Indus Valley Civilisation, at peak phase (2600–1900 BCE)
Anatomically modern humans first arrived on theIndian subcontinent between 73,000 and 55,000 years ago.[1] The earliest known human remains in South Asia date to 30,000 years ago.Sedentariness began in South Asia around 7000 BCE; by 4500 BCE, settled life had spread,[2] and gradually evolved into theIndus Valley Civilisation, one of three earlycradles of civilisation in theOld World,[3][4] which flourished between 2500 BCE and 1900 BCE in present-dayPakistan and north-western India. Early in the second millennium BCE,persistent drought caused the population of the Indus Valley to scatter from large urban centres to villages.Indo-Aryan tribes moved into thePunjab fromCentral Asia in severalwaves of migration. TheVedic Period of the Vedic people in northern India (1500–500 BCE) was marked by the composition of their extensive collections of hymns (Vedas). The social structure was loosely stratified via thevarna system, incorporated into the highly evolved present-dayJāti system. The pastoral and nomadic Indo-Aryans spread from the Punjab into theGangetic plain. Around 600 BCE, a new, interregional culture arose; then, small chieftaincies (janapadas) were consolidated into larger states (mahajanapadas). Second urbanization took place, which came with the rise of newascetic movements and religious concepts,[5] including the rise ofJainism andBuddhism. The latterwas synthesized with the preexisting religious cultures of the subcontinent, giving rise toHinduism.
Indian cultural influence (Greater India)Timeline of Indian history
Chandragupta Maurya overthrew theNanda Empire and established the first great empire in ancient India, theMaurya Empire. India's Mauryan kingAshoka is widely recognised for his historical acceptance ofBuddhism and his attempts to spreadnonviolence andpeace across his empire. The Maurya Empire would collapse in 185 BCE, on the assassination of the then-emperorBrihadratha by his generalPushyamitra Shunga. Shunga would form theShunga Empire in the north and north-east of the subcontinent, while theGreco-Bactrian Kingdom would claim the north-west and found theIndo-Greek Kingdom. Various parts of India were ruled by numerous dynasties, including theGupta Empire, in the 4th to 6th centuries CE. This period, witnessing aHindu religious and intellectual resurgence is known as theClassical orGolden Age of India. Aspects of Indian civilisation, administration, culture, and religion spread to much of Asia, which led to the establishment of Indianised kingdoms in the region, formingGreater India.[6][5] The most significant event between the 7th and 11th centuries was theTripartite struggle centred onKannauj.Southern India saw the rise of multiple imperial powers from the middle of the fifth century. TheChola dynasty conquered southern India in the 11th century. In the early medieval period,Indian mathematics, includingHindu numerals, influenced the development of mathematics and astronomy in theArab world, including the creation of theHindu-Arabic numeral system.[7]
Islamic conquests made limited inroads into modern Afghanistan andSindh as early as the 8th century,[8] followed by the invasions ofMahmud Ghazni.[9]TheDelhi Sultanate, established in 1206 by Central Asian Turks, ruled much of northern India in the 14th century. It was governed by various Turkic and Afghan dynasties, including theIndo-TurkicTughlaqs.[10][11] The empire declined in the late 14th century following the invasions ofTimur[12] and saw the advent of theMalwa,Gujarat, andBahmani sultanates, the last of which split in 1518 into the fiveDeccan sultanates. The wealthyBengal Sultanate also emerged as a major power, lasting over three centuries.[13] During this period, multiple strong Hindu kingdoms, notably theVijayanagara Empire andRajput states under theKingdom of Mewar emerged and played significant roles in shaping the cultural and political landscape of India.[14][15]
Mesolithic rock art at theBhimbetka rock shelters,Madhya Pradesh, showing a wild animal, perhaps a mythical one, attacking human hunters. Although the rock art has not been directly dated,[23] it has been argued on circumstantial grounds that many paintings were completed by 8000 BCE,[24] and some slightly earlier.[25]
Hominin expansion from Africa is estimated to have reached theIndian subcontinent approximately two million years ago, and possibly as early as 2.2 million years ago.[26][27][28] This dating is based on the known presence ofHomo erectus inIndonesia by 1.8 million years ago and in East Asia by 1.36 million years ago, as well as the discovery of stone tools atRiwat inPakistan.[27][29] Although some older discoveries have been claimed, the suggested dates, based on the dating offluvial sediments, have not been independently verified.[28][30]
The oldest hominin fossil remains in the Indian subcontinent are those ofHomo erectus orHomo heidelbergensis, from theNarmada Valley in central India, and are dated to approximately half a million years ago.[27][30] Older fossil finds have been claimed, but are considered unreliable.[30] Reviews of archaeological evidence have suggested that occupation of the Indian subcontinent by hominins was sporadic until approximately 700,000 years ago, and was geographically widespread by approximately 250,000 years ago.[30][28]
According to a historical demographer of South Asia, Tim Dyson:
Modern human beings—Homo sapiens—originated in Africa. Then, intermittently, sometime between 60,000 and 80,000 years ago, tiny groups of them began to enter the north-west of the Indian subcontinent. It seems likely that initially they came by way of the coast. It is virtually certain that there wereHomo sapiens in the subcontinent 55,000 years ago, even though the earliest fossils that have been found of them date to only about 30,000 years before the present.[31]
Y-Chromosome and Mt-DNA data support the colonisation of South Asia by modern humans originating in Africa. ... Coalescence dates for most non-European populations average to between 73–55 ka.[32]
Scholars estimate that the first successful expansion of the Homo sapiens range beyond Africa and across the Arabian Peninsula occurred from as early as 80,000 years ago to as late as 40,000 years ago, although there may have been prior unsuccessful emigrations. Some of their descendants extended the human range ever further in each generation, spreading into each habitable land they encountered. One human channel was along the warm and productive coastal lands of the Persian Gulf and northern Indian Ocean. Eventually, various bands entered India between 75,000 years ago and 35,000 years ago.[33]
Archaeological evidence has been interpreted to suggest the presence ofanatomically modern humans in the Indian subcontinent 78,000–74,000 years ago,[34] although this interpretation is disputed.[35][36] The occupation of South Asia by modern humans, initially in varying forms of isolation as hunter-gatherers, has turned it into a highly diverse one, second only to Africa in human genetic diversity.[37]
According to Tim Dyson:
Genetic research has contributed to knowledge of the prehistory of the subcontinent's people in other respects. In particular, the level of genetic diversity in the region is extremely high. Indeed, only Africa's population is genetically more diverse. Related to this, there is strong evidence of 'founder' events in the subcontinent. By this is meant circumstances where a subgroup—such as a tribe—derives from a tiny number of 'original' individuals. Further, compared to most world regions, the subcontinent's people are relatively distinct in having practised comparatively high levels of endogamy.[37]
Settled life emerged on the subcontinent in the western margins of theIndus River alluvium approximately 9,000 years ago, evolving gradually into theIndus Valley Civilisation of the third millennium BCE.[2][39] According to Tim Dyson: "By 7,000 years ago agriculture was firmly established in Baluchistan... [and] slowly spread eastwards into the Indus valley." Michael Fisher adds:[40]
The earliest discovered instance ... of well-established, settled agricultural society is at Mehrgarh in the hills between the Bolan Pass and the Indus plain (today in Pakistan) (see Map 3.1). From as early as 7000 BCE, communities there started investing increased labor in preparing the land and selecting, planting, tending, and harvesting particular grain-producing plants. They also domesticated animals, including sheep, goats, pigs, and oxen (both humped zebu [Bos indicus] and unhumped [Bos taurus]). Castrating oxen, for instance, turned them from mainly meat sources into domesticated draft-animals as well.[40]
The civilisation was primarily centred in modern-day Pakistan, in the Indus river basin, and secondarily in theGhaggar-Hakra River basin. The mature Indus civilisation flourished from about 2600 to 1900 BCE, marking the beginning of urban civilisation on the Indian subcontinent. It included cities such asHarappa,Ganweriwal, andMohenjo-daro in modern-day Pakistan, andDholavira,Kalibangan,Rakhigarhi, andLothal in modern-day India.
Mohenjo-daro (one of the largest Indus cities). View of the site'sGreat Bath, showing the surrounding urban layout.Dholavira, a city of the Indus Valley civilisation, withstepwell steps to reach the water level in artificially constructed reservoirs[41]Archaeological remains of washroom drainage system atLothal
Inhabitants of the ancient Indus River valley, the Harappans, developed new techniques in metallurgy and handicraft, and produced copper, bronze, lead, and tin.[42] The civilisation is noted for its cities built of brick, and its roadside drainage systems, and is thought to have had some kind of municipal organisation. The civilisation also developed anIndus script, the earliest of theancient Indian scripts, which is presently undeciphered.[43] This is the reason whyHarappan language is not directly attested, and its affiliation is uncertain.[44]
Threestamp seals and their impressions showing Indus script characters alongside animals:unicorn (left),bull (centre), andelephant (right); atGuimet Museum
After the collapse of Indus Valley civilisation, the inhabitants migrated from the river valleys of Indus and Ghaggar-Hakra, towards the Himalayan foothills of Ganga-Yamuna basin.[45]
During the 2nd millennium BCE,Ochre Coloured Pottery culture was in Ganga Yamuna Doab region. These were rural settlements with agriculture and hunting. They were using copper tools such as axes, spears, arrows, and swords, and had domesticated animals.[47]
Startingc. 1900 BCE,Indo-Aryan tribes moved into thePunjab fromCentral Asia in severalwaves of migration.[48][49] TheVedic period is when the Vedas were composed of liturgical hymns from the Indo-Aryan people. The Vedic culture was located in part of north-west India, while other parts of India had a distinct cultural identity. Many regions of the Indian subcontinent transitioned from theChalcolithic to theIron Age in this period.[50]
The Vedic culture is described in the texts ofVedas, still sacred to Hindus, which were orally composed and transmitted inVedic Sanskrit. The Vedas are some of the oldest extant texts in India.[51] The Vedic period, lasting from about 1500 to 500 BCE,[52][53] contributed to the foundations of several cultural aspects of the Indian subcontinent.
Vedic society
An early 19th century manuscript in theDevanagari script of theRigveda, originally transmitted orally[54]
Historians have analysed the Vedas to posit a Vedic culture in thePunjab, and the upperGangetic Plain.[50] ThePeepal tree and cow were sanctified by the time of theAtharva Veda.[55] Many of the concepts ofIndian philosophy espoused later, likedharma, trace their roots to Vedic antecedents.[56]
Early Vedic society is described in theRigveda, the oldest Vedic text, believed to have been compiled during the 2nd millennium BCE,[57][58] in the north-western region of the Indian subcontinent.[59] At this time, Aryan society consisted of predominantly tribal and pastoral groups, distinct from the Harappan urbanisation which had been abandoned.[60] The early Indo-Aryan presence probably corresponds, in part, to theOchre Coloured Pottery culture in archaeological contexts.[61][62]
At the end of the Rigvedic period, the Aryan society expanded from the north-western region of the Indian subcontinent into the westernGanges plain. It became increasingly agricultural and was socially organised around the hierarchy of the fourvarnas, or social classes. This social structure was characterised both by syncretising with the native cultures of northern India[63] but also eventually by the exclusion of some indigenous peoples by labelling their occupations impure.[64] During this period, many of the previous small tribal units and chiefdoms began to coalesce intoJanapadas (monarchical, state-level polities).[65]
The Sanskrit epicsRamayana andMahabharata were composed during this period.[66] TheMahabharata remains the longest single poem in the world.[67] Historians formerly postulated an "epic age" as the milieu of these two epic poems, but now recognise that the texts went through multiple stages of development over centuries.[68] The existing texts of these epics are believed to belong to the post-Vedic age, betweenc. 400 BCE and 400 CE.[68][69]
Late Vedic era map showing the boundaries ofĀryāvarta with Janapadas in northern India, beginning of Iron Age kingdoms in India –Kuru,Panchala,Kosala,Videha
During the Late Vedic Period, the kingdom ofVideha emerged as a new centre of Vedic culture, situated even farther to the East (in what is today Nepal andBihar state);[62] reaching its prominence under the kingJanaka, whose court provided patronage forBrahmin sages andphilosophers such asYajnavalkya,Aruni, andGārgī Vāchaknavī.[75] The later part of this period corresponds with a consolidation of increasingly large states and kingdoms, calledMahajanapadas, across Northern India.
