TheAmerican lion (Panthera atrox (/ˈpænθərəˈætrɒks/), with the species name meaning "savage" or "cruel", also called theNorth American lion) is anextinctpantherine cat native toNorth America during theLate Pleistocene from around 129,000 to 12,800 years ago.[2][3][4][5] Genetic evidence suggests that its closest living relative is thelion (Panthera leo), with the American lion representing an offshoot from the lineage of the largely Eurasiancave lion (Panthera spelaea), from which it is suggested to have split around 165,000 years ago. Itsfossils have been found across North America, from Canada to Mexico.[6][7] It was about 25% larger than the modern lion, making it one of the largest known felids to ever exist, and a dominantapex predator in North American ecosystems,[8] alongside the sabertooth catsSmilodon andHomotherium.[9] It has been suggested, like modern lions, they were social animals, although this is not known for sure.[10][11]
The American lion became extinct as part of theend-Pleistocene extinction event along with most other large animals across the Americas. The extinctions followedhuman arrival in the Americas. Proposed factors in its extinction include climatic change reducing viable habitat,[12] as well as human hunting of herbivore prey causing atrophic cascade.[9]
The first specimen now assigned toPanthera atrox was collected in the 1830s by William Henry Huntington, Esq., who announced his discovery to theAmerican Philosophical Society on April 1, 1836 and placed it with other fossils from Huntington's collection in theAcademy of Natural Sciences inPhiladelphia.[1] The specimen had been collected in ravines inNatchez, Mississippi that were dated to thePleistocene; the specimen consisted only of a partial left mandible with 3 molars and a partial canine.[1] The fossils did not get a proper description until 1853 whenJoseph Leidy named the fragmentary specimen (ANSP 12546)Felis atrox ("savage cat").[1] Leidy named another species in 1873,Felis imperialis, based on a mandible fragment from Pleistocene gravels inLivermore Valley, California.F. imperialis however is considered a junior synonym ofPanthera atrox.[7] A replica of the jaw of the first American lion specimen to be discovered can be seen in the hand of a statue of famous paleontologist Joseph Leidy, currently standing outside theAcademy of Natural Sciences inPhiladelphia.
Few additional discoveries came until 1907, when theAmerican Museum of Natural History andCollege, Alaska collected severalPanthera atrox skulls in a locality originally found in 1803 by gold miners inKotzebue, Alaska.[13] The skulls were referred to a new subspecies ofFelis (Panthera)atrox in 1930,Felis atrox "alaskensis". Despite this, the species did not get a proper description and is now seen as anomen nudum synonymous withPanthera atrox.[7] Further south inRancho La Brea, California, a large felid skull was excavated and later described in 1909 byJohn C. Merriam, who referred it to a new subspecies ofFelis atrox,Felis atrox bebbi.[14][13] The subspecies is synonymous withPanthera atrox.[7]
Throughout the early to mid 1900s, dozens of fossils ofPanthera atrox were excavated at La Brea, including many postcranial elements and associated skeletons.[14] The fossils were described by Merriam & Stock in detail in 1932, who synonymized many previously named taxa withFelis atrox.[13] At least 80 individuals are known from La Brea Tar Pits and the fossils define the subspecies, giving a comprehensive view of the taxon.[14] It was not until 1941 that George Simpson movedFelis atrox toPanthera, believing that it was a subspecies ofjaguar.[13] Simpson also referred several fossils from central Mexico,[15] even as far south asChiapas, as well asNebraska and other regions of the western US, toP. atrox.[13] 1971 witnessed the description of fragmentary remains from Alberta, Canada that extendedP. atrox's range north.[16][15] In 2009, an entrapment site atNatural Trap Cave, Wyoming was briefly described and is the second most productivePanthera atrox-bearing fossil site. It most importantly contains well-preserved mitochondrial DNA of many partial skeletons.
