "not excluded". Probably, the army of Dmitri was enforced byJogaila's rebellious brothersAndrei of Polotsk andDmitri of Bryansk.[32]
The first data on the total number of troops collected by Dmitry appeared in theExpanded Chronicle Tale, which estimates them to 150–200,000. This number is completely unreliable, as such masses of people simply could not physically fit on the field; even the number of 100,000 seems overestimated. Late literature sources determine the number of Russian troops at 300,000 or even 400,000 armoured soldiers only. Thus, there is no exact data on the number of the army of Dmitry. It can only be said that by the standards of that time, it was a very large army, and even in the 15th century the Moscow princes could not assemble an equally powerful force, which led to fantastic stories about hundreds of thousands of warriors.[33] The definition of the real size of medieval armies based on chronicles is a difficult task.[34]
Estimates of the number of the Russian army by historians gradually departed from the hundreds of thousands of soldiers described in the chronicles and medieval literature. Military historian General Maslovsky in the work of 1881 estimated it to be 100,000–150,000. The historian of military art Razin in the book of 1957 estimated it to be 50,000–60,000. The historian and archaeologist, medieval warfare expert Kirpchinikov, in the book of 1966 argues that the maximum strength of the army of six regiments on Kulikovo Field could not exceed 36,000. Archaeologist Dvurechensky, an employee of the "Kulikovo field" museum, in his report of 2014 determined the number of the Russian army as 6,000–7,000 warriors. Close assessments are given by modern Russian historians Penskoy and Bulychev. The main impetus for reducing the estimates of the strength of the army was the analysis of demography and mobilization potential. It was noted that even a much larger and more densely populated Russia of the 16th century rarely could expose 30,000–40,000 soldiers at a time. It was also noted that the timeframe for mobilization (about two weeks) was too small to mobilize a huge army of unskilled militiamen (even apart from the fact that this approach was completely contrary to all the military traditions of that time).[35][36][37][38][39] Attempts to reduce the size of the army are criticized by some authors.[40]
Estimates of the forces of the Tatars in Russian sources are equally unreliable, they only show an overwhelming numerical superiority. So, in one variant of "The Tale" the number of Russian troops was boldly given at 1,320,000 but the Tatar army was named "innumerable".[41] There were no medieval sources from the Tatar side.[42] Mamai's allies, Grand PrinceOleg II of Ryazan and Grand PrinceJogaila of Lithuania, were late to the battle and the number of their troops can be ignored.
| The duel between Peresvet and Chelubey on the Kulikovo Field | |
|---|---|
| Painting | |
 https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/Файл:Peresvet.jpg |
The early sources contain few details about the course of the battle. "The Tale of the Rout of Mamai", which dates back to the 16th century, gives a complete picture detailing the alignment of forces and the events on the field and adds many colourful details. It is unknown whether "The Tale" is based on an unknown earlier source, or whether it reflects a retrospective attempt to describe the battle based on tactics and practices of the 16th century. Due to the absence of other sources, the course of the battle according to "The Tale" was adopted as a basis for subsequent reconstructions of the battle.[44]
On 7 September, Prince Dmitri was told that Mamai's army was approaching. On the morning of 8 September, in a thick fog, the army crossed the Don River. According to theNikon Chronicle, after that the bridges were destroyed. The day of 8 September was very special, as it was the feast of theNativity of the Theotokos, who was considered a patron Saint of Russia. According to the chronology adopted in Russia it was the year 6888Anno Mundi, which also had anumerological value.[45] The army came to the "clean field" near Nepryadva mouth and assumed a battle formation. After some time, “Tatars” appeared and began to form theirorder of battle against the Christians.[46]
The Russian army was organized into six "regiments" - a Patrol, a Forward, two regiments of "Right" and "Left Hand," a Large regiment and an Ambush regiment. In turn, each of the regiments was divided into smaller tactical units – "banners" (a total of about 23).[47] On the field the army was arranged in multiple lines, and probably, the location of the regiments did not match their names (there is no evidence that the regiments of the Left and Right Hand disposed in line with the Large Regiment). The terrain did not allow for a broad front; probably, the units entered into battle gradually. The army's flanks were protected by ravines with dense thickets which excluded any chance for a surprise flank attack of a Horde. The Ambush regiment under the command ofVladimir the Bold and DmitryBobrok (brother-in-law of the Grand Prince) was hidden behind the line of Russian troops in an oak grove.[b] The Grand Prince himself went to the front lines, leaving his trustedboyar Mikhail Brenok as the head of the Large Regiment under the great banner. He also exchanged with the boyar horses and gave him a coat and a helmet, so the Grand Prince could fight like an ordinary boyar, remaining unrecognized.[c] The battle opened with a single combat between two champions.[d] The Russian champion wasAlexander Peresvet and the Horde's champion was Temir-Murza (also Chelubey or Cheli-bey, also Tovrul or Chrysotovrul). During the first pass of the contest, each champion killed the other with his spear and both fell to the ground. Thus, it remained unclear whose victory was predicted by the duel's outcome.[48]