Second urbanisation (c. 600 – 200 BCE)
City of Kushinagar in the 5th century BCE according to a 1st-century BCE frieze in Sanchi Stupa 1 Southern Gate
The period between 800 and 200 BCE saw the formation of theŚramaṇa movement, from whichJainism andBuddhism originated. The firstUpanishads were written during this period. After 500 BCE, the so-called "second urbanisation"[note 1] started, with new urban settlements arising at the Ganges plain.[76] The foundations for the "second urbanisation" were laid prior to 600 BCE, in thePainted Grey Ware culture of theGhaggar-Hakra and Upper Ganges Plain; although most PGW sites were small farming villages, "several dozen" PGW sites eventually emerged as relatively large settlements that can be characterised as towns, the largest of which were fortified by ditches or moats and embankments made of piled earth with wooden palisades.[77]
The Central Ganges Plain, whereMagadha gained prominence, forming the base of theMaurya Empire, was a distinct cultural area,[78] with new states arising after 500 BCE.[79][80] It was influenced by the Vedic culture,[81] but differed markedly from the Kuru-Panchala region.[78] "It was the area of the earliest knowncultivation of rice in South Asia and by 1800 BCE was the location of an advanced Neolithic population associated with the sites of Chirand and Chechar".[82] In this region, the Śramaṇic movements flourished, and Jainism and Buddhism originated.[76]
Around the same time,Mahavira (the 24thTirthankara in Jainism) propagated a theology that was to later become Jainism.[89] However, Jain orthodoxy believes the teachings of theTirthankaras predates all known time and scholars believeParshvanatha (c. 872 – c. 772 BCE), accorded status as the 23rdTirthankara, was a historical figure. The Vedas are believed to have documented a fewTirthankaras and an ascetic order similar to theŚramaṇa movement.[90]
Early "republics" orgaṇasaṅgha,[94] such asShakyas,Koliyas,Mallakas, andLicchavis had republican governments.Gaṇasaṅghas,[94] such as the Mallakas, centered in the city ofKusinagara, and theVajjika League, centred in the city ofVaishali, existed as early as the 6th century BCE and persisted in some areas until the 4th century CE.[95] The most famous clan amongst the ruling confederate clans of the Vajji Mahajanapada were theLicchavis.[96]
This period corresponds in an archaeological context to theNorthern Black Polished Ware culture. Especially focused in the Central Ganges plain but also spreading across vast areas of the northern and central Indian subcontinent, this culture is characterised by the emergence of large cities with massive fortifications, significant population growth, increased social stratification, wide-ranging trade networks, construction of public architecture and water channels, specialised craft industries, a system of weights,punch-marked coins, and the introduction of writing in the form ofBrahmi andKharosthi scripts.[97][98] The language of the gentry at that time wasSanskrit, while the languages of the general population of northern India are referred to asPrakrits.
Many of the sixteen kingdoms had merged into four major ones by the time ofGautama Buddha. These four were Vatsa, Avanti, Kosala, and Magadha.[93]
Magadha formed one of the sixteenMahajanapadas (Sanskrit: "Great Realms") orkingdoms in ancient India. The core of the kingdom was the area ofBihar south of theGanges; its first capital wasRajagriha (modern Rajgir) thenPataliputra (modernPatna). Magadha expanded to include most of Bihar and Bengal with the conquest ofLicchavi andAnga respectively,[99] followed by much of eastern Uttar Pradesh and Orissa. The ancient kingdom of Magadha is heavily mentioned in Jain and Buddhist texts. It is also mentioned in theRamayana,Mahabharata andPuranas.[100] The earliest reference to the Magadha people occurs in theAtharva-Veda where they are found listed along with theAngas,Gandharis, and Mujavats. Magadha played an important role in the development ofJainism andBuddhism. Republican communities (such as the community of Rajakumara) are merged into Magadha kingdom. Villages had their own assemblies under their local chiefs called Gramakas. Their administrations were divided into executive, judicial, and military functions.
The Maurya Empire (322–185 BCE) unified most of the Indian subcontinent into one state, and was thelargest empire ever to exist on the Indian subcontinent.[106] At its greatest extent, the Mauryan Empire stretched to the north up to the natural boundaries of theHimalayas and to the east into what is nowAssam. To the west, it reached beyond modern Pakistan, to theHindu Kush mountains in what is now Afghanistan. The empire was established byChandragupta Maurya assisted by Chanakya (Kautilya) inMagadha (in modernBihar) when he overthrew theNanda Empire.[107]
Bindusara was succeeded byAshoka, whose reign lasted until his death in about 232 BCE.[109] His campaign against the Kalingans in about 260 BCE, though successful, led to immense loss of life and misery. This led Ashoka to shun violence, and subsequently to embrace Buddhism.[108] The empire began to decline after his death and the last Mauryan ruler,Brihadratha, was assassinated byPushyamitra Shunga to establish theShunga Empire.[109]
Under Chandragupta Maurya and his successors, internal and external trade, agriculture, and economic activities all thrived and expanded across India thanks to the creation of a single efficient system of finance, administration, and security. The Mauryans built theGrand Trunk Road, one of Asia's oldest and longest major roads connecting the Indian subcontinent with Central Asia.[110] After theKalinga War, the Empire experienced nearly half a century of peace and security under Ashoka. Mauryan India also enjoyed an era of social harmony, religious transformation, and expansion of scientific knowledge. Chandragupta Maurya's embrace ofJainism increased social and religious renewal and reform across his society, while Ashoka's embrace of Buddhism has been said to have been the foundation of the reign of social and political peace and non-violence across India.[citation needed] Ashoka sponsored Buddhist missions across theIndo-Mediterranean, intoSri Lanka,Southeast Asia,West Asia,North Africa, andMediterranean Europe.[111]
TheArthashastra written byChanakya and theEdicts of Ashoka are the primary written records of the Mauryan times. Archaeologically, this period falls in the era ofNorthern Black Polished Ware. The Mauryan Empire was based on a modern and efficient economy and society in which the sale of merchandise was closely regulated by the government.[112] Although there was no banking in the Mauryan society,usury was customary. A significant amount of written records on slavery are found, suggesting a prevalence thereof.[113] During this period, a high-quality steel calledWootz steel was developed in south India and was later exported to China and Arabia.[114]
The Sangam literature deals with the history, politics, wars, and culture of the Tamil people of this period.[117] Unlike Sanskrit writers who were mostly Brahmins, Sangam writers came from diverse classes and social backgrounds and were mostly non-Brahmins.[118]
The time between the Maurya Empire in the 3rd century BCE and the end of theGupta Empire in the 6th century CE is referred to as the "Classical" period of India.[125] TheGupta Empire (4th–6th century) is regarded as theGolden Age of India, although a host of kingdoms ruled over India in these centuries. Also, theSangam literature flourished from the 3rd century BCE to the 3rd century CE in southern India.[126] During this period,India's economy is estimated to have been the largest in the world, having between one-third and one-quarter of the world's wealth, from 1 CE to 1000 CE.[127][128]
The Shungas originated fromMagadha, and controlled large areas of the central and eastern Indian subcontinent from around 187 to 78 BCE. The dynasty was established byPushyamitra Shunga, who overthrew the lastMaurya emperor. Its capital wasPataliputra, but later emperors, such asBhagabhadra, also held court atVidisha, modernBesnagar.[129]
Pushyamitra Shunga ruled for 36 years and was succeeded by his sonAgnimitra. There were ten Shunga rulers. However, after the death of Agnimitra, the empire rapidly disintegrated;[130] inscriptions and coins indicate that much of northern and central India consisted of small kingdoms and city-states that were independent of any Shunga hegemony.[131] The empire is noted for its numerous wars with both foreign and indigenous powers. They fought with theMahameghavahana dynasty ofKalinga,Satavahana dynasty ofDeccan, theIndo-Greeks, and possibly thePanchalas andMitras of Mathura.
Art, education, philosophy, and other forms of learning flowered during this period including architectural monuments such as the Stupa atBharhut and the renowned Great Stupa atSanchi. The Shunga rulers helped to establish the tradition of royal sponsorship of learning and art. The script used by the empire was a variant ofBrahmi and was used to write theSanskrit language. The Shunga Empire played an imperative role in patronisingIndian culture at a time when some of the most important developments in Hindu thought were taking place.
Indian ship on lead coin ofVasisthiputra Sri Pulamavi, testimony to the naval, seafaring and trading capabilities of the Sātavāhanas during the 1st–2nd century CE.
The Śātavāhanas were based fromAmaravati inAndhra Pradesh as well asJunnar (Pune) and Prathisthan (Paithan) inMaharashtra. The territory of the empire covered large parts of India from the 1st century BCE onward. The Sātavāhanas started out as feudatories to theMauryan dynasty, but declared independence with its decline.
The Sātavāhanas are known for their patronage of Hinduism and Buddhism, which resulted in Buddhist monuments fromEllora (aUNESCO World Heritage Site) toAmaravati. They were one of the first Indian states to issue coins with their rulers embossed. They formed a cultural bridge and played a vital role in trade as well as the transfer of ideas and culture to and from theIndo-Gangetic Plain to the southern tip of India.
They had to compete with theShunga Empire and then theKanva dynasty ofMagadha to establish their rule. Later, they played a crucial role to protect large part of India against foreign invaders like theSakas,Yavanas andPahlavas. In particular, their struggles with theWestern Kshatrapas went on for a long time. The notable rulers of the Satavahana DynastyGautamiputra Satakarni andSri Yajna Sātakarni were able to defeat the foreign invaders like theWestern Kshatrapas and to stop their expansion. In the 3rd century CE, the empire was split into smaller states.[132]
Silk Road andSpice trade, ancient trade routes that linked India with theOld World; carried goods and ideas between the ancient civilisations of the Old World and India. The land routes are marked as red, and the water routes are marked as blue.
Thespice trade inKerala attracted traders from all over the Old World to India. India's Southwest coastal portMuziris had established itself as a major spice trade centre from as early as 3,000 BCE, according toSumerian records.Jewish traders arrived inKochi,Kerala, India as early as 562 BCE.[133] TheGreco-Roman world followed by trading along theincense route and theRoman-India routes.[134] During the 2nd century BCE Greek and Indian ships met to trade atArabian ports such asAden.[135] During the first millennium, the sea routes to India were controlled by the Indians andEthiopians that became the maritime trading power of theRed Sea.
Indian merchants involved in spice trade tookIndian cuisine to Southeast Asia, where spice mixtures andcurries became popular with the native inhabitants.[136] Buddhism entered China through theSilk Road in the 1st or 2nd century CE.[137] Hindu and Buddhist religious establishments of South and Southeast Asia came to be centres of production and commerce as they accumulated capital donated by patrons. They engaged in estate management, craftsmanship, and trade. Buddhism in particular travelled alongside the maritime trade, promoting literacy, art, and the use of coinage.[138]
Kushan territories (full line) and maximum extent of Kushan dominions under Kanishka (dotted line), according to the Rabatak inscription
Depiction of theBuddha in Kanishka's coinage,Mathura art, 2nd century CE
The Kushan Empire expanded out of what is now Afghanistan into the northwest of the Indian subcontinent under the leadership of their first emperor,Kujula Kadphises, about the middle of the 1st century CE. The Kushans were possibly aTocharian speaking tribe,[139] one of five branches of theYuezhi confederation.[140][141] By the time of his grandson,Kanishka the Great, the empire spread to encompass much ofAfghanistan,[142] and then the northern parts of the Indian subcontinent.[143]
Emperor Kanishka was a great patron of Buddhism; however, as Kushans expanded southward, the deities of their later coinage came to reflect its newHindu majority.[144][145] HistorianVincent Smith said about Kanishka:
He played the part of a second Ashoka in the history of Buddhism.[146]
The empire linked the Indian Ocean maritime trade with the commerce of theSilk Road through the Indus valley, encouraging long-distance trade, particularly between China andRome. The Kushans brought new trends to the budding and blossomingGandhara art andMathura art, which reached its peak during Kushan rule.[147] The period of peace under Kushan rule is known asPax Kushana. By the 3rd century, their empire in India was disintegrating and their last known great emperor wasVasudeva I.[148][149]
Gupta Empire around 420 CE at its peak territorial extent under Kumaragupta I.
Current structure of theMahabodhi Temple built during the Gupta era, 5th century CE. The location are marked where the Buddha is said to have attained enlightenment.