Panthera onca mesembrina and possible South American material
In the 1890s in the "Cueva del Milodon" in southern Chile, fossil collector Rodolfo Hauthal collected a fragmentary postcranial skeleton of a large felid that he sent toSantiago Roth. Roth described them as a new genus and species of felid, "Iemish listai" in 1899. However, the name is considered anomen nudum. In 1904, Roth reassessed the phylogenetic affinities of "Iemish" and named itFelis listai and referred several cranial and fragmentary postcranial elements to the taxon. Notably, several mandibles, a partial skull, and pieces of skin were some of the specimens referred. In 1934,Felis onca mesembrina was named byAngel Cabrera based on that partial skull from "Cueva del Milodon" and the other material from the site was referred to it. The skull (MLP 10-90) was lost, and was only illustrated by Cabrera.[17]
Further material, including feces and mandibles, was referred to asF. onca mesembrina fromTierra del Fuego, Argentina and other southern sites in Chile.[18]
In 2016, the subspecies was referred toPanthera onca in a genetic study, which supported its identity as a subspecies of jaguar.[19] Later in 2017, one study synoymisedP. onca mesembrina withPanthera atrox based on morphological similarities,[17] though this does not have broad acceptance.[20]
The American lion was initially considered a distinctspecies ofPantherinae, and designated asPanthera atrox, which means "cruel" or "fearsome panther" inLatin.[citation needed] Somepaleontologists accepted this view, but others considered it to be a type of lion closely related to the modern lion (Pantheraleo) and its extinct relative, the Eurasian cave lion (Panthera leo spelaea orP. spelaea). It was later assigned as a subspecies ofP. leo (P. leo atrox) rather than as a separate species.[3] Most recently, bothspelaea andatrox have been treated as full species.[4]
Cladistic studies usingmorphological characteristics have been unable to resolve thephylogenetic position of the American lion. One study considered the American lion, along with the cave lion, to be most closely related to thetiger (Panthera tigris), citing a comparison of theskull; the braincase, in particular, appears to be especially similar to the braincase of a tiger.[21] Another study suggested that the American lion and the Eurasian cave lion were successive offshoots of a lineage leading to aclade which includes modernleopards and lions.[22] A more recent study comparing the skull and jaw of the American lion with other pantherines concluded that it was not a lion but a distinct species. It was proposed that it arose from pantherines that migrated to North America during the mid-Pleistocene and gave rise to American lions andjaguars (Panthera onca).[3] Another study grouped the American lion withP. leo andP. tigris, and ascribed morphological similarities toP. onca toconvergent evolution, rather thanphylogenetic affinity.[23]
Mitochondrial DNA sequence data from fossil remains suggests that the American lion (P. atrox) represents a sister lineage to Late Pleistocene populations of theEurasian cave lion (P. spelaea), and likely arose when an early cave lion population became isolated south of theNorth American continental ice sheet. While initial studies suggested that the divergence between American and Eurasian cave lions took place around 340,000 years ago,[24] later studies suggested that the split took place considerably later, around 165,000 years ago, consistent with the earliest appearance of cave lions in easternBeringia (now Alaska) during theIllinoian (190-130,000 years ago).[25]
Genetic studies indicate that the livinglion is the closest living relative ofP. atrox andP. spelaea.[24] Genome-wide sequencing of modern lions and Eurasian cave lions suggests that thelineage of the cave lion and American liondiverged from that of the modern lion around 500,000 years ago.[26]
Description
Reconstruction
The American lion is estimated to have measured 1.6 to 2.5 m (5 ft 3 in to 8 ft 2 in) from the tip of the nose to the base of the tail and stood 1.2 m (3.9 ft) at the shoulder.[27]Panthera atrox was sexually dimorphic, with an approximate range of between 235kg to 523 kg (518lbs-1153lbs) in males and 175kg to 365 kg (385lbs-805lbs) for females.[28] A separate study found American lions were more sexually dimorphic than modern lions in terms of size: American lion males being 1.4 times larger than females, compared to modern male lions being 1.26 times larger.[10] In 2008, the American lion was estimated to weigh up to 420 kg (930 lb).[29][30] A study in 2009 showed an average weight of 256 kg (564 lb) for males and 351 kg (774 lb) for the largest specimen analyzed.[3]
Panthera atrox had limb bones more robust than those of an African lion, and comparable in robustness to the bones of a brown bear; also its limbs were 10% longer than extant African lion in relation to skull length.[31][10] About 80 American lion individuals have been recovered from theLa Brea Tar Pits inLos Angeles, so theirmorphology is well known.[32] Their features strongly resemble those of modern lions, but they were considerably larger, similar toP. spelaea and the Pleistocene Natodomeri lion of eastern Africa.[33]
Preserved skin remains found with skeletal material considered by some to belong to the American lion found in caves in Patagonia is reddish in colour, though the attribution of PatagonianPanthera remains toP. atrox is highly controversial and not accepted by many authors.[18] Preserved fur of the closely relatedP. spelaea found in Siberia is yellowish in colour,[34] with cave art of EuropeanP. spelaea indicating that males lacked substantial manes unlike modern lions.[35] These characteristics may also apply toP. atrox.
