Alsace–Lorraine (German:Elsaß–Lothringen), officially theImperial Territory of Alsace–Lorraine (German:Reichsland Elsaß–Lothringen), was a territory of theGerman Empire, located in modern-day France. It was established in 1871 by the German Empire after it had occupied the region during theFranco-Prussian War. The region was officially ceded to the German Empire in theTreaty of Frankfurt.[2]French resentment about the loss of the territory was one of the contributing factors toWorld War I. Alsace–Lorraine was formally ceded back to France in 1920 as part of theTreaty of Versailles following Germany's defeat in the war, but already annexed in practice at the war's end in 1918.[3]
The territory encompassed almost all of Alsace (93%) and over a quarter of Lorraine (26%), while the rest of these regions remained parts of France. For historical reasons, specific legal dispositions are still applied in the territory in the form of a "local law in Alsace–Moselle". Due to its special legal status since reversion to France, the territory has been referred to administratively asAlsace–Moselle. (Alsatian:'s Elsàss–Mosel;German:Elsaß–Mosel orElsass–Mosel).[a]
Alsace–Lorraine had a land area of 14,496 km2 (5,597 sq mi). Its capital wasStraßburg. It was divided into three districts (Bezirke in German):
Oberelsaß (Upper Alsace), whose capital wasKolmar, had a land area of 3,525 km2 (1,361 sq mi) and corresponds precisely to the currentdepartment ofHaut-Rhin
Unterelsaß, (Lower Alsace), whose capital wasStrassburg, had a land area of 4,755 km2 (1,836 sq mi) and corresponds precisely to the current department ofBas-Rhin
Bezirk Lothringen, (Lorraine), whose capital wasMetz, had a land area of 6,216 km2 (2,400 sq mi) and corresponded precisely to the current department ofMoselle
The modern history of Alsace–Lorraine was primarily influenced by the rivalry betweenFrench andGerman nationalism.
France long sought to attain and then preserve what it considered to be its"natural boundaries", which is regarded as thePyrenees to the southwest, theAlps to the southeast, and theRhine to the northeast. These strategic claims led to annexing territories west of the Rhine in theHoly Roman Empire. What is now known as Alsace was progressively conquered by France underLouis XIII andLouis XIV in the 17th century, while Lorraine was incorporated from the 16th century underHenry II to the 18th century underLouis XV[4] (in the case of theThree Bishoprics, as early as 1552). These border changes at the time meant more or less that one ruler (the local princes and city governments, with some remaining power of theHoly Roman Emperor) was exchanged for another (the King of France).
German nationalism, on the other hand, which in its 19th century form originated as a reaction against theFrench occupation of large areas of Germany underNapoleon, sought to unify all theGerman-speaking populations of the formerHoly Roman Empire into a singlenation-state. As variousGerman dialects were spoken by most of the population of Alsace andMoselle (northern Lorraine), these regions were viewed