The Gupta period was noted for cultural creativity, especially in literature, architecture, sculpture, and painting.[150] The Gupta period produced scholars such asKalidasa,Aryabhata,Varahamihira,Vishnu Sharma, andVatsyayana. The Gupta period marked a watershed of Indian culture: the Guptas performed Vedic sacrifices to legitimise their rule, but they also patronised Buddhism, an alternative to Brahmanical orthodoxy. The military exploits of the first three rulers –Chandragupta I,Samudragupta, andChandragupta II – brought much of India under their leadership.[151] Science and political administration reached new heights during the Gupta era. Strong trade ties also made the region an important cultural centre and established it as a base that would influence nearby kingdoms and regions.[152][153] The period of peace under Gupta rule is known asPax Gupta.
The latter Guptas successfully resisted the northwestern kingdoms until the arrival of theAlchon Huns, who established themselves in Afghanistan by the first half of the 5th century CE, with their capital atBamiyan.[154] However, much of the southern India includingDeccan were largely unaffected by these events.[155][156]
The Vākāṭaka Empire originated from theDeccan in the mid-third century CE. Their state is believed to have extended from the southern edges ofMalwa andGujarat in the north to theTungabhadra River in the south as well as from theArabian Sea in the western to the edges ofChhattisgarh in the east. They were the most important successors of theSatavahanas in theDeccan, contemporaneous with theGuptas in northern India and succeeded by theVishnukundina dynasty.
The Vakatakas are noted for having been patrons of the arts, architecture and literature. The rock-cut Buddhist viharas and chaityas ofAjanta Caves (aUNESCO World Heritage Site) were built under the patronage of Vakataka emperor,Harishena.[157][158]
Buddhist monks praying in front of the Dagoba of Chaitya Cave 26 of the Ajanta Caves.
Buddhist "Chaitya Griha" or prayer hall, with a seated Buddha, Cave 26 of the Ajanta Caves.
Many foreign ambassadors, representatives, and travelers are included as devotees attending the Buddha's descent from Trayastrimsa Heaven; painting from Cave 17 of the Ajanta Caves.
Ruled by three dynastiesVarmanas (c. 350–650 CE),Mlechchha dynasty (c. 655–900 CE) andKamarupa-Palas (c. 900–1100 CE), from their capitals in present-dayGuwahati (Pragjyotishpura), Tezpur (Haruppeswara) andNorth Gauhati (Durjaya) respectively. All three dynasties claimed their descent fromNarakasura.[citation needed] In the reign of the Varman king,Bhaskar Varman (c. 600–650 CE), the Chinese travellerXuanzang visited theregion and recorded his travels. Later, after weakening and disintegration (after the Kamarupa-Palas), the Kamarupa tradition was somewhat extended until c. 1255 CE by the Lunar I (c. 1120–1185 CE) and Lunar II (c. 1155–1255 CE) dynasties.[162] The Kamarupa kingdom came to an end in the middle of the 13th century when theKhen dynasty underSandhya of Kamarupanagara (North Guwahati), moved his capital to Kamatapur (North Bengal) after the invasion of Muslim Turks, and established theKamata kingdom.[163]
ThePallavas, during the 4th to 9th centuries were, alongside theGuptas of theNorth, great patronisers of Sanskrit development in theSouth of the Indian subcontinent. The Pallava reign saw the first Sanskrit inscriptions in a script calledGrantha.[164] Early Pallavas had different connexions toSoutheast Asian countries. The Pallavas used Dravidian architecture to build some very important Hindu temples and academies inMamallapuram,Kanchipuram and other places; their rule saw the rise of great poets. The practice of dedicating temples to different deities came into vogue followed by fine artistictemple architecture and sculpture style ofVastu Shastra.[165]
Pallavas reached the height of power during the reign ofMahendravarman I (571–630 CE) andNarasimhavarman I (630–668 CE) and dominated theTelugu and northern parts of theTamil region until the end of the 9th century.[166]
Kadambashikara (tower) withKalasa (pinnacle) on top,Doddagaddavalli.
Kadambas originated fromKarnataka, was founded byMayurasharma in 345 CE which at later times showed the potential of developing into imperial proportions. King Mayurasharma defeated the armies ofPallavas of Kanchi possibly with help of some native tribes. The Kadamba fame reached its peak during the rule ofKakusthavarma, a notable ruler with whom the kings ofGupta Dynasty of northern India cultivated marital alliances. The Kadambas were contemporaries of theWestern Ganga Dynasty and together they formed the earliest native kingdoms to rule the land with absolute autonomy. The dynasty later continued to rule as a feudatory of larger Kannada empires, theChalukya and theRashtrakuta empires, for over five hundred years during which time they branched into minor dynasties (Kadambas of Goa,Kadambas of Halasi andKadambas of Hangal).
After the downfall of the priorGupta Empire in the middle of the 6th century,North India reverted to smaller republics and monarchical states. The power vacuum resulted in the rise of the Vardhanas of Thanesar, who began uniting the republics and monarchies from the Punjab to central India. After the death of Harsha's father and brother, representatives of the empire crowned Harsha emperor in April 606 CE, giving him the title of Maharaja.[168] At the peak, his Empire covered much of North and Northwestern India, extended East untilKamarupa, and South untilNarmada River; and eventually madeKannauj (in presentUttar Pradesh) his capital, and ruled until 647 CE.[169]
The peace and prosperity that prevailed made his court a centre of cosmopolitanism, attracting scholars, artists and religious visitors.[169] During this time, Harsha converted to Buddhism fromSurya worship.[170] The Chinese travellerXuanzang visited the court of Harsha and wrote a very favourable account of him, praising his justice and generosity.[169] His biographyHarshacharita ("Deeds of Harsha") written by Sanskrit poetBanabhatta, describes his association with Thanesar and the palace with a two-storiedDhavalagriha (White Mansion).[171][172]
Earlymedieval India began after the end of theGupta Empire in the 6th century CE.[125] This period also covers the "Late Classical Age" of Hinduism, which began after the collapse of theEmpire of Harsha in the 7th century,[173] and ended in the 13th century with the rise of theDelhi Sultanate in Northern India;[174] the beginning of ImperialKannauj, leading to theTripartite struggle; and the end of theLater Cholas with the death ofRajendra Chola III in 1279 in Southern India; however some aspects of the Classical period continued until the fall of theVijayanagara Empire in the south around the 17th century.
From the fifth century to the thirteenth,Śrauta sacrifices declined, and support forShaivism,Vaishnavism andShaktism expanded in royal courts, while the support for Buddhism declined.[175] Lack of appeal among the rural masses, who instead embraced BrahmanicalHinduism formed in theHindu synthesis, and dwindling financial support from trading communities and royal elites, were major factors in the decline of Buddhism.[176]
In the 7th century,Kumārila Bhaṭṭa formulated his school ofMimamsa philosophy and defended the position on Vedic rituals.[177]
TheHindu Shahi dynasty ruled portions of eastern Afghanistan, northern Pakistan, and Kashmir from the mid-7th century to the early 11th century. While in Odisha, theEastern Ganga Empire rose to power; noted for the advancement ofHindu architecture, most notable beingJagannath Temple andKonark Sun Temple, as well as being patrons of art and literature.
The Later Gupta dynasty ruled theMagadha region in eastern India between the 6th and 7th centuries AD. The Later Guptas succeeded theimperial Guptas as the rulers of Magadha, but there is no evidence connecting the two dynasties; these appear to be two distinct families.[185] The Later Guptas are so-called because the names of their rulers ended with the suffix "-gupta", which they might have adopted to portray themselves as the legitimate successors of the imperial Guptas.[186]
TheChalukya Empire ruled large parts of southern andcentral India between the 6th and the 12th centuries, as three related yet individual dynasties. The earliest dynasty, known as the "Badami Chalukyas", ruled from Vatapi (modernBadami) from the middle of the 6th century. The Badami Chalukyas began to assert their independence at the decline of theKadamba kingdom ofBanavasi and rapidly rose to prominence during the reign ofPulakeshin II. The rule of the Chalukyas marks an important milestone in the history of South India and a golden age in the history ofKarnataka. The political atmosphere in South India shifted from smaller kingdoms to large empires with the ascendancy of Badami Chalukyas. A Southern India-based kingdom took control and consolidated the entire region between theKaveri and theNarmada Rivers. The rise of this empire saw the birth of efficient administration, overseas trade and commerce and the development of new style of architecture called "Chalukyan architecture". The Chalukya dynasty ruled parts of southern and central India from Badami in Karnataka between 550 and 750, and then again fromKalyani between 970 and 1190.
Founded byDantidurga around 753,[187] the Rashtrakuta Empire ruled from its capital atManyakheta for almost two centuries.[188] At its peak, the Rashtrakutas ruled from theGanges-Yamuna Doab in the north toCape Comorin in the south, a fruitful time of architectural and literary achievements.[189][190]
The early rulers of this dynasty were Hindu, but the later rulers were strongly influenced by Jainism.[191]Govinda III andAmoghavarsha were the most famous of the long line of able administrators produced by the dynasty. Amoghavarsha was also an author and wroteKavirajamarga, the earliest known Kannada work on poetics.[188][192] Architecture reached a milestone in the Dravidian style, the finest example of which is seen in the Kailasanath Temple at Ellora. Other important contributions are the Kashivishvanatha temple and the Jain Narayana temple atPattadakal in Karnataka.
The Arab traveller Suleiman described the Rashtrakuta Empire as one of the four great Empires of the world.[193] The Rashtrakuta period marked the beginning of the golden age of southern Indian mathematics. The great south Indian mathematicianMahāvīra had a huge impact on medieval south Indian mathematicians.[194] The Rashtrakuta rulers also patronised men of letters in a variety of languages.[188]
The Gurjara-Pratiharas were instrumental in containing Arab armies moving east of theIndus River.Nagabhata I defeated the Arab army under Junaid and Tamin during theUmayyad campaigns in India.[195] UnderNagabhata II, the Gurjara-Pratiharas became the most powerful dynasty in northern India. He was succeeded by his sonRamabhadra, who ruled briefly before being succeeded by his son,Mihira Bhoja. Under Bhoja and his successorMahendrapala I, the Pratihara Empire reached its peak of prosperity and power. By the time of Mahendrapala, its territory stretched from the border ofSindh in the west to Bihar in the east and from the Himalayas in the north to around theNarmada River in the south.[196] The expansion triggered atripartite power struggle with theRashtrakuta andPala empires for control of the Indian subcontinent.
Gahadavala dynasty ruled parts of the present-dayIndian states of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, during 11th and 12th centuries. Their capital was located atVaranasi.[199]
In 1097 AD, the Karnat dynasty of Mithila emerged on the Bihar/Nepal border area and maintained capitals inDarbhanga andSimraongadh. The dynasty was established byNanyadeva, a military commander of Karnataka origin. Under this dynasty, theMaithili language started to develop with the first piece of Maithili literature, theVarna Ratnakara being produced in the 14th century by Jyotirishwar Thakur. The Karnats also carried out raids intoNepal. They fell in 1324 following the invasion ofGhiyasuddin Tughlaq.[200][201]
Pala Empire
Excavated ruins ofNalanda, a centre of Buddhist learning from 450 to 1193
The Palas were followers of theMahayana andTantric schools of Buddhism,[206] they also patronisedShaivism andVaishnavism.[207] The empire reached its peak underDharmapala andDevapala. Dharmapala is believed to have conquered Kanauj and extended his sway up to the farthest limits of India in the north-west.[207]
The Pala Empire can be considered as the golden era of Bengal.[208] Dharmapala founded theVikramashila and revived Nalanda,[207] considered one of the first great universities in recorded history. Nalanda reached its height under the patronage of the Pala Empire.[208][209] The Palas also built manyviharas. They maintained close cultural and commercial ties with countries of Southeast Asia andTibet. Sea trade added greatly to the prosperity of the Pala Empire.
