Birch bark canoe, Ilnu Museum in Mashteuiatsh, Quebec, Canada[1]AB.N. Morris Canoe Company wood-and-canvas canoe built approximately 1912Birch bark canoe atAbbe Museum inBar Harbor, MaineBark canoe in Australia, 1904A family riding a canoe in the Western Region of Ghana
Acanoe is a lightweight, narrowwater vessel, typically pointed at both ends and open on top, propelled by one or more seated or kneeling paddlers facing the direction of travel and using paddles.[2]
InBritish English, the termcanoe can also refer to akayak, whereas canoes are then calledCanadian or open canoes to distinguish them from kayaks. However, for official competition purposes, the American distinction between a kayak and a canoe is almost always adopted.[3] At the Olympics, both conventions are used: under the umbrella terms Canoe Slalom and Canoe Sprint, there are separate events for canoes and kayaks.
Canoes were developed in cultures all over the world, including some designed for use withsails oroutriggers. Until the mid-19th century, the canoe was an important means of transport for exploration and trade, and in some places is still used as such, sometimes with the addition of anoutboard motor.
The intended use of the canoe dictates itshull shape,length, and construction material. Although canoes were historicallydugouts or made ofbark on a wood frame,[5] construction materials later evolved tocanvas on a wood frame, then to aluminum. Most modern canoes are made of molded plastic orcomposites such asfiberglass, or those incorporatingkevlar orgraphite.
The wordcanoe came into English from the French word "casnouey" adopted from the Saint-Lawrence Iroquoians language in the 1535 Jacques Cartier Relations translated in 1600 by the English geographer Richard Hackluyt.[6]
Many peoples have made dugout canoes throughout history, carving them out of a single piece of wood: either a wholetrunk or a slab of trunk from particularly large trees.[7][8] Dugout canoes go back to ancient times. TheDufuna canoe, discovered in Nigeria, dates back to 8500–8000 BC.[9] ThePesse canoe, discovered in the Netherlands, dates back to 8200–7600 BC.[10] Excavations inDenmark reveal the use of dugouts and paddles during theErtebølle period, (c. 5300 – c. 3950 BC).[11]
Canoes played a vital role in the colonisation of thepre-ColumbianCaribbean, as they were the only means of reaching the Caribbean Islands from mainland South America.[12] Around 3500 BC, ancientAmerindian groups colonised the first Caribbean Islands using single-hulled canoes.[13] Only a few pre-Columbian Caribbean canoes have been found.[14] Several families of trees could have been used to construct Caribbean canoes, including woods of themahogany family (Meliaceae) such as theCuban mahogany (Swietenia mahagoni), that can grow up to 30–35 m tall and the red cedar (Cedrela odorata), that can grow up to 60 m tall, as well as theceiba genus (Malvacae), such asCeiba pentandra, that can reach 60–70 m in height.[15] It is likely that these canoes were built in a variety of sizes, ranging from fishing canoes holding just one or a few people to larger ones able to carry as many as a few dozen, and could have been used to reach the Caribbean Islands from the mainland. Reports by historicalchroniclers claim to have witnessed a canoe "containing 40 to 50Caribs [...] when it came out to trade with a visiting English ship".[16]
There is still much dispute regarding the use of sails in Caribbean canoes. Some archaeologists doubt that oceanic transportation would have been possible without the use of sails, as winds and currents would have carried the canoes off course.[17] However, no evidence of a sail or a Caribbean canoe that could have made use of a sail has been found. Furthermore, no historical sources mention Caribbean canoes with sails. One possibility could be that canoes with sails were initially used in the Caribbean but later abandoned before European contact. This, however, seems unlikely, as long-distance trade continued in the Caribbean even after the prehistoric colonisation of the islands. Hence, it is likely that early Caribbean colonists made use of canoes without sails.[18]
In recent years,First Nations in British Columbia andWashington State have been revitalizing the ocean-going canoe tradition. Beginning in the 1980s, theHeiltsuk andHaida were early leaders in this movement. The Paddle toExpo 86 in Vancouver by theHeiltsuk and the 1989 Paddle toSeattle by multiple Native American tribes on the occasion of Washington State's centennial year were early instances of this. In 1993 a large number of canoes paddled from up and down the coast toBella Bella in its first canoe festival – Qatuwas.[20] The revitalization continued, andTribal Journeys began with trips to various communities held in most years.