Distribution
The earliest lions known in the Americas south ofAlaska are from theSangamonian Stage (equivalent to the globalLast Interglacial ~130-115,000 years ago) during which American lions rapidly dispersed across North America, with their distribution ultimately ranging from Canada to southern Mexico and from California to the Atlantic coast.[15][36][37][38][39][40][41] It was generally not found in the same areas as the jaguar, which favored forests over open habitats.[27] It was absent fromeastern Canada and thenortheastern United States, perhaps due to the presence of denseboreal forests in the region.[42][43] Farther south, fossilised remains of the American lion have been discovered in Extinction Cave,Belize.[44] Fossils of the American lion have also been unearthed in Peru.[45] The American lion was formerly believed to have colonized northwesternSouth America as part of theGreat American Interchange.[46] However, the fossil remains found in the tar pits ofTalara,Peru actually belong to an unusually large jaguar.[47][48][49] On the other hand, fossils of a large felid from late Pleistocene localities in southernChile andArgentina traditionally identified as an extinct subspecies of jaguar,Panthera onca mesembrina, have been considered by some authors actually represent remains of the American lion, though this interpretation is highly controversial, with many authors favouring a jaguar attribution for these remains.[17]
The American lion is believed to have inhabitedsavannas andgrasslands like the modern lion.[8] Isotopic analysis suggests that American lions also inhabited forests and areas with sparse tree coverings, suggesting this species lived in a wide variety of environments.[50]
Paleobiology
Predatory behavior
American lions likely preyed ondeer,horses,camels,tapirs,American bison,mammoths, and other largeungulates (hoofed mammals).[3][43] Paired nitrogen and carbon isotopic evidence fromNatural Trap Cave inWyoming reveals that the extantpronghorn was an important food source for American lions, which probably hunted them regularly, although probably also could be due tokleptoparasitism from the kills ofMiracinonyx (sometimes called the "American cheetah").[51] InSan Luis Potosí, American lions preyed on C4 mixed feeders such as bisons, proghorns, horses and mammoths.[50] At La Brea tar pits, recent isotopic analysis suggests that American lions preferred forested-dwelling prey much like the contemporaryS. fatalis.[52]
Analyses of dental microwear suggest that the American lion actively avoided bone just like the modern cheetah (more so thanSmilodon).Panthera atrox has the highest proportion of canine breakage in La Brea, suggesting a consistent preference for larger prey than contemporary carnivores. Dental microwear additionally suggests that carcass utilization slightly declined over time (~30,000 BP to 11,000 radiocarbon BP) inPanthera atrox.[28] The fragment of a femur from agray wolf from the La Brea Tar Pits shows evidence of a violent bite which possibly amputated the leg. Researchers believe thatPanthera atrox is a prime candidate for the injury, due to its bite force and bone shearing ability.[53] Based on skull width, it is estimated that a 347 kilogram American lion would have a bite force of 2,830 newtons.[54]
Whether American lion were gregarious like modern lions or lived solitary lives like tigers is unknown. American lions likely descended fromPanthera spelaea, which was possibly a solitary animal, based on fossil evidence and several isotopic studies.[55][56][57][58] Whether this would apply to American lion is unclear. However, in their 2009 study, Christiansen and Harris suggested American lions were in fact not part of the lion lineage and were solitary.[59]
Yamaguchi et al. argues for gregariousness in American lions because of their similar sexual dimorphism seen in modern lions.[60] However, Van Valkenburgh and Sacco, in their 2002 paper, warned that high levels of sexual dimorphism is not a reliable way to determine group behavior.[61]
Some scientists suggested if American lions were gregarious, they likely had a larger brain to body mass than to solitary predators found at the La Brea Tar Pits.[62] However, studies have shown there is no correlation in brain size to sociality in big cats.[63] The remains of American lions are not as abundant as those of other predators likeSmilodon fatalis ordire wolves (Aenocyon dirus) at the La Brea Tar Pits. This may suggests that they were better at evading entrapment, possibly due to greater intelligence.[8][62] But considering the abundance of the seemingly intelligent dire wolf at the tar pits calls this hypothesis into question.[64]