Medieval Cholas rose to prominence during the middle of the 9th century and established the greatest empire South India had seen.[210] They successfully united the South India under their rule and through their naval strength extended their influence in the Southeast Asian countries such as Srivijaya.[181] UnderRajaraja Chola I and his successorsRajendra Chola I,Rajadhiraja Chola,Virarajendra Chola andKulothunga Chola I the dynasty became a military, economic and cultural power in South Asia and South-East Asia.[211][212] Rajendra Chola I's navies occupied the sea coasts from Burma to Vietnam,[213] theAndaman and Nicobar Islands, theLakshadweep (Laccadive) islands,Sumatra, and theMalay Peninsula. The power of the new empire was proclaimed to the eastern world by the expedition to theGanges which Rajendra Chola I undertook and by the occupation of cities of the maritime empire ofSrivijaya in Southeast Asia, as well as by the repeated embassies to China.[214]
They dominated the political affairs of Sri Lanka for over two centuries through repeated invasions and occupation. They also had continuing trade contacts with the Arabs and the Chinese empire.[215] Rajaraja Chola I and his son Rajendra Chola I gave political unity to the whole of Southern India and established the Chola Empire as a respected sea power.[216] Under the Cholas, the South India reached new heights of excellence in art, religion and literature. In all of these spheres, the Chola period marked the culmination of movements that had begun in an earlier age under the Pallavas. Monumental architecture in the form of majestic temples and sculpture in stone and bronze reached a finesse never before achieved in India.[217]
The Western Chalukya Empire ruled most of thewestern Deccan, South India, between the 10th and 12th centuries.[219] Vast areas between theNarmada River in the north andKaveri River in the south came under Chalukya control.[219] During this period the other major ruling families of the Deccan, theHoysalas, theSeuna Yadavas of Devagiri, theKakatiya dynasty and theSouthern Kalachuris, were subordinates of the Western Chalukyas and gained their independence only when the power of the Chalukya waned during the latter half of the 12th century.[220]
The Western Chalukyas developed an architectural style known today as a transitional style, an architectural link between the style of the early Chalukya dynasty and that of the later Hoysala empire. Most of its monuments are in the districts bordering the Tungabhadra River in central Karnataka. Well known examples are theKasivisvesvara Temple atLakkundi, theMallikarjuna Temple at Kuruvatti, theKallesvara Temple at Bagali,Siddhesvara Temple at Haveri, and theMahadeva Temple at Itagi.[221] This was an important period in the development of fine arts in Southern India, especially in literature as the Western Chalukya kings encouraged writers in the native language ofKannada, and Sanskrit like the philosopher and statesmanBasava and the great mathematicianBhāskara II.[222][223]
The late medieval period is marked by repeated invasions by Muslim Central Asian nomadic clans,[224][225] the rule of the Delhi Sultanate, and by the growth of other states, built upon military technology of the sultanate.[226]
The Delhi Sultanate was a series of successive Islamic states based in Delhi, ruled by several dynasties of varying origins. The polity ruled over large parts of the Indian subcontinent from the 13th to early 16th centuries.[227] The sultanate was founded in the 12th and 13th centuries by Central Asian Turks, who invaded parts of northern India and established the state atop former Hindu holdings.[228] The subsequentMamluk dynasty of Delhi managed to conquer large areas of northern India. TheKhalji dynasty conquered much of central India while forcing the principal Hindu kingdoms of South India to becomevassal states.[227]
The sultanate ushered in a period of Indian cultural renaissance. The resulting "Indo-Muslim" fusion of cultures left lasting syncretic monuments in architecture, music, literature, religion, and clothing. It is surmised that the language ofUrdu was born during the period of the Delhi Sultanate. The sultanate was the only Indo-Islamic state to enthrone one of the few female rulers in India,Razia Sultana (r. 1236–1240).
While initially disruptive due to the passing of power from native Indian elites to Turkic Muslim elites, the Delhi Sultanate was responsible for integrating the Indian subcontinent into a growing world system, drawing India into a wider international network, which had a significant impact on Indian culture and society.[229] However, the Delhi Sultanate also caused large-scale destruction and desecration of temples in the Indian subcontinent.[230]
TheMongol invasions of India were successfully repelled by the Delhi Sultanate during the rule ofAlauddin Khalji. A major factor in their success was their TurkicMamluk slave army, who were highly skilled in the same style of nomadic cavalry warfare as the Mongols. It is possible that the Mongol Empire may have expanded into India were it not for the Delhi Sultanate's role in repelling them.[231] By repeatedly repulsing the Mongol raiders,[232] the sultanate saved India from the devastation waged on West and Central Asia. Soldiers from that region and learned men and administrators fleeing Mongol invasions of Iran migrated into the subcontinent, thereby creating a syncretic Indo-Islamic culture in the north.[231]
ATurco-Mongol conqueror from Central Asia,Timur (Tamerlane), attacked the reigning sultanNasir-u Din Mehmud of theTughlaq dynasty in Delhi.[233] The sultan's army was defeated on 17 December 1398. Timur entered Delhi and the city was sacked, destroyed, and left in ruins after Timur's army had killed and plundered for three days and nights. He ordered the whole city to be sacked except for thesayyids, scholars, and the "other Muslims" (artists); 100,000 war prisoners were said to have been put to death in one day.[234] The sultanate suffered significantly from the sacking of Delhi. Though revived briefly under theSayyid andLodi dynasties, it was but a shadow of the former. Lodi rule lasted in Delhi until the defeat of the last sultan,Ibrahim Khan Lodi,in 1526 to the forces ofBabur.[235]
In the first two decades after the founding of the empire, Harihara I gained control over most of the area south of the Tungabhadra river and earned the title ofPurvapaschima Samudradhishavara ("master of the eastern and western seas"). By 1374 Bukka Raya I, successor to Harihara I, had defeated the chiefdom ofArcot, theReddys of Kondavidu, and theSultan of Madurai and had gained control overGoa in the west and the Tungabhadra-Krishnadoab in the north.[240][241]
Harihara II, the second son of Bukka Raya I, further consolidated the kingdom beyond theKrishna River and brought the whole of South India under the Vijayanagara umbrella.[242] The next ruler,Deva Raya I, emerged successful against theGajapatis of Odisha and undertook important works of fortification and irrigation.[243] Italian traveller Niccolo de Conti wrote of him as the most powerful ruler of India.[244]Deva Raya II succeeded to the throne in 1424 and was possibly the most capable of the Sangama Dynasty rulers.[245] He quelled rebelling feudal lords as well as theZamorin ofCalicut andQuilon in the south. He invaded the island of Sri Lanka and became overlord of the kings ofBurma atPegu andTanasserim.[246][247][248]
The Vijayanagara Emperors were tolerant of all religions and sects, as writings by foreign visitors show.[249] The kings used titles such asGobrahamana Pratipalanacharya (literally, "protector of cows and Brahmins") andHindurayasuratrana (lit, "upholder of Hindu faith") that testified to their intention of protecting Hinduism and yet were at the same time staunchly Islamicate in their court ceremonials and dress.[250] The empire's founders, Harihara I and Bukka Raya I, were devoutShaivas (worshippers ofShiva), but made grants to theVaishnava order ofSringeri withVidyaranya as their patron saint, and designatedVaraha (anavatar of Vishnu) as their emblem.[251] Nobles from Central Asia's Timurid kingdoms also came to Vijayanagara.[252] The laterSaluva andTuluva kings were Vaishnava by faith, but worshipped at the feet of Lord Virupaksha (Shiva) at Hampi as well as LordVenkateshwara (Vishnu) atTirupati.[253] A Sanskrit work,Jambavati Kalyanam by King Krishnadevaraya, called Lord VirupakshaKarnata Rajya Raksha Mani ("protective jewel of Karnata Empire").[254] The kings patronised the saints of thedvaita order (philosophy of dualism) ofMadhvacharya atUdupi.[255]
Gajashaala, or elephant's stable, was built by the Vijayanagar rulers for theirwar elephants.[257]
Vijayanagara marketplace atHampi, along with the sacred tank located on the side of Krishna temple.
Stone temple car in Vitthala Temple at Hampi
The empire's legacy includes many monuments spread over South India, the best known of which is the group at Hampi. The previous temple building traditions in South India came together in the Vijayanagara Architecture style. The mingling of all faiths and vernaculars inspired architectural innovation of Hindu temple construction. South Indian mathematics flourished under the protection of the Vijayanagara Empire in Kerala. The south Indian mathematicianMadhava of Sangamagrama founded the famousKerala School of Astronomy and Mathematics in the 14th century which produced a lot of great south Indian mathematicians likeParameshvara,Nilakantha Somayaji andJyeṣṭhadeva.[258] Efficient administration and vigorous overseas trade brought new technologies such as water management systems for irrigation.[259] The empire's patronage enabled fine arts and literature to reach new heights in Kannada, Telugu, Tamil, and Sanskrit, while Carnatic music evolved into its current form.[260]
Vijayanagara went into decline after the defeat in theBattle of Talikota (1565). After the death ofAliya Rama Raya in the Battle of Talikota,Tirumala Deva Raya started theAravidu dynasty, moved and founded a new capital of Penukonda to replace the destroyed Hampi, and attempted to reconstitute the remains of Vijayanagara Empire.[261] Tirumala abdicated in 1572, dividing the remains of his kingdom to his three sons, and pursued a religious life until his death in 1578. The Aravidu dynasty successors ruled the region but the empire collapsed in 1614, and the final remains ended in 1646, from continued wars with the Bijapur sultanate and others.[262][263][264] During this period, more kingdoms in South India became independent and separate from Vijayanagara. These include theMysore Kingdom,Keladi Nayaka,Nayaks of Madurai,Nayaks of Tanjore,Nayakas of Chitradurga andNayak Kingdom of Gingee – all of which declared independence and went on to have a significant impact on the history of South India in the coming centuries.[262]
Chinese manuscriptTribute Giraffe with Attendant, depicting a giraffe presented by Bengali envoys in the name of SultanSaifuddin Hamza Shah of Bengal to theYongle Emperor ofMing China
Mahmud Gawan Madrasa was built by Mahmud Gawan, the Wazir of the Bahmani Sultanate as the centre of religious as well as secular education
For two and a half centuries from the mid-13th century, politics in Northern India was dominated by theDelhi Sultanate, and in Southern India by the Vijayanagar Empire. However, there were other regional powers present as well. After fall of Pala Empire, theChero dynasty ruled much of EasternUttar Pradesh,Bihar andJharkhand from the 12th to the 18th centuries.[265][266][267] TheReddy dynasty successfully defeated the Delhi Sultanate and extended their rule fromCuttack in the north toKanchi in the south, eventually being absorbed into the expanding Vijayanagara Empire.[268]
In the north, theRajput kingdoms remained the dominant force in Western and Central India. TheMewar dynasty underMaharana Hammir defeated and capturedMuhammad Tughlaq with the Bargujars as his main allies. Tughlaq had to pay a huge ransom and relinquish all of Mewar's lands. After this event, the Delhi Sultanate did not attack Chittor for a few hundred years. The Rajputs re-established their independence, and Rajput states were established as far east as Bengal and north into thePunjab. TheTomaras established themselves atGwalior, andMan Singh Tomar reconstructed theGwalior Fort.[269] During this period, Mewar emerged as the leading Rajput state; andRana Kumbha expanded his kingdom at the expense of theSultanates ofMalwa andGujarat.[269][270] The next great Rajput ruler,Rana Sanga of Mewar, became the principal player inNorthern India. His objectives grew in scope – he planned to conquer Delhi. But, his defeat in theBattle of Khanwa consolidated the newMughal dynasty in India.[269] The Mewar dynasty under MaharanaUdai Singh II faced further defeat by Mughal emperorAkbar, with their capital Chittor being captured. Due to this event, Udai Singh II foundedUdaipur, which became the new capital of theMewar kingdom. His son,Maharana Pratap of Mewar, firmly resisted the Mughals. Akbar sent many missions against him. He survived to ultimately gain control of all of Mewar, excluding theChittor Fort.[271]
In the south, theBahmani Sultanate in the Deccan, born from arebellion in 1347 against theTughlaq dynasty,[272] was the chief rival of Vijayanagara, and frequently created difficulties for them.[273] Starting in 1490, the Bahmani Sultanate's governors revolted, their independent states composing the fiveDeccan sultanates;Ahmadnagar declared independence, followed byBijapur andBerar in the same year;Golkonda became independent in 1518 andBidar in 1528.[274] Although generally rivals, they allied against the Vijayanagara Empire in 1565, permanently weakening Vijayanagar in the Battle of Talikota.[275][276]
TheSultanate of Bengal was the dominant power of theGanges–Brahmaputra Delta, with a network of mint towns spread across the region. It was aSunni Muslim monarchy with Indo-Turkic, Arab, Abyssinian andBengali Muslim elites. The sultanate was known for its religious pluralism where non-Muslim communities co-existed peacefully. The Bengal Sultanate had a circle ofvassal states, includingOdisha in the southwest,Arakan in the southeast, andTripura in the east. In the early 16th century, the Bengal Sultanate reached the peak of its territorial growth with control overKamrup andKamata in the northeast andJaunpur andBihar in the west. It was reputed as a thriving trading nation and one of Asia's strongest states. The Bengal Sultanate was described by contemporary European and Chinese visitors as a relatively prosperous kingdom and the "richest country to trade with". The Bengal Sultanate left a strong architectural legacy. Buildings from the period show foreign influences merged into a distinctBengali style. The Bengal Sultanate was also the largest and most prestigious authority among the independent medieval Muslim-ruled states in thehistory of Bengal. Its decline began with aninterregnum by theSuri Empire, followed byMughalconquest and disintegration into petty kingdoms.