SomeAboriginal Australian peoples made bark canoes.[21] They could be made only from the bark of certain trees (usuallyred gum orbox gum) and during summer. After cutting the outline of the required size and shape, a digging stick was used to cut through the bark to the hardwood, and the bark was then slowly prised out using numerous smaller sticks. The slab of bark was held in place by branches or handwoven rope, and after separation from the tree, lowered to the ground. Small fires would then be lit on the inside of the bark to cause the bark to dry out and curl upwards, after which the ends could be pulled together and stitched with hemp and plugged with mud. It was then allowed to mature, with frequent applications ofgrease andochre. The remaining tree was later dubbed acanoe tree by Europeans.[22]
Because of the porosity of the bark, these bark canoes did not last too long (about two years[22]). They were mainly used for fishing or crossing rivers and lakes to avoid long journeys. They were usually propelled by punting with a long stick.[23] Another type of bark canoe was made out of a type ofstringybark gum known as Messmate stringybark (Eucalyptus obliqua), pleating the bark and tying it at each end, with a framework of cross-ties and ribs. This type was known as a pleated or tied bark canoe. Bark strips could also be sewn together to make larger canoes, known as sewn bark canoes.[24]
Manyindigenous peoples of the Americas builtbark canoes. They were usually skinned withbirch bark over a light wooden frame, but other types could be used if birch was scarce. At a typical length of 4.3 m (14 ft) and weight of 23 kg (50 lb), the canoes were light enough to beportaged, yet could carry a lot of cargo, even in shallow water. Although susceptible to damage from rocks, they are easily repaired.[25] Their performance qualities were soon recognized by early Europeansettler colonials, and canoes played a key role in theexploration of North America,[26] withSamuel de Champlain canoeing as far as theGeorgian Bay in 1615.
In 1603 a canoe was brought toSir Robert Cecil'shouse in London and rowed on theThames byVirginian Indians fromTsenacommacah.[27] In 1643David Pietersz. de Vries recorded aMohawk canoe in Dutch possession atRensselaerswyck capable of transporting 225bushels of maize.[28][29]René de Bréhant de Galinée, a Frenchmissionary who explored theGreat Lakes in 1669, declared: "The convenience of these canoes is great in these waters, full of cataracts or waterfalls, and rapids through which it is impossible to take any boat. When you reach them you load canoe and baggage upon your shoulders and go overland until the navigation is good; and then you put your canoe back into the water, and embark again."[30] American painter, author and travelerGeorge Catlin wrote that the bark canoe was "the most beautiful and light model of all the water crafts that ever were invented".[31]
Therabaska (French:canot du maître, from the surname of Louise Le Maître, an artisan in the Province of Quebec,[33] though the term would literally mean "master canoe" otherwise) — also referred to as the "Montreal canoe"[34] — was designed for the long haul from theSt. Lawrence River to westernLake Superior. Its dimensions were length, approximately 11 m (35 ft); beam, 1.2 to 1.8 m (4 to 6 ft); and height, about 76 cm (30 in). It could carry 60 packs weighing 41 kg (90 lb), and 910 kg (2,000 lb) of provisions. With a crew of eight or ten paddling or rowing, they could make three knots over calm waters. Four to six men could portage it, bottom up.Henry Schoolcraft declared it "altogether one of the most eligible modes of conveyance that can be employed upon the lakes".Archibald McDonald of the Hudson's Bay Company wrote: "I never heard of such a canoe being wrecked, or upset, or swamped ... they swam like ducks."[35]
Thecanot du nord (French: "canoe of the north"), a craft specially made and adapted for speedy travel, was the workhorse of the fur trade transportation system. About half the size of the rabaska, it could carry about 35 packs weighing 41 kg (90 lb) and was manned by four to eight men. It could in turn be carried by two men and was portaged in the upright position.[35]
The express canoe (French: "canot léger," light canoe) was about 4.6 m (15 ft) long and was used to carry people, reports, and news.