After the fights of the advanced detachments, the main forces of both armies clashed. According to the "Expanded Chronicle Tale" it happened "at the sixth hour of the day" (the daylight was divided into twelve hours, the duration of which changed throughout the year).[e] "The sixth hour of the day" approximately corresponds to 10.35 am. According to one of the later sources, the Tatars met the first blow of the Russian cavalry on foot, exposing the spears in two rows, which gave rise to stories about the "hired Genovese infantry." Russian sources, even the earliest ones, unanimously tell us that after the clash of the main forces, a cruel melee began, which lasted a long time and in which the "innumerable multitude of people" perished on both sides.[49] The medieval German historianAlbert Krantz describe this battle in his bookVandalia: "both of these people do not fight to stand in large detachments, but in their usual way they rush to throw missiles, strike and then retreat backwards". An expert on medieval warfare, Kirpichnikov assumed that the armies on the Kulikovo field fought by several separate consolidated units, that tried to keep the battle order. As soon as this order was disrupted, the survivors from the unit fled and a new detachment was put in their place. Gradually, more and more units were drawn into the battle. As described in the "Expanded Chronicle Tale": "And a corpse fell on a corpse, a Tatar body fell on a Christian body; then here, it was possible to see how aRusyn pursued a Tatar, and a Tatar pursued a Rusyn." The tightness of the field did not allow the Tatars to realize their mobility and use their tactics of flanking. Nevertheless, in a fierce battle, the Tatars began to gradually overcome. They broke through to the banner of the Large Regiment, threw it down and killed Boyar Brenok. The regiment of the "Left Hand" was also overturned and some "Moscow recruits" fell into a panic.[f] It seemed that the rout of the Russian army was close and the Tatars put all their forces into action.[50]
At that time, the cavalry of the ambush regiment launched a surprise counterstrike on the Horde's flank, which led to the collapse of the Horde's line. People and horses, tired from a long battle, could not resist the blow of fresh forces. After the Horde was routed, the Russians chased the Tatars for over 50 kilometres (31 mi), until they reachedKrasivaya Mecha River.[51]
The losses in the battle were great. A third of the commanders of 23 "banners" were killed in action. Grand Prince Dmitry himself survived, although wounded and fainted from exhaustion. His entire escort died or scattered and he was hardly found among the corpses. For six days the victorious army stood "on the bones".[52]
Upon learning of Mamai's defeat, Prince Jogaila turned his army back to Lithuania. People of the Ryazan Land attacked separate detachments coming from the battlefield, plundered them and taken prisoners (the question of the return of prisoners remained actual for twenty years, it was mentioned in the Moscow–Ryazan Treaties of 1381 and 1402). Prince Dmitry of Moscow began to prepare for reprisal, but Prince Oleg of Ryazan fled (according to the Nikon Chronicle, "to Lithuania") and the Ryazan boyars received Moscow governors. Soon Prince Oleg returned to power, but he was forced to accept Prince Dmitry as his sovereign ("older brother") and to sign a treaty of peace.[53]
Mukhammad-Bulek, Mamai's figurehead Khan, was killed in battle. Mamai escaped to the Genoese strongholdCaffa inCrimea. He assembled a new army, but now he did not have a "legitimate khan" and his nobles defected to his rivalTokhtamysh khan. Mamai again fled to Caffa and was killed there.[54] The war with Moscow had led Mamai's Horde to a complete crash. With one stroke Tokhtamysh received full power, thus eliminating the 20-year split of the Golden Horde. According to historian Gorsky, it was Tokhtamysh who received the most concrete political benefit from the defeat of Mamai.[55]
Prince Dmitri, who became known as Donskoy (of the Don) after the battle, did not manage to become fully independent from the Golden Horde, however. In 1382, Khan Tokhtamysh launchedanother campaign against the Principality of Moscow. He captured and burned down Moscow, forcing Dmitri to accept him as sovereign. However, the victory at Kulikovo was an early sign of the decline of Mongol power. In the century that followed, Moscow's power rose, solidifying control over the other Russian principalities. Russian vassalage to the Golden Horde officially ended in 1480, a century after the battle, following the defeat of the Horde's invasion at thegreat stand on the Ugra River.