The Bhakti movement refers to thetheistic devotional trend that emerged in medieval Hinduism[284] and later revolutionised inSikhism.[285] It originated in the seventh-century south India (now parts of Tamil Nadu and Kerala), and spread northwards.[284] It swept over east and north India from the 15th century onwards, reaching its zenith between the 15th and 17th century.[286]
Theearly modern period of Indian history is dated from 1526 to 1858, corresponding to the rise and fall of theMughal Empire, which inherited from theTimurid Renaissance. During this age India's economy expanded, relative peace was maintained and arts were patronised. This period witnessed the further development ofIndo-Islamic architecture;[296][297] the growth ofMarathas andSikhs enabled them to rule significant regions of India in the waning days of the Mughal empire.[16] With the discovery of theCape route in the 1500s, the first Europeans to arrive by sea and establish themselves, were thePortuguese in Goa and Bombay.[298]
In 1526,Babur swept across theKhyber Pass and established the Mughal Empire, which at its zenith covered much of South Asia.[300] However, his sonHumayun was defeated by the Afghan warriorSher Shah Suri in 1540, and Humayun was forced to retreat toKabul. After Sher Shah's death, his sonIslam Shah Suri and his Hindu generalHemu Vikramaditya established secular rule in North India fromDelhi until 1556, whenAkbar (r. 1556–1605), grandson of Babur, defeated Hemu in theSecond Battle of Panipat on 6 November 1556 after winningBattle of Delhi. Akbar tried to establish a good relationship with the Hindus. Akbar declared "Amari" or non-killing of animals in the holy days of Jainism. He rolled back thejizya tax for non-Muslims. The Mughal emperors married local royalty, allied themselves with localmaharajas, and attempted to fuse their Turko-Persian culture with ancient Indian styles, creating a uniqueIndo-Persian culture andIndo-Saracenic architecture.
Akbar married aRajput princess,Mariam-uz-Zamani, and they had a son,Jahangir (r. 1605–1627).[301] Jahangir followed his father's policy. The Mughal dynasty ruled most of the Indian subcontinent by 1600. The reign ofShah Jahan (r. 1628–1658) was the golden age of Mughal architecture. He erected several large monuments, the most famous of which is theTaj Mahal at Agra.
It was one of the largest empires to have existed in the Indian subcontinent,[302] and surpassed China to become the world's largest economic power, controlling 24.4% of theworld economy,[303] and the world leader in manufacturing,[304] producing 25% of global industrial output.[305] The economic and demographic upsurge was stimulated by Mughalagrarian reforms that intensified agricultural production,[306] and a relatively high degree ofurbanisation.[307]
Other Mughal UNESCO World Heritage Sites
Agra Fort showingYamuna river and Taj Mahal in the background
The Mughal Empire reached the zenith of its territorial expanse during the reign ofAurangzeb (r. 1658–1707), under whose reign India surpassed Qing China as the world's largest economy.[308][309] Aurangzeb was less tolerant than his predecessors, reintroducing thejizya tax and destroying several historical temples, while at the same time building more Hindu temples than he destroyed,[310] employing significantly more Hindus in his imperial bureaucracy than his predecessors, and advancing administrators based on ability rather than religion.[311] However, he is often blamed for the erosion of the tolerant syncretic tradition of his predecessors, as well as increasing religious controversy and centralisation. TheEnglish East India Company suffered a defeat in theAnglo-Mughal War.[312][313]
18th-century political formation in India
The Mughals suffered several blows due to invasions fromMarathas,Rajputs,Jats andAfghans. In 1737, the Maratha generalBajirao of the Maratha Empire invaded and plundered Delhi. Under the general Amir Khan Umrao Al Udat, the Mughal Emperor sent 8,000 troops to drive away the 5,000 Maratha cavalry soldiers. Baji Rao easily routed the novice Mughal general. In 1737, in the final defeat of Mughal Empire, the commander-in-chief of the Mughal Army, Nizam-ul-mulk, was routed at Bhopal by the Maratha army. This essentially brought an end to the Mughal Empire.[citation needed] While Bharatpur State under Jat rulerSuraj Mal, overran the Mughal garrison at Agra and plundered the city.[314] In 1739,Nader Shah, emperor of Iran, defeated the Mughal army at theBattle of Karnal.[315] After this victory, Nader captured and sacked Delhi, carrying away treasures including thePeacock Throne.[316]Ahmad Shah Durrani commenced his own invasions as ruler of theDurrani Empire, eventuallysacking Delhi in 1757.[317] Mughal rule was further weakened by constant native Indian resistance;Banda Singh Bahadur led theSikhKhalsa against Mughal religious oppression; HinduRajas of Bengal,Pratapaditya andRaja Sitaram Ray revolted; andMaharajaChhatrasal, ofBundela Rajputs, fought the Mughals and established thePanna State.[318] TheMughal dynasty was reduced to puppet rulers by 1757.Vadda Ghalughara took place under the Muslim provincial government based atLahore to wipe out the Sikhs, with 30,000 Sikhs being killed, an offensive that had begun with the Mughals, with theChhota Ghallughara,[319] and lasted several decades under its Muslim successor states.[320]
Maratha Empire at its peak in 1760 (yellow area), covering much of the Indian subcontinent, stretching fromSouth India to present-dayPakistan
Shaniwarwada palace fort inPune, the seat of the Peshwa rulers of the Maratha Empire until 1818
The Maratha kingdom was founded and consolidated byChatrapati Shivaji.[321] However, the credit for making the Marathas formidable power nationally goes toPeshwa (chief minister)Bajirao I. Historian K.K. Datta wrote that Bajirao I "may very well be regarded as the second founder of the Maratha Empire".[322]
In the early 18th century, under the Peshwas, the Marathas consolidated and ruled over much of South Asia. The Marathas are credited to a large extent for endingMughal rule in India.[323][324][325] In 1737, the Marathas defeated a Mughal army in their capital, in the Battle of Delhi. The Marathas continuedtheir military campaigns against the Mughals,Nizam,Nawab of Bengal and the Durrani Empire to further extend their boundaries. At its peak, the domain of the Marathas encompassed most of the Indian subcontinent.[326] The Marathas even attempted to capture Delhi and discussed puttingVishwasrao Peshwa on the throne there in place of the Mughal emperor.[327]
The Sikh Empire was a political entity that governed the Northwestern regions of the Indian subcontinent, based around thePunjab, from 1799 to 1849. It was forged, on the foundations of theKhalsa, under the leadership ofMaharaja Ranjit Singh (1780–1839).[citation needed]
Maharaja Ranjit Singh consolidated much of northern India into an empire using hisSikh Khalsa Army, trained in European military techniques and equipped with modern military technologies. Ranjit Singh proved himself to be a master strategist and selected well-qualified generals for his army. He successfully ended theAfghan-Sikh Wars. In stages, he added central Punjab, the provinces of Multan and Kashmir, and the Peshawar Valley to his empire.[333][334]
At its peak in the 19th century, the empire extended from theKhyber Pass in the west, toKashmir in the north, toSindh in the south, running along Sutlej river toHimachal in the east. After the death of Ranjit Singh, the empire weakened, leading to conflict with the British East India Company. TheFirst Anglo-Sikh War andSecond Anglo-Sikh War marked the downfall of the Sikh Empire, making it among the last areas of the Indian subcontinent to be conquered by the British.
Other kingdoms
Territories of India in 1763
TheKingdom of Mysore in southern India expanded to its greatest extent underHyder Ali and his sonTipu Sultan in the later half of the 18th century. Under their rule, Mysore fought series of wars against the Marathas and British or their combined forces. TheMaratha–Mysore War ended in April 1787, following the finalising oftreaty of Gajendragad, in which Tipu Sultan was obligated to pay tribute to the Marathas. Concurrently, theAnglo-Mysore Wars took place, where the Mysoreans used theMysorean rockets. TheFourth Anglo-Mysore War (1798–1799) saw the death of Tipu. Mysore's alliance with the French was seen as a threat to the British East India Company, and Mysore was attacked from all four sides. The Nizam of Hyderabad and the Marathas launched an invasion from the north. The British won a decisive victory at theSiege of Seringapatam (1799).
Hyderabad was founded by theQutb Shahi dynasty ofGolconda in 1591. Following a brief Mughal rule, Asif Jah, a Mughal official, seized control of Hyderabad and declared himselfNizam-al-Mulk of Hyderabad in 1724. The Nizams lost considerable territory and paid tribute to the Maratha Empire after being routed in multiple battles, such as theBattle of Palkhed.[335] However, the Nizams maintained their sovereignty from 1724 until 1948 through paying tributes to the Marathas, and later, being vassals of the British.Hyderabad State became a princely state in British India in 1798.
TheNawabs of Bengal had become the de facto rulers of Bengal following the decline of Mughal Empire. However, their rule was interrupted by Marathas who carried outsix expeditions in Bengal from 1741 to 1748, as a result of which Bengal became a tributary state of Marathas. On 23 June 1757,Siraj ud-Daulah, the last independent Nawab of Bengal was betrayed in theBattle of Plassey byMir Jafar. He lost to the British, who took over the charge of Bengal in 1757, installed Mir Jafar on theMasnad (throne) and established itself to a political power in Bengal.[336] In 1765 the system of Dual Government was established, in which the Nawabs ruled on behalf of the British and were mere puppets to the British. In 1772 the system was abolished and Bengal was brought under the direct control of the British. In 1793, when theNizamat (governorship) of the Nawab was also taken away, they remained as mere pensioners of theBritish East India Company.[337][338]
In the 18th century, the whole of Rajputana was virtually subdued by the Marathas. TheSecond Anglo-Maratha War distracted the Marathas from 1807 to 1809, but afterward Maratha domination of Rajputana resumed. In 1817, the British went to war with thePindaris, raiders who were fled in Maratha territory, which quickly became theThird Anglo-Maratha War, and the British government offered its protection to the Rajput rulers from the Pindaris and the Marathas. By the end of 1818 similar treaties had been executed between the other Rajput states and Britain. The MarathaSindhia ruler ofGwalior gave up the district ofAjmer-Merwara to the British, and Maratha influence in Rajasthan came to an end.[339] Most of the Rajput princes remained loyal to Britain in theRevolt of 1857, and few political changes were made in Rajputana until Indian independence in 1947. TheRajputana Agency contained more than 20 princely states, most notable beingUdaipur State,Jaipur State,Bikaner State andJodhpur State.
After the fall of the Maratha Empire, manyMaratha dynasties and states became vassals in a subsidiary alliance with the British. With the decline of the Sikh Empire, after theFirst Anglo-Sikh War in 1846, under the terms of theTreaty of Amritsar, the British government sold Kashmir to MaharajaGulab Singh and the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir, the second-largest princely state in British India, was created by theDogra dynasty.[340][341] While in eastern and north-eastern India, the Hindu and Buddhist states ofCooch Behar Kingdom,Twipra Kingdom andKingdom of Sikkim were annexed by the British and made vassal princely state.