Birch bark canoe making in Newfoundland, Canada
The birch bark canoe was used in a 6,500-kilometre (4,000 mi) supply route fromMontreal to the Pacific Ocean and theMackenzie River, and continued to be used up to the end of the 19th century.[36]
Theindigenous peoples of eastern Canada and the northeast United States made canoes using the bark of thepaper birch, which was harvested in early spring by stripping off the bark in one piece, using wooden wedges. Next, the two ends (stem andstern) were sewn together and made watertight with thepitch ofbalsam fir. The ribs of the canoe, calledverons inCanadian French, were made ofwhite cedar, and the hull, ribs, and thwarts were fastened usingwatap, a binding usually made from theroots of various species ofconifers, such as thewhite spruce,black spruce, orcedar, andcaulked withpitch.[37][38]
In 19th-century North America, the birch-on-frame construction technique evolved into the wood-and-canvas canoes made by fastening an external waterproofedcanvas shell to planks and ribs byboat builders such asOld Town Canoe,E. M. White Canoe,Peterborough Canoe Company and at theChestnut Canoe Company[39] inNew Brunswick. Though similar to bark canoes in the use ofribs, and a waterproof covering, the construction method is different, being built by bending ribs over a solid mold. Once removed from the mold, the decks,thwarts andseats are installed, and canvas is stretched tightly over the hull. The canvas is then treated with a combination ofvarnishes andpaints to render it more durable andwatertight.[40]
Although canoes were once primarily a means of transport, with industrialization they became popular asrecreational or sporting watercraft.John MacGregor popularized canoeing through his books, founding theRoyal Canoe Club in London in 1866 and theAmerican Canoe Association in 1880. TheCanadian Canoe Association was founded in 1900 and theBritish Canoe Union in 1936. In Sweden, naval officerCarl Smith was both an enthusiastic promoter of canoeing and a designer of canoes, some experimental, at the end of the 19th century.[41]
Hull design must meet different, often conflicting, requirements for speed, carrying capacity, maneuverability, and stability.[43] The canoe'shull speed can be calculated using the principles ofship resistance and propulsion.
Length: although this is often stated by manufacturers as theoverall length of the boat, what counts in performance terms is thelength of thewaterline, and more specifically its value relative to thedisplacement (the amount of waterdisplaced by the boat) of the canoe, which is equal to the total weight of the boat and its contents because a floating body displaces its own weight in water. When a canoe is paddled through water, effort is required to push all the displaced water out of the way. Canoes aredisplacement hulls: the longer the waterline relative to its displacement, the faster it can be paddled. Among generaltouring canoeists, 5.18 m (17 ft) is a popular length, providing a good compromise between capacity and cruising speed.[44] Too large a canoe will simply mean extra work paddling at cruising speed.
Width (beam): a wider boat provides more stability at the expense of speed. A canoe cuts through the water like a wedge, and a shorter boat needs a narrower beam to reduce the angle of the wedge cutting through the water.[44] Canoe manufacturers typically provide three beam measurements: the gunwale (the measurement at the top of the hull), the waterline (the measurement at the point where the surface of the water meets the hull when it is empty), and the widest point. Another variation of the waterline beam measurement is called4" waterline, where the displacement is taken into account. This measurement is done at the waterline level when the maximum load is applied to the canoe.[45] Some canoe races use the 4" waterline beam measurement as the standard for their regulations.[46] In races, the measurement is done by measuring the widest point at 4" (10 cm) from the bottom of the canoe.[47]
Freeboard: a higher-sided boat stays drier in rough water. The disadvantage of high sides is extra weight and extrawindage.[44] Increased windage adversely affects speed and steering control in crosswinds.
Stability and immersed bottom shape: the hull can be optimized forinitial stability (the boat feels steady when it sits flat on the water) or final stability (resistance to rolling and capsizing). A flatter-bottomed hull has higher initial stability, versus a rounder or V-shaped hull in cross-section has high final stability.[48] The fastest flat water non-racing canoes have sharp V-bottoms to cut through the water, but they are difficult to turn and have a deeperdraft, which makes them less suitable for shallows. Flat-bottomed canoes are most popular among recreational canoeists. At the cost of speed, they have a shallow draft and more cargo space, and they turn better. The reason a flat bottom canoe has lower final stability is that the hull must wrap a sharper angle between the bottom and the sides, compared to a more round-bottomed boat.[44]
Keel: an external keel makes a canoe track (hold its course) better and can stiffen a floppy bottom, but it can get stuck on rocks and decrease stability inrapids.[48]
Profile, the shape of the canoe's sides. Sides thatflare out above the waterline deflect water but require the paddler to reach out over the side of the canoe more. Sides that do the reverse, so that the gunwale width is less than the maximum width, the canoe is said to havetumblehome. Tumblehome improves final stability.