Only five primary sources about the battle have survived into modern times: one inChurch Slavonic, two inMiddle High German, and twoBolgar sources.[56] No sources from the Tatar side are available; if they had been written, they were probably destroyed a few years later whenTimur burnt down the archives of the Golden Horde in Sarai.[56]
Each of the literary works of the Kulikovo cycle contains at least some historical errors or fictions.[60] The earliest three works ("Chronicle Tale",Zadonshchina and "Narration") probably derived from a common source.[60] Scholars usually consider the "Narration" to be the youngest version of this Slavonic primary source, and the least reliable, but even scholars who claim it has some historical elements have openly admitted that it has its flaws.[60] For example, the "Narration" mistakenly claimed thatCyprian, Metropolitan of Kiev in 1380 resided in Moscow rather than Kyiv,[60] thatAlgirdas (died 1377) was stillgrand duke of Lithuania in 1380,[60] and that Dmitry Donskoy had a meeting withSergius of Radonezh, which almost certainly did not happen.[60] They also contradict each other on some fundamentals such as Donskoy's role during the battle.[59] According to the "Narration", Donskoy fought on horseback with his clothes, was wounded and left the field of battle, and was found unconscious under a tree after the battle; according to the "Chronicle Tale", Donskoy switched clothes with a boyar, fought in the frontline until the end of combat, and did not sustain even a scratch.[59] The style of the Slavonic sources also differs significantly: theZadonshchina is a rather chivalric and militaristic story with only superficial religious elements, while the "Narration" is a very Christian religious retelling of the events narrated in theZadonshchina.[61]
The two German chroniclers were not eyewitnesses, but in all likelihood received their information from Lithuanian informants, who had their own biases.[1] According to Ostrowski (1998, 2000), the German chronicles were generally earlier and more accurate than the Kulikovo cycle sources, and showed that the battle did take place on the Don River, but was not as significant as claimed.[1]
The Battle of Kulikovo gave rise to an unprecedentedly large stratum of medieval Rus' literature; no other historical event has received such wide coverage. Russian historians singled out a body of "literary works of the Kulikovo cycle",[62][63] or "Kulikovo cycle" for short.[63] The most important works are:[64]
While theZadonshchina is based on the literary model ofThe Tale of Igor's Campaign (also known asLay of the Host of Igor’),[63][70] the latter had elements ofSlavic paganism, which in theZadonshchina narrative were replaced by the idea that the Rus' soldiers fought "for the Rus’ Land and the Christian faith";[70] yet the Christian elements in it pale in comparison to its military andchivalricethos.[61] On the other hand, the "Narration of the Battle with Mamai", which has been largely derived from theZadonshchina, is "a highly religious depiction of the battle, replete with constant prayers, miracles, and religious symbolism".[61] As of 2022, there were 6 known manuscripts of theZadonshchina, while over a hundred copies of the "Narration" have survived, indicating the greater popularity of these later versions, which systemically rewrote various episodes from theZadonshchina to make them more religious.[61] For example, the "Narration" adds an invocation ofVolodimer I of Kievbaptising the Rus' Land, Alexander Peresvet pronouncing a prayer before going into battle, and unlike in theZadonshchina, nobody is said to be fighting "for the Rus' Land", but only "for the Christian faith and Grand Prince Dmitrii Ivanovich".[61]
The paintings on the theme of the battle were created by many Russian and Soviet artists such asOrest Kiprensky,Vasily Sazonov,Mikhail Nesterov,Alexander Bubnov,Mikhail Avilov. The French painterAdolphe Yvon, later known for his works on the Napoleonic Wars, in 1850 wrote the monumental painting "The Battle of the Kulikovo Field" by order ofNicholas I.[71]
Aminor planet,2869 Nepryadva, discovered in 1980 bySoviet astronomerNikolai Stepanovich Chernykh, was named in honour of the Russian victory over theTataro-Mongols.[72]
Medieval sources do not give a precise description of the site of the battle, but they mention a large clear field beyond theDon River and near the mouth of theNepryadva River. In the 19th century,Stepan Nechaev came up with what he believed was the exact location of the battle and his hypothesis was accepted. Studies of old soils in the 20th century showed that the left bank of Nepryadva near its influx in the Don was covered with dense forests, while on the right there was a wooded steppe with vast openings. On one of them, between the rivers Nepryadva and Smolka, the place of the battle was finally localized by a team of archaeologists led by Dvurechensky in 2005.[73]
The historian Azbelev (2016) subjected this localization to sharp criticism. Trying to prove that 400,000 people were involved in the battle on both sides, he assumed that the real battlefield was not at the mouth, but at the source of Nepryadva since the Old Russian wordust'e had also designated the place where the river flows from the lake.[74] As early as the beginning of the 20th century, it was believed that Nepryadva derived fromLake Volovo [ru] (Volosovo).[75]
The first searches for traces of the battle were done by amateurs in the 18th and 19th centuries by asking for items from peasants who ploughed the land, and frequently reported having discovered fragments of "weapons, baptismal crosses, icons, medallions and other items" that were allegedly related to Kulikovo.[76][better source needed] It is known that at the time some of the finds were collected by economistVasily Lyovshin, who had a personal interest in the history of the battle. A large number of antiquities were discovered in the 19th century and their relatively large number led to the publication of the first catalogue of Kulikovo artefacts byIvan Sakharov, Secretary of the Department of Russian and Slavic Archaeology of the Imperial Russian Archaeological Society. Historian Stepan Nechayev noted in his writings that during their agricultural operations, local peasants discovered old weapons, crosses, chainmail, and used to find human bones before; some of those finds were purchased by him, and their descriptions appeared on the pages ofVestnik Evropy.