After the fall of theVijayanagara Empire,Polygar states emerged in Southern India; and managed to weather invasions and flourished until thePolygar Wars, where they were defeated by the British East India Company forces.[342] Around the 18th century, theKingdom of Nepal was formed by Rajput rulers.[343]
The route followed inVasco da Gama's first voyage (1497–1499)p
In 1498, a Portuguese fleet underVasco da Gama discovered a new sea route from Europe to India, which paved the way for direct Indo-European commerce. The Portuguese soon set up trading posts inVelha Goa,Damaon,Dio island, andBombay. The Portuguese instituted theGoa Inquisition, where new Indian converts were punished for suspected heresy against Christianity and non-Christians were condemned.[344] Goa remained the main Portuguese territory until it wasannexed by India in 1961.[345]
The internal conflicts among Indian kingdoms gave opportunities to the European traders to gradually establish political influence and appropriate lands. Following the Dutch, the British — who set up in the west coast port ofSurat in 1619 — and the French both established trading outposts in India. Although continental European powers controlled various coastal regions of southern and eastern India during the ensuing century, they eventually lost all their territories in India to the British, with the exception of the French outposts ofPondichéry andChandernagore, and the Portuguese colonies ofGoa, Daman and Diu.[348][349]
India in 1765 and 1805 showing East India Company Territories in pink
India in 1837 and 1857 showing East India Company (pink) and other territories
The English East India Company was founded in 1600. It gained a foothold in India with the establishment of afactory inMasulipatnam on the Eastern coast of India in 1611 and a grant of rights by the Mughal emperor Jahangir to establish a factory inSurat in 1612. In 1640, after receiving similar permission from theVijayanagara ruler farther south, a second factory was established inMadras on the southeastern coast. The islet ofBom Bahia in present-day Mumbai (Bombay) was a Portugueseoutpost not far from Surat. It was presented toCharles II of England asdowry in his marriage toCatherine of Braganza. Charles in turn leased Bombay to the Company in 1668. Two decades later, the company established atrade post in theRiver Ganges delta. During this time other companies established by thePortuguese,Dutch,French, andDanish were similarly expanding in the subcontinent.
The company's victory underRobert Clive in the 1757Battle of Plassey and another victory in the 1764Battle of Buxar (in Bihar), consolidated the company's power, and forced emperorShah Alam II to appoint it thediwan, or revenue collector, of Bengal, Bihar, andOrissa. The company thus became thede facto ruler of large areas of thelower Gangetic plain by 1773. It also proceeded by degrees to expand its dominions around Bombay and Madras. TheAnglo-Mysore Wars (1766–99) and theAnglo-Maratha Wars (1772–1818) left it in control of large areas of India south of theSutlej River. With the defeat of theMarathas, no native power represented a threat for the company any longer.[350]
The expansion of the company's power chiefly took two forms. The first of these was the outright annexation of Indian states and subsequent direct governance of the underlying regions that collectively came to comprise British India. The annexed regions included theNorth-Western Provinces (comprisingRohilkhand,Gorakhpur, and theDoab) (1801), Delhi (1803), Assam (Ahom Kingdom 1828) andSindh (1843).Punjab,North-West Frontier Province, andKashmir were annexed after theAnglo-Sikh Wars in 1849–56 (Period of tenure of Marquess of Dalhousie Governor General). However, Kashmir was immediately sold under theTreaty of Amritsar (1850) to theDogra Dynasty ofJammu and thereby became a princely state. In 1854,Berar was annexed along with the state ofOudh two years later.[citation needed]
Gold coin, minted 1835, with obverse showing the bust ofWilliam IV, king of United Kingdom from 26 June 1830 to 20 June 1837, and reverse marked "Two mohurs" in English (doashrafi inUrdu) issued duringCompany rule in India
Photograph (1855) showing the construction of the Bhor Ghaut incline bridge, Bombay; the incline was conceived by George Clark, the Chief Engineer in the East India Company's Government of Bombay
The second form of asserting power involved treaties in which Indian rulers acknowledged the company'shegemony in return for limited internalautonomy. Since the company operated under financial constraints, it had to set uppolitical underpinnings for its rule.[351] The most important such support came from thesubsidiary alliances with Indian princes.[351] In the early 19th century, the territories of these princes accounted for two-thirds of India.[351] When an Indian ruler who was able to secure his territory wanted to enter such an alliance, the company welcomed it as an economical method of indirect rule that did not involve the economic costs of direct administration or the political costs of gaining the support of alien subjects.[352]
The Indian indenture system was an ongoing system of indenture, a form of debt bondage, by which 3.5 million Indians were transported to colonies of European powers to provide labour for the (mainly sugar) plantations. It started from the end of slavery in 1833 and continued until 1920. This resulted in the development of a largeIndian diaspora that spread from the Caribbean to the Pacific Ocean and the growth of largeIndo-Caribbean andIndo-African populations.
Late modern period and contemporary history (1857–1947)
The Indian rebellion of 1857 was a large-scale rebellion by soldiers employed by the British East India Company in northern and central India against the company's rule. The spark that led to the mutiny was the issue of new gunpowder cartridges for the Enfield rifle, which was insensitive to local religious prohibition. The key mutineer wasMangal Pandey.[354] In addition, the underlying grievances over British taxation, the ethnic gulf between the British officers and their Indian troops and land annexations played a significant role in the rebellion. Within weeks after Pandey's mutiny, dozens of units of the Indian army joined peasant armies in widespread rebellion. The rebel soldiers were later joined by Indian nobility, many of whom had lost titles and domains under theDoctrine of Lapse and felt that the company had interfered with a traditional system of inheritance. Rebel leaders such asNana Sahib and theRani of Jhansi belonged to this group.[355]
After the outbreak of the mutiny inMeerut, the rebels very quickly reached Delhi. The rebels had also captured large tracts of theNorth-Western Provinces andAwadh (Oudh). Most notably, in Awadh, the rebellion took on the attributes of a patriotic revolt against British presence.[356] However, the British East India Company mobilised rapidly with the assistance of friendlyPrincely states, but it took the British the better part of 1858 to suppress the rebellion. Due to the rebels being poorly equipped and having no outside support or funding, they were brutally subdued.[357]
In the aftermath, all power was transferred from the British East India Company to theBritish Crown, which began to administer most of India as provinces. The Crown controlled the company's lands directly and had considerable indirect influence over the rest of India, which consisted of the Princely states ruled by local royal families. There were officially 565 princely states in 1947, but only 21 had actual state governments, and only three were large (Mysore, Hyderabad, and Kashmir). They were absorbed into the independent nation in 1947–48.[358]
After 1857, the colonial government strengthened and expanded its infrastructure via the court system, legal procedures, and statutes. TheIndian Penal Code came into being.[359] In education,Thomas Babington Macaulay had made schooling a priority for the Raj in 1835 and succeeded in implementing the use of English for instruction. By 1890 some 60,000 Indians had matriculated.[360] The Indian economy grew at about 1% per year from 1880 to 1920, and the population also grew at 1%. However, from 1910s Indian private industry began to grow significantly. India built a modern railway system in the late 19th century which was the fourth largest in the world.[361] Historians have been divided on issues of economic history, with the Nationalist school arguing that India was poorer due to British rule.[362]
In 1905,Lord Curzonsplit the large province of Bengal into a largely Hindu western half and "Eastern Bengal and Assam", a largely Muslim eastern half. The British goal was said to be efficient administration but the people of Bengal were outraged at the apparent "divide and rule" strategy. It also marked the beginning of the organised anti-colonial movement. When the Liberal party in Britain came to power in 1906, he was removed. Bengal was reunified in 1911. The new Viceroy Gilbert Minto and the new Secretary of State for IndiaJohn Morley consulted with Congress leaders on political reforms. TheMorley-Minto reforms of 1909 provided for Indian membership of the provincial executive councils as well as the Viceroy's executive council. The Imperial Legislative Council was enlarged from 25 to 60 members and separate communal representation for Muslims was established in a dramatic step towards representative and responsible government.[363] Several socio-religious organisations came into being at that time. Muslims set up theAll India Muslim League in 1906 to protect the interests of the aristocratic Muslims. TheHindu Mahasabha andRashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) sought to represent Hindu interests though the latter always claimed it to be a "cultural" organisation.[364] Sikhs founded theShiromani Akali Dal in 1920.[365] However, the largest and oldest political partyIndian National Congress, founded in 1885, attempted to keep a distance from the socio-religious movements and identity politics.[366]
Two silver rupee coins issued by the British Raj in 1862 and 1886 respectively, the first in obverse showing a bust ofVictoria, Queen, the second of Victoria, Empress. Victoria becameEmpress of India in 1876.
A second-day cancellation of the stamps issued in February 1931 to commemorate the inauguration ofNew Delhi as the capital of the British Indian Empire. Between 1858 and 1911,Calcutta had been the capital of the Raj.
Rabindranath Tagore (1861–1941) was aBengali language poet, short-story writer, and playwright, and in addition a music composer and painter, who won the Nobel prize for Literature in 1913
The Bengali Renaissance refers to a social reform movement, dominated byBengali Hindus, in theBengal region of the Indian subcontinent during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, a period of British rule. HistorianNitish Sengupta describes the renaissance as having started with reformer and humanitarianRaja Ram Mohan Roy (1775–1833), and ended with Asia's first Nobel laureateRabindranath Tagore (1861–1941).[367] This flowering of religious and social reformers, scholars, and writers is described by historianDavid Kopf as "one of the most creative periods in Indian history."[368]
During this period, Bengal witnessed anintellectual awakening that is in some way similar to theRenaissance. This movement questioned existing orthodoxies, particularly with respect to women, marriage, thedowry system, thecaste system, and religion. One of the earliestsocial movements that emerged during this time was theYoung Bengal movement, which espousedrationalism andatheism as the common denominators of civil conduct among upper caste educated Hindus.[369] It played an important role in reawakening Indian minds and intellect across the Indian subcontinent.
A picture of orphans who survived theBengal famine of 1943, a man-made disaster by the British government
During British East India Company andBritish Crown rule, India experienced some of deadliest ever recordedfamines. These famines, usually resulting from crop failures and often exacerbated by policies of the colonial government,[370] included theGreat Famine of 1876–1878 in which 6.1 million to 10.3 million people died,[371] theGreat Bengal famine of 1770 where between 1 and 10 million people died,[372][373] theIndian famine of 1899–1900 in which 1.25 to 10 million people died,[370] and theBengal famine of 1943 where between 2.1 and 3.8 million people died.[374] TheThird plague pandemic in the mid-19th century killed 10 million people in India.[375] Despite persistent diseases and famines, the population of the Indian subcontinent, which stood at up to 200 million in 1750,[376] had reached 389 million by 1941.[377]
India Gate is a memorial to 70,000 soldiers of theBritish Indian Army who died in the period 1914–21 in the First World War
DuringWorld War I, over 800,000 volunteered for the army, and more than 400,000 volunteered for non-combat roles, compared with the pre-war annual recruitment of about 15,000 men.[378] The Army saw early action on theWestern Front at theFirst Battle of Ypres. After a year of front-line duty, sickness and casualties had reduced the Indian Corps to the point where it had to be withdrawn. Nearly 700,000 Indians fought the Turks in the Mesopotamian campaign. Indian formations were also sent to East Africa, Egypt, and Gallipoli.[379]
One million Indian troops served abroad during the war. In total, 74,187 died,[380] and another 67,000 were wounded.[381] The roughly 90,000 soldiers who died fighting in World War I and theAfghan Wars are commemorated by theIndia Gate.
The stamp series "Victory" issued by the Government of British India to commemorate allied victory in World War II
British India officially declared war onNazi Germany in September 1939.[382] The British Raj, as part of theAllied Nations, sent over two and a half million volunteer soldiers to fight under British command against theAxis powers. Additionally, several Princely States provided large donations to support the Allied campaign. India also provided the base for American operations in support of China in theChina Burma India Theatre.
TheIndian National Congress denounced Nazi Germany but would not fight it or anyone else until India was independent. Congress launched theQuit India Movement in August 1942, refusing to co-operate in any way with the government until independence was granted. The government immediately arrested over 60,000 national and local Congress leaders. TheMuslim League rejected the Quit India movement and worked closely with the Raj authorities.
By 1942, neighbouringBurma was invaded by Japan, which by then had already captured the Indian territory ofAndaman and Nicobar Islands. Japan gave nominal control of the islands to theProvisional Government of Free India on 21 October 1943, and in the following March, the Indian National Army with the help of Japan crossed into India and advanced as far asKohima inNagaland. This advance on the mainland of the Indian subcontinent reached its farthest point on Indian territory, retreating from theBattle of Kohima in June and fromthat of Imphal on 3 July 1944.