Rocker: viewed from the side of the canoe, rocker is the amount of curve in the hull in relation to the water, much like the curve of a banana. The full length of the hull is in the water, so it tracks well and has good speed. As rocker increases, so does the ease of turning but at the cost of tracking.[49] Some Native American birch-bark canoes were characterized by extreme rocker.[44]
Hullsymmetry: viewed from above, a symmetrical hull has its widest point at the center of the hull and both ends are identical. An asymmetrical hull typically has the widest section aft of centerline, creating a longer bow and improving speed.[49]
Folding canoes usually consist of aPVC skin around an aluminum frame.
A Royalex Mad River Outrage canoe on the Hudson River in the Adirondack Park, New York State
Inflatable canoes contain no rigid frame members and can be deflated, inflated, folded, and stored in bags and boxes. The more durable types consist of an abrasion-resistant nylon orrubber outer shell with separate PVC air chambers for the two side tubes and the floor.[50]
Royalex — acomposite material comprising an outer layer ofvinyl and hardacrylonitrile butadiene styrene plastic (ABS) and an inner layer of ABS foam bonded by heat treatment — was another plastic alternative for canoes until 2014, when the raw composite material was discontinued by its only manufacturer.[51] As a canoe material, Royalex is lighter, more resistant toUV damage, and more rigid, and has greater structural memory than non-composite plastics such aspolyethylene. Canoes made of Royalex were, however, more expensive than canoes made from aluminum or fromtraditionally molded orroto-moldedpolyethylene hulls.[51] Royalex is heavier and less suited for high-performance paddling than fiber-reinforced composites such asfiberglass,kevlar, orgraphite.
Modern canoes are generally constructed by layering a fiber material inside a "female" mold.Fiberglass is the most common material used in manufacturing canoes.[52] Fiberglass is not expensive, can be molded to any shape, and is easy to repair.[44]Kevlar is popular with paddlers looking for a light, durable boat that will not be taken in whitewater. Fiberglass and Kevlar are strong but lack rigidity.[citation needed]Carbon fiber is used in racing canoes to create a very light, rigid construction usually combined with Kevlar for durability. Boats are built by draping the cloth in a mold, then impregnating it with a liquidresin. Optionally, a vacuum process can be used to remove excess resin to reduce weight.
Agel coat on the outside gives a smoother appearance.[44]
Withstitch and glue,plywood panels are stitched together to form a hull shape, and the seams are reinforced with fiber reinforced composites and varnished.
A cedar strip canoe is essentially a composite canoe with a cedar core. Usually fiberglass is used to reinforce the canoe since it is clear and allows a view of the cedar.
Before the invention of fiberglass, aluminum was the standard choice forwhitewater canoeing due to its value and strength by weight.[44] This material was once more popular but is being replaced by modern lighter materials. "It is tough, durable, and will take being dragged over the bottom very well", as it has no gel or polymer outer coating which would make it subject to abrasion. The hull does not degrade from long term exposure to sunlight, and "extremes of hot and cold do not affect the material". It can dent, is difficult to repair, is noisy, can get stuck on underwater objects, and requires buoyancy chambers to assist in keeping the canoe afloat in a capsize.[53]
Strip-built canoes are built using thin strips of wood (typically cedar) laid over a mold to create the hull shape and then laminated with fiberglass and epoxy inside and out for strength, durability, and water resistance. The result is a ribless composite structure with fiberglass skins and wood core. The wood grain is visible on the finished canoe and can be very attractive.
In Canada, the canoe has been a theme in history and folklore, and is a symbol ofCanadian identity.[54] From 1935 to 1986 theVoyageur dollar depicted a canoe containing a voyageur (French-Canadian fur trader), and an Indigenous man, on the reverse.