In 1825, it was reported by a famous Russian adventurer that the "precious things" from the field, once numerous, were "scattered across Russia" and formed private collections, such as those of Nechayev, Countess Bobrinskaya and other noble persons. The fate of these collections is not always clear and not all of them have been preserved to this day; General GovernorAlexander Balashov and educatorDmitri Tikhomirov [ru] pointed to the fact that in their time iron objects were often collected, melted down by peasants and used for their purposes. One such cases occurred recently, in 2009, when a Persian blade dug out from the field was discovered in the house of a local family and transferred to the Kulikovo field museum. After visiting the field and the village of Monastyrschina, Tikhomirov noted that "swords, axes, arrows, spears, crosses, coins and other similar things" that were of value were frequently found there and owned by private persons. Numerous fragments of weapons, crosses and armour were also noted by the famous 19th-century Tula historianIvan Afremov [ru], who suggested building a museum for these artefacts. Some of the finds are known to have been sent as gifts to government officials and members of theImperial family; in 1839 and 1843, the head of a mace and the blade of a sword were gifted to EmperorNicholas I by a Kulikovo nobleman.
While preparing his work "Parishes and Churches of the Tula Diocese" (1895), editor Pavel Malitsky received reports from inhabitants of theTula Oblast, who had found spearheads, poleaxes and crosses on the field. Spears and arrows dug out by the locals are also mentioned in the worksheets of the Tula Provincial Academic Archival Commission. Many artifacts were collected by noble families that owned Kulikovo, such as the Oltufyevs, the Safonovs, the Nechayevs and the Chebyshevs, whose rich collections were still remembered by local citizens in the 1920–1930s. Their estates were situated around the village of Monastyrschina, close to the site of the battle, but during theCivil War most of their collections were lost and only a significant part of the Nechayevs’ collection survived the revolutionary period, whereas the extensive use of agricultural machinery in the field contributed to a loss of remaining artefacts. Several antiquities, however, were found and transferred to museums in the late 20th and early 21st centuries.[77]
Works on relics from Kulikovo were published in the 1920s and 1930s by local lore specialists Vladimir Narcissov andVadim Ashurkov [ru]. Most recent descriptions of Kulikovo weaponry and other artefacts have been presented in publications by Vasily Putsko,Oleg Dvurechensky [ru] and other historians.[78][79][77]
The 2008 book by Dvurechensky et al. presents a catalogue of findings in the Kulikovo field. According to the compilers, the following items of weapons belonging to the time of the battle: four spearheads (and two fragments), a tip of a javelin, two fragments of axe blades, a fragment of an armour plate, a fragment ofchain mail, and several arrowheads. Many weapons found in the vicinity of the Kulikovo field (such asbardiches, firearms), date back to the 16th–18th centuries and cannot in any way relate to the Kulikovo battle of 1380.[78]
 | This sectionneeds additional citations forverification. Please helpimprove this article byadding citations to reliable sources in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Battle of Kulikovo" – news ·newspapers ·books ·scholar ·JSTOR(May 2023) (Learn how and when to remove this message) |
The historical evaluation of the battle has many theories as to its significance in the course of history:
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link){{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
53°39.15′N38°39.21′E / 53.65250°N 38.65350°E /53.65250; 38.65350