The region of Bengal in British Indiasuffered a devastating famine during 1940–1943. An estimated 2.1–3 million died from the famine, frequently characterised as "man-made",[387] with most sources asserting that wartimecolonial policies exacerbated the crisis.[388]
The first session of theIndian National Congress in 1885.A. O. Hume, the founder, is shown in the middle (third row from the front). The Congress was the first modern nationalist movement to emerge in the British Empire in Asia and Africa.[389]
Front page of theTribune (25 March 1931), reporting the execution ofBhagat Singh,Rajguru andSukhdev by the British for the murder of 21-year-old police officer J. P. Saunders. Bhagat Singh quickly became a folk hero of the Indian independence movement.
From the late 19th century, and especially after 1920, under the leadership ofMahatma Gandhi (right), the Congress became the principal leader of theIndian independence movement.[390] Gandhi is shown here withJawaharlal Nehru, later the first prime minister of India.
The numbers of British in India were small,[391] yet they were able to rule 52% of the Indian subcontinent directly and exercise considerable leverage over theprincely states that accounted for 48% of the area.[392]
One of the most important events of the 19th century was the rise of Indian nationalism,[393] leading Indians to seek first "self-rule" and later "complete independence". However, historians are divided over the causes of its rise. Probable reasons include a "clash of interests of the Indian people with British interests",[393] "racial discriminations",[394] and "the revelation of India's past".[395]
The first step toward Indian self-rule was the appointment ofcouncillors to advise the Britishviceroy in 1861 and the first Indian was appointed in 1909. Provincial Councils with Indian members were also set up. The councillors' participation was subsequently widened into legislative councils. The British built a largeBritish Indian Army, with the senior officers all British and many of the troops from small minority groups such asGurkhas from Nepal andSikhs.[396] The civil service was increasingly filled with natives at the lower levels, with the British holding the more senior positions.[397]
Bal Gangadhar Tilak, an Indian nationalist leader, declaredSwaraj (home rule) as the destiny of the nation. His popular sentence "Swaraj is my birthright, and I shall have it"[398] became the source of inspiration. Tilak was backed by rising public leaders likeBipin Chandra Pal andLala Lajpat Rai, who held the same point of view, notably they advocated theSwadeshi movement involving the boycott of imported items and the use of Indian-made goods;[399] the triumvirate were popularly known asLal Bal Pal. In 1907, the Congress was split into two factions: The radicals, led by Tilak, advocated civil agitation and direct revolution to overthrow the British Empire and the abandonment of all things British. The moderates, led by leaders likeDadabhai Naoroji andGopal Krishna Gokhale, on the other hand, wanted reform within the framework of British rule.[399]
The British themselves adopted a "carrot and stick" approach in response to renewed nationalist demands. The means of achieving the proposed measure were later enshrined in theGovernment of India Act 1919, which introduced the principle of a dual mode of administration, or diarchy, in which elected Indian legislators and appointed British officials shared power.[400] In 1919, ColonelReginald Dyer ordered his troops to fire their weapons on peaceful protestors, including unarmed women and children, resulting in theJallianwala Bagh massacre; which led to theNon-cooperation Movement of 1920–1922. The massacre was a decisive episode towards the end of British rule in India.[401]
From 1920 leaders such asMahatma Gandhi began highly popular mass movements to campaign against the British Raj using largely peaceful methods. The Gandhi-led independence movement opposed the British rule using non-violent methods likenon-co-operation,civil disobedience andeconomic resistance. However,revolutionary activities against the British rule took place throughout the Indian subcontinent and some others adopted a militant approach like theHindustan Republican Association, that sought to overthrow British rule by armed struggle.
TheAll India Azad Muslim Conference gathered in Delhi in April 1940 to voice its support for anindependent and united India.[402] Its members included several Islamic organisations in India, as well as 1,400 nationalist Muslim delegates.[403][404][405] The pro-separatist All-India Muslim League worked to try to silence those nationalist Muslims who stood against the partition of India, often using "intimidation and coercion".[404][405] The murder of the All India Azad Muslim Conference leaderAllah Bakhsh Soomro also made it easier for the pro-separatist All-India Muslim League to demand the creation of a Pakistan.[405]
After World War II (c. 1946–1947)
"A moment comes, which comes but rarely in history, when we step out from the old to the new; when an age ends; and when the soul of a nation long suppressed finds utterance."
In January 1946, several mutinies broke out in the armed services, starting with that of RAF servicemen frustrated with their slow repatriation. The mutinies came to a head withmutiny of the Royal Indian Navy inBombay in February 1946, followed by others inCalcutta,Madras, andKarachi. The mutinies were rapidly suppressed. In early 1946, new elections were called andCongress candidates won in eight of the eleven provinces.
Late in 1946, the Labour government decided to end British rule of India, and in early 1947 it announced its intention of transferring power no later than June 1948 and participating in the formation of aninterim government.
Along with the desire for independence, tensions between Hindus and Muslims had also been developing over the years. Muslim League leaderMuhammad Ali Jinnah proclaimed 16 August 1946 asDirect Action Day, with the stated goal of highlighting, peacefully, the demand for a Muslim homeland in British India, which resulted in the outbreak of the cycle of violence that would be later called the "Great Calcutta Killing of August 1946". The communal violence spread toBihar,Noakhali in Bengal,Garhmukteshwar in theUnited Provinces, and on toRawalpindi in March 1947 in which Sikhs and Hindus wereattacked or driven out by Muslims.
Literacy in India grew very slowly until independence in 1947. An acceleration in the rate of literacy growth occurred in the 1991–2001 period.
A map of the prevailing religions of the British Indian empire based on district-wise majorities based on the Indian census of 1909, and published in theImperial Gazetteer of India. The partition of thePunjab and Bengal was based on such majorities.
In August 1947, the British Indian Empire was partitioned into theUnion of India andDominion of Pakistan. In particular, the partition of thePunjab and Bengal led to rioting between Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs in these provinces and spread to other nearby regions, leaving some 500,000 dead. The police and army units were largely ineffective. The British officers were gone, and the units were beginning to tolerate if not actually indulge in violence against their religious enemies.[407][408][409] Also, this period saw one of the largest mass migrations anywhere in modern history, with a total of 12 million Hindus, Sikhs and Muslims moving between the newly created nations of India and Pakistan (which gained independence on 15 and 14 August 1947 respectively).[408] In 1971,Bangladesh, formerlyEast Pakistan andEast Bengal, seceded from Pakistan.[410]
^Dr. K. S. Lal (1967).History of the Khaljis, A.D. 1290-1320. p. 14.The khalji revolt is essentially a revolt of the Indian Muslims against the Turkish hegemony, of those who looked to Delhi, against those who sought inspiration from Ghaur and Ghazna.
^Majumdar, R.C (1960).History and Culture of the Indian People, Volume 06,The Delhi Sultanate (3rd ed.). Bhartiya Vidya Bhavan. pp. 70 "It is also quite clear from contemporary chronicles that Muhammad Tughluq and the later Sultans practically left Rajputana severely alone, and the various Rajput principalities recognised Mewar as the paramount power at least in name".
^Olivelle, Patrick (2003). "The Renouncer Tradition". InFlood, Gavin (ed.).The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism. Blackwell. pp. 273–274.ISBN978-0-631-21535-6.The second half of the first millennium BC was the period that created many of the ideological and institutional elements that characterise later Indian religions. The renouncer tradition played a central role during this formative period of Indian religious history. ... Some of the fundamental values and beliefs that we generally associate with Indian religions in general and Hinduism, in particular, were in part the creation of the renouncer tradition. These include the two pillars of Indian theologies: samsara—the belief that life in this world is one of suffering and subject to repeated deaths and births (rebirth); moksa/nirvana—the goal of human existence ...
^Laumakis, Stephen (2008).An Introduction to Buddhist Philosophy. Cambridge University Press. p. 4.ISBN978-0-511-38589-6.
^J.M. Kenoyer (2006), "Cultures and Societies of the Indus Tradition. InHistorical Roots" in the Making of 'the Aryan, R. Thapar (ed.), pp. 21–49. New Delhi, National Book Trust.
^Shaffer, Jim (1993). "Reurbanization: The eastern Punjab and beyond".Urban Form and Meaning in South Asia: The Shaping of Cities from Prehistoric to Precolonial Times. Symposium Papers XV. Vol. 31. National Gallery of Art. pp. 53–67.JSTOR42620472.
^Rosen, Elizabeth S. (1975). "Prince ILango Adigal, Shilappadikaram (The anklet Bracelet), translated by Alain Damelou. Review".Artibus Asiae.37 (1/2):148–150.doi:10.2307/3250226.JSTOR3250226.
^The First Spring: The Golden Age of India byAbraham Eraly p. 655
^* Zvelebil, Kamil. 1973. The smile of Murugan on Tamil literature of South India. Leiden: Brill. Zvelebil dates theUr-Tholkappiyam to the 1st or 2nd century BCE
^Runion, Meredith L. (2007).The history of Afghanistan. Westport: Greenwood Press. p. 46.ISBN978-0-313-33798-7.The Yuezhi people conquered Bactria in the second century BCE. and divided the country into five chiefdoms, one of which would become the Kushan Empire. Recognizing the importance of unification, these five tribes combined under the one dominate Kushan tribe, and the primary rulers descended from the Yuezhi.
^Liu, Xinrui (2001). Adas, Michael (ed.).Agricultural and pastoral societies in ancient and classical history. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. p. 156.ISBN978-1-56639-832-9.
^Buddhist Records of the Western World Si-Yu-Ki, (Tr. Samuel Beal: Travels of Fa-Hian, The Mission of Sung-Yun and Hwei-Sing, Books 1–5), Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co. Ltd. London. 1906 and Hill (2009), pp. 29, 318–350
^which began about 127 CE. "Falk 2001, pp. 121–136", Falk (2001), pp. 121–136, Falk, Harry (2004), pp. 167–176 and Hill (2009), pp. 29, 33, 368–371.
^Si-Yu-Ki,Buddhist Records of the Western World, (Tr. Samuel Beal: Travels of Fa-Hian, The Mission of Sung-Yun and Hwei-Sing, Books 1–5), Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co. Ltd. London. 1906
^Coedes, G. (1968)The Indianized States of Southeast Asia Edited by Walter F. Vella. Translated by Susan Brown Cowing. Canberra: Australian National University Press. Introduction...The geographic area here calledFarther India consists of Indonesia, or island Southeast Asia....
^Early History of India, p. 339, Dr V.A. Smith; See alsoEarly Empire of Central Asia (1939), W.M. McGovern.
^Ancient India, 2003, p. 650, Dr V.D. Mahajan;History and Culture of Indian People, The Age of Imperial Kanauj, p. 50, DrR.C. Majumdar, Dr A.D. Pusalkar.
^Gopal, Madan (1990). K.S. Gautam (ed.).India through the ages. Publication Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India. p. 173.
^The precise number varies according to whether or not some barely started excavations, such as cave 15A, are counted.The ASI say "In all, total 30 excavations were hewn out of rock which also include an unfinished one", UNESCO and Spink "about 30". The controversies over the end date of excavation is covered below.
^Tej Ram Sharma, 1978, "Personal and geographical names in the Gupta inscriptions. (1.publ.)", p. 254, Kamarupa consisted of the Western districts of the Brahmaputra valley which being the most powerful state.
^Suresh Kant Sharma, Usha Sharma – 2005, "Discovery of North-East India: Geography, History, Culture, ... – Volume 3", p. 248, Davaka (Nowgong) and Kamarupa as separate and submissive friendly kingdoms.
^The eastern border of Kamarupa is given by the temple of the goddess Tamreshvari (Pūrvāte Kāmarūpasya devī Dikkaravasini inKalika Purana) near present-day Sadiya. "...the temple of the goddess Tameshwari (Dikkaravasini) is now located at modern Sadiya about 100 miles to the northeast of Sibsagar" (Sircar 1990, pp. 63–68).
^Barpujari, H.K., ed. (1990).The Comprehensive History of Assam (1st ed.). Guwahati, India: Assam Publication Board.OCLC499315420.
^Sarkar, J.N. (1992), "Chapter II The Turko-Afghan Invasions", in Barpujari, H.K.,The Comprehensive History of Assam, 2, Guwahati: Assam Publication Board, pp. 35–48
^Hall, John Whitney, ed. (2005) [1988]. "India".History of the World: Earliest Times to the Present Day. John Grayson Kirk. North Dighton, MA: World Publications Group. p. 246.ISBN978-1-57215-421-6.