TheChasse-galerie is aFrench-Canadian tale of voyageurs who, after a night of heavy drinking on New Year's Eve at a remote timber camp want to visit their sweethearts some 100leagues (about 400 km) away. Since they have to be back in time for work the next morning they make a pact with thedevil. Their canoe will fly through the air, on condition that they not mention God's name or touch the cross of anychurch steeple as they fly by in the canoe. One version of this fable ends with thecoup de grâce when, still high in the sky, the voyageurs complete the hazardous journey but the canoe overturns, so the devil can honour the pact to deliver the voyageurs and still claim their souls.
InJohn Steinbeck's novellaThe Pearl, set in Mexico, the main character's canoe is a means of making a living that has been passed down for generations and represents a link to cultural tradition.[55]
TheMāori,indigenousPolynesian people, arrived in New Zealand in several waves of canoe (calledwaka) voyages. Canoe traditions are important to the identity of Māori.Whakapapa (genealogical links) back to the crew of founding canoes served to establish the origins of tribes, and defined tribal boundaries and relationships.[56]
Modern canoe types are usually categorized by the intended use. Many modern canoe designs are hybrids (a combination of two or more designs, meant for multiple uses). The purpose of the canoe will also often determine the materials used. Most canoes are designed for either one person (solo) or two people (tandem), but some are designed for more than two people.
Sprint canoe is also known as flatwater racing. The paddlerkneels on one knee and uses a single-bladepaddle.[57] Since canoes have norudder, they must be steered by the athlete'spaddle using aJ-stroke. Canoes may be entirely open or be partly covered. The minimum length of the opening on a C1 is 280 cm (110 in). Boats are long and streamlined with a narrowbeam, which makes them very unstable. A C4 can be up to 9 m (30 ft) long and weigh 30 kg (66 lb).[58]International Canoe Federation (ICF) classifications include C1 (solo), C2 (crew of two), and C4 (crew of four). Race distances at the2012 Olympic Games were 200 and 1000 meters.
In ICFwhitewater slalom, paddlers negotiate their way down 300 m (980 ft) ofwhitewaterrapids through a series of up to 25 gates (pairs of hanging poles). The colour of the poles indicates the direction in which the paddlers must pass through; time penalties are assessed for striking poles or missing gates. Categories are C1 (solo) and C2 (tandem), the latter for two men, and C2M (mixed) for one woman and one man.[59] C1 boats must have a minimum weight and width of 10 kg (22 lb) and 0.65 m (2 ft 2 in) and be not more than 3.5 m (11 ft) long. C2s must have a minimum weight and width of 15 kg (33 lb) and 0.75 m (2 ft 6 in), and be not more than 4.1 m (13 ft). Rudders are prohibited. Canoes are decked and propelled by single-bladed paddles, and the competitor must kneel.[60]
In ICFwildwater canoeing, athletes paddle a course of class III to IV whitewater (using theInternational Scale of River Difficulty), passing over waves, holes and rocks of a natural riverbed in events lasting either 20–30 minutes ("Classic" races) or 2–3 minutes ("Sprint" races). Categories are C1 and C2 for both women and men. C1s must have a minimum weight and width of 12 kg (26 lb) and 0.7 m (2 ft 4 in), and a maximum length of 4.3 m (14 ft). C2s must have a minimum weight and width of 18 kg (40 lb) and 0.8 metres (2 ft 7 in), and a maximum length of 5 metres (16 ft). Rudders are prohibited. The canoes are decked boats which must be propelled by single bladed paddles, with the paddler kneeling inside.[61]
Marathons are long-distance races which may includeportages. Under ICF rules, minimum canoe weight is 10 and 14 kg (22 and 31 lb) for C1 and C2, respectively. Other rules can vary by race. For example, athletes in the Classique Internationale de Canots de laMauricie race in C2s, with a maximum length of 5.6 m (18 ft 6 in), minimum width of 69 cm (27 in) at 8 cm (3 in) from the bottom of the centre of the craft, minimum height of 38 cm (15 in) at the bow and 25 cm (10 in) at the centre and stern.[62] TheTexas Water Safari, at 422 km (262 mi), includes an open class, the only rule being the vessel must behuman-powered. Although novel setups have been tried, the fastest so far has been the six-man canoe.[63]
A "touring" or "tripping" canoe is a boat for traveling on lakes and rivers with capacity forcamping gear. Tripping canoes, such as theChestnut Prospector andOld Town Tripper derivates, are touring canoes forwilderness trips. They are typically made of heavier and tougher materials and designed with the ability to carry large amounts of gear while being maneuverable enough for rivers with somewhitewater. Prospector is now a generic name for derivates of theChestnut model, a popular type of wilderness tripping canoe. The Prospector is marked by a shallow arch hull with a relatively large amount of rocker, giving optimal balance for wilderness tripping over lakes and rivers with somerapids.