Despite its rarity, the high ratio of juveniles to adults recovered at the tar pits would suggest possible gregariousness inPanthera atrox. But its rarity in the tar pits would suggest that it was possibly more solitary thanSmilodon andAenocyon or was gregarious but lived in low densities similar toAfrican wild dogs.[65] Wheeler and Jefferson suggest American lions probably lived in prides like modern lions due to the large amounts of young males at dispersal age and the low number of young females found at the tar pits. They argued that female American lions were less likely to end up in the tar pits because they were more likely to remain in their natural prides in the youngest pits between 14 and 11 kya. However, the authors of the paper admit the small sample size of remains prior to 14 kya does not support or refute evidence of forming prides.[10]
Like their modern relatives, based on the nature of their hyoid bones, they may have been capable of roaring.[66]
The American lion went extinct as part of theend-Pleistocene extinctions around 13-12,000 years ago, approximately simultaneously with most large (megafaunal) mammals across the Americas.[67] The most recent fossil, fromEdmonton, Canada, dates to ~12,877calibrated yearsBefore Present,[68][5] and is 400 years younger than the youngestcave lion in Alaska.[5] These extinctions post-datehuman arrival to the Americas. The causes of the extinctions have been long the subject of controversy, with most authors positing climate change, humans or some combination of the two as the causes of the extinctions.[67] A 2017 study suggested that the viable habitat for the American lion in North America had been greatly reduced over the course of the Last Glacial Period, which would have made it more vulnerable to extinction.[12] Other authors have suggested that the extinction of the American lion and other competing carnivores like dire wolves, and the sabertooth catsSmilodon andHomotherium may have been due totrophic cascade effects caused byPaleoindian hunting of herbivores. These authors suggested that the herbivores already probably existed at low population numbers prior to Paleoindian arrival due to their abundance being limited by predators, rather than being at thecarrying capacity of the ecosystem based on food resources. Due to humans having a more flexible omnivorous diet they may have been less subject to competition with other apex predators, allowing their population numbers to increase even as the number of herbivores declined.[9]
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^Harington, C. R. (1969). "Pleistocene remains of the lion-like cat (Panthera atrox) from the Yukon Territory and northern Alaska".Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences.6 (5):1277–1288.Bibcode:1969CaJES...6.1277H.doi:10.1139/e69-127.
^abcdeChristiansen, P.; Harris, J. M. (2009). "Craniomandibular morphology and phylogenetic affinities ofPanthera atrox: implications for the evolution and paleobiology of the lion lineage".Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology.29 (3):934–945.Bibcode:2009JVPal..29..934C.doi:10.1671/039.029.0314.S2CID85975640.
^abcdMontellano-Ballesteros, M.; Carbot-Chanona, G. (2009). "Panthera leo atrox (Mammalia: Carnivora: Felidae) in Chiapas, Mexico".The Southwestern Naturalist.54 (2):217–223.doi:10.1894/CLG-20.1.S2CID85346247.
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^Chernova, O. F.; Kirillova, I. V.; Shapiro, B.; Shidlovskiy, F. K.; Soares, A. E. R.; Levchenko, V. A.; Bertuch, F. (2016). "Morphological and genetic identification and isotopic study of the hair of a cave lion (Panthera spelaea Goldfuss, 1810) from the Malyi Anyui River (Chukotka, Russia)".Quaternary Science Reviews.142:61–73.Bibcode:2016QSRv..142...61C.doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2016.04.018.
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^Yamaguchi, N.; Cooper, A.; Werdelin, L.; MacDonald, D. W. (2004). "Evolution of the mane and group-living in the lion (Panthera leo): A review".Journal of Zoology.263 (4): 329.doi:10.1017/S0952836904005242.
^abPérez-Crespo, Víctor Adrián; Arroyo-Cabrales, Joaquín; Morales-Puente, Pedro; Cienfuegos-Alvarado, Edith; Otero, Francisco J. (March 2018). "Diet and habitat of mesomammals and megamammals from Cedral, San Luis Potosí, México".Geological Magazine.155 (3):674–684.Bibcode:2018GeoM..155..674P.doi:10.1017/S0016756816000935.S2CID132502543.
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