^Sanderson, Alexis (2009). "The Śaiva Age: The Rise and Dominance of Śaivism during the Early Medieval Period". In Einoo, Shingo (ed.).Genesis and Development of Tantrism. Institute of Oriental Culture Special Series. Vol. 23. Tokyo: Institute of Oriental Culture, University of Tokyo. pp. 41–43.ISBN978-4-7963-0188-6.
^Sheridan, Daniel P. "Kumarila Bhatta", inGreat Thinkers of the Eastern World, ed. Ian McGready, New York: HarperCollins, 1995, pp. 198–201.ISBN0-06-270085-5.
^abThe Dancing Girl: A History of Early India by Balaji Sadasivan p. 129
^Pollock, Sheldon (2006).The Language of the Gods in the World of Men: Sanskrit, Culture, and Power in Premodern India. University of California Press. pp. 241–242.ISBN978-0-520-93202-9.
^Puttaswamy, T.K. (2012). "Mahavira".Mathematical Achievements of Pre-modern Indian Mathematicians. London: Elsevier Publications. p. 231.ISBN978-0-12-397913-1.
^Keay 2000, p. 215: The Cholas were in fact the most successful dynasty since the Guptas ... The classic expansion of Chola power began anew with the accession of Rajaraja I in 985.
^The success was probably also due to the peaceful nature of Muhammad II Bahmani, according toSastri 1955, p. 242
^From the notes of Portuguese Nuniz. Robert Sewell notes that a big dam across was built the Tungabhadra and an aqueduct 15 miles (24 km) long was cut out of rock (Sastri 1955, p. 243).
^Bowman, John Stewart, ed. (2000).Columbia Chronologies of Asian History and Culture. Columbia University Press. p. 271.ISBN0-231-11004-9.
^From the notes of Persian Abdur Razzak. Writings of Nuniz confirms that the kings of Burma paid tributes to Vijayanagara empire. (Sastri 1955, p. 245)
^From the notes of Abdur Razzak about Vijayanagara:a city like this had not been seen by the pupil of the eye nor had an ear heard of anything equal to it in the world (Hampi, A Travel Guide 2003, p. 11)
^From the notes of Duarte Barbosa. (Kamath 1980, p. 189)
^Wagoner, Phillip B. (November 1996). "Sultan among Hindu Kings: Dress, Titles, and the Islamicization of Hindu Culture at Vijayanagara".The Journal of Asian Studies.55 (4):851–880.doi:10.2307/2646526.JSTOR2646526.S2CID163090404.
^Fritz, John M.; Michell, George (2015) [First published 2011].Hampi Vijayanagara. Jaico Publishing House. p. 50.ISBN978-8 1-8495-602-3.
^Fritz, John M.; Michell, George (2015) [First published 2011].Hampi Vijayanagara. Jaico Publishing House. pp. 41, 43.ISBN978-8 1-8495-602-3.
^Wagoner, Phillip B. (2001). "Architecture and Royal Authority under the Early Sangamas". In Fritz, John. M.; Michell, George (eds.).New Light on Hampi: Recent Research at Vijayanagara. Marg Publications. p. 14.ISBN81-85026-53-X.
^"The austere, grandiose site of Hampi was the last capital of the last great Hindu Kingdom of Vijayanagar. Its fabulously rich princes builtDravidian temples and palaces which won the admiration of travellers between the 14th and 16th centuries. Conquered by theDeccan Muslim confederacy in 1565, the city was pillaged over a period of six months before being abandoned." From the brief descriptionUNESCO World Heritage List.
^Majumdar, R. C.; Pusalker, A. D.; Majumdar, A. K., eds. (1980) [First published 1960].The Delhi Sultanate. The History and Culture of the Indian People. Vol. VI (3rd ed.). Bombay: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. p. 367.OCLC664485.[Describing the Gajapati kings of Orissa] Kapilendra was the most powerful Hindu king of his time, and under him Orissa became an empire stretching from the lower Ganga in the north to the Kaveri in the south.
^Sarkar, J.N. (1992), "Chapter VIII Assam-Mughal Relations", in Barpujari, H.K. (ed.),The Comprehensive History of Assam, vol. 2, Guwahati: Assam Publication Board, p. 213
^Williams 2004, pp. 83–84, the other major classical Indian dances are: Bharatanatyam, Kathak, Odissi, Kathakali, Kuchipudi, Cchau, Satriya, Yaksagana and Bhagavata Mela.
^Lance Nelson (2007),An Introductory Dictionary of Theology and Religious Studies (Editors: Orlando O. Espín, James B. Nickoloff), Liturgical Press,ISBN978-0-8146-5856-7, pp. 562–563
^SS Kumar (2010),Bhakti – the Yoga of Love, LIT Verlag Münster,ISBN978-3-643-50130-1, pp. 35–36
^Parthasarathi, Prasannan (2011),Why Europe Grew Rich and Asia Did Not: Global Economic Divergence, 1600–1850, Cambridge University Press, p. 2,ISBN978-1-139-49889-0
^Hasan, Farhat (1991). "Conflict and Cooperation in Anglo-Mughal Trade Relations during the Reign of Aurangzeb".Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient.34 (4):351–360.doi:10.1163/156852091X00058.JSTOR3632456.
^Vaugn, James (September 2017). "John Company Armed: The English East India Company, the Anglo-Mughal War and Absolutist Imperialism, c. 1675–1690".Britain and the World.11 (1).
^Naravane, M.S. (2014).Battles of the Honorourable East India Company. A.P.H. Publishing Corporation. p. 63.ISBN978-81-313-0034-3.
^Singh, Gulcharan (July 1981). "Maharaja Ranjit Singh and the Principles of War".USI Journal.111 (465):184–192.
^Grewal, J.S. (1990).The Sikhs of the Punjab. The New Cambridge History of India. Vol. II.3. Cambridge University Press. pp. 101,103–104.ISBN978-0-521-26884-4.Aggrandisement which made him the master of an empire ... the British recognized Ranjit Singh as the sole sovereign ruler of the Punjab and left him free to ... oust the Afghans from Multan and Kashmir ... Peshawar was taken over ... The real strength of Ranjit Singh's army lay in its infantry and artillery ... these new wings played an increasingly decisive role ... possessed 200 guns. Horse artillery was added in the 1820s ... nearly half of his army in terms of numbers consisted of men and officers trained on European lines ... In the expansion of Ranjit Singh's dominions ... vassalage proved to be nearly as important as the westernized wings of his army.
^Suresh Chandra Ghosh (1995). "Bentinck, Macaulay and the introduction of English education in India".History of Education.24 (1):17–25.doi:10.1080/0046760950240102.
^Democracy and Hindu nationalism, Chetan Bhatt (2013)
^Harjinder Singh Dilgeer.Shiromani Akali Dal (1920–2000). Sikh University Press, Belgium, 2001.
^The History of the Indian National Congress, B. Pattabhi Sitaramayya (1935)
^Nitish Sengupta (2001).History of the Bengali-speaking People. UBS Publishers' Distributors. pp. 210–213.ISBN978-81-7476-355-6.Producing in about three quarters of a century so many creative stalwarts in literature, art, music, social and religious reform and also trading and industry ... The Bengal Renaissance can be said to have started with Raja Ram Mohan Roy (1775–1833) and ended with Rabindranath Tagore (1861–1941) ... On the whole, it remained an elitist movement restricted to Hindubhadralok (gentry) andzamindars.
^Kopf, David (December 1994). "Amiya P. Sen. Hindu Revivalism in Bengal 1872".American Historical Review (Book review).99 (5):1741–1742.doi:10.2307/2168519.JSTOR2168519.
^Albert, Sir Courtenay Peregrine.The Government of India. Clarendon Press, 1922. p. 125
^Bond, Brian (October 1963). "Amritsar 1919".History Today. Vol. 13, no. 10. pp. 666–676.
^Qasmi, Ali Usman; Robb, Megan Eaton (2017).Muslims against the Muslim League: Critiques of the Idea of Pakistan. Cambridge University Press. p. 2.ISBN978-1-108-62123-6.
^Haq, Mushir U. (1970).Muslim politics in modern India, 1857–1947. Meenakshi Prakashan. p. 114.This was also reflected in one of the resolutions of the Azad Muslim Conference, an organization which attempted to be representative of all the various nationalist Muslim parties and groups in India.
^abAhmed, Ishtiaq (27 May 2016)."The dissenters".The Friday Times.However, the book is a tribute to the role of one Muslim leader who steadfastly opposed the Partition of India: the Sindhi leader Allah Bakhsh Soomro. Allah Bakhsh belonged to a landed family. He founded the Sindh People's Party in 1934, which later came to be known as 'Ittehad' or 'Unity Party'. ... Allah Bakhsh was totally opposed to the Muslim League's demand for the creation of Pakistan through a division of India on a religious basis. Consequently, he established the Azad Muslim Conference. In its Delhi session held during April 27–30, 1940 some 1,400 delegates took part. They belonged mainly to the lower castes and working class. The famous scholar of Indian Islam, Wilfred Cantwell Smith, feels that the delegates represented a 'majority of India's Muslims'. Among those who attended the conference were representatives of many Islamic theologians and women also took part in the deliberations ... Shamsul Islam argues that the All-India Muslim League at times used intimidation and coercion to silence any opposition among Muslims to its demand for Partition. He calls such tactics of the Muslim League as a 'Reign of Terror'. He gives examples from all over India including the NWFP where the Khudai Khidmatgars remain opposed to the Partition of India.
^abSymonds, Richard (1950).The Making of Pakistan. London: Faber and Faber. p. 74.OCLC1462689.At the lowest estimate, half a million people perished and twelve millions became homeless.
^Abid, Abdul Majeed (29 December 2014)."The forgotten massacre".The Nation.On the same dates [4 and 5 March 1947], Muslim League-led mobs fell with determination and full preparations on the helpless Hindus and Sikhs scattered in the villages of Multan, Rawalpindi, Campbellpur, Jhelum and Sargodha. The murderous mobs were well supplied with arms, such as daggers, swords, spears and fire-arms. (A former civil servant mentioned in his autobiography that weapon supplies had been sent from NWFP and money was supplied by Delhi-based politicians.)
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Chauhan, Partha R. (2010)."The Indian Subcontinent and 'Out of Africa 1'". In Fleagle, John G.; Shea, John J.; Grine, Frederick E.; Baden, Andrea L.; Leakey, Richard E. (eds.).Out of Africa I: The First Hominin Colonization of Eurasia. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 145–164.ISBN978-90-481-9036-2.
Devereux, Stephen (2000).Famine in the twentieth century(PDF) (Technical report). IDS Working Paper. Vol. 105. Brighton: Institute of Development Studies. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 16 May 2017.
Donkin, Robin A. (2003),Between East and West: The Moluccas and the Traffic in Spices Up to the Arrival of Europeans, Diane Publishing Company,ISBN978-0-87169-248-1
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Pati, Budheswar (1996).India and the First World War. Atlantic Publishers & Distributors.ISBN81-7156-581-6.
Pochhammer, Wilhelm von (1981).India's Road to Nationhood: A Political History of the Subcontinent. Allied Publishers.ISBN978-81-7764-715-0.
Ratnagar, Shereen (2006a).Trading Encounters: From the Euphrates to the Indus in the Bronze Age (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-566603-8.
Sastri, K. A. Nilakanta (2002) [1955].A history of South India from prehistoric times to the fall of Vijayanagar. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-560686-7.
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Sircar, D C (1990), "Pragjyotisha-Kamarupa", in Barpujari, H K (ed.),The Comprehensive History of Assam, vol. I, Guwahati: Publication Board, Assam, pp. 59–78
Sumner, Ian (2001),The Indian Army, 1914–1947, Osprey Publishing,ISBN1-84176-196-6
Thapar, Romila (1977),A History of India. Volume One, Penguin Books
Bose, Mihir. "India's Missing Historians: Mihir Bose Discusses the Paradox That India, a Land of History, Has a Surprisingly Weak Tradition of Historiography",History Today 57#9 (2007) pp. 34–.onlineArchived 15 September 2011 at theWayback Machine
Kahn, Yasmin (2011). "Remembering and Forgetting: South Asia and the Second World War". In Martin Gegner; Bart Ziino (eds.).The Heritage of War. Routledge. pp. 177–193.
Jain, M. (2011). "4".The India They Saw: Foreign Accounts.Delhi: Ocean Books.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: publisher location (link)
Lal, Vinay (2003).The History of History: Politics and Scholarship in Modern India.
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