A touring canoe is sometimes covered with a greatly extended deck, forming a "cockpit" for the paddlers. A cockpit has the advantage that the gunwales can be made lower and narrower so the paddler can reach the water more easily.
A freestyle canoe is specialized forwhitewater play and tricks. Most are identical to short, flat-bottomedkayak playboats except for their internal outfitting. The paddler kneels and uses a single-blade canoe paddle. Playboating is a discipline of whitewater canoeing where the paddler performs various technical moves in one place (a playspot), as opposed to downriver where the objective is to travel the length of a section of river (although whitewater canoeists will often stop and play en route). Specialized canoes known as playboats can be used.
A square-stern canoe is an asymmetrical canoe with a squared-offstern for the mounting of anoutboard motor, and is meant for lake travel or fishing. Since mounting arudder on the square stern is very easy, such canoes often are adapted forsailing.
^"Amerindian Museum of Mashteuiat". 2024. Retrieved21 April 2024.Our team is composed of members from the Pekuakamiulnuatsh First Nation
^"Bark Canoe Construction".Canadian Museum of History. Government of Canada. Retrieved21 April 2024.In Canada, the most popular bark for canoe construction has come from the paper birch
^Canoe Sprint at Paddle UK (formerly British Canoeing). Retrieved 6 August 2024.
^Frère Marie-Victorin (1935)."The birch bark canoe, an exceptional reign".florelaurentienne.com (in French). pp. 150 of 925. Retrieved21 April 2024.Betula papyrifera Marshall. — Bouleau à papier. — Bouleau blanc, Bouleau à canot. — (Canoë birch).
^See Michel Bideaux (ed.), Jacques Cartier, Relations, Montréal, Presse de l'Université de Montréal, 1986, p. 181
^abPojar and MacKinnon (1994).Plants of the Pacific Northwest Coast. Vancouver, British Columbia: Lone Pine Publishing.ISBN1-55105-040-4.
^Olympic Peninsula Intertribal Cultural Advisory Committee (2002).Native Peoples of the Olympic Peninsula. Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press.ISBN0-8061-3552-2.
^Gumnior, Maren; Thiemeyer, Heinrich (2003). "Holocene fluvial dynamics in the NE Nigerian Savanna".Quaternary International.111: 54.doi:10.1016/s1040-6182(03)00014-4.S2CID 128422267.
^"Oudste bootje ter wereld kon werkelijk varen".Leeuwarder Courant (in Dutch). ANP. 12 April 2001. Retrieved 4 December 2011.
^Couper Black, E. (December 1947). "Canoes and Canoe Trees of Australia".The Australian Journal of Anthropology.3 (12). Australian Anthropological Society:351–361.doi:10.1111/j.1835-9310.1947.tb00139.x.This paper was read before Section F of the Biennial Meeting of the Australian and New Zealand Association for the Advancement of Science, held at Adelaide in August, 1946.
^"Bark canoes". Canadian Museum of Civilization. Retrieved8 October 2012.
^Catlin, George (1989).Letters and Notes on the Manners. Customs, and Conditions of the North American Indians (reprint ed.). New York. p. 415.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
^"The Canoe". The Hudson's Bay Company. Archived fromthe original on 5 November 2012. Retrieved6 October 2012.
^Margry, Pierre (1876–1886).Decouvertes et etablissements des francais dans I'ouest et dans le sud de I'Amerique Septentrionale (1614–1754). 6 vols. Paris.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
^Tom Vennum, Charles Weber, Earl Nyholm (Director) (1999).Earl's Canoe: A Traditional Ojibwe Craft. Smithsonian Center for Folklife Programs and Cultural Studies. Archived fromthe original on 4 January 2013. Retrieved3 December 2012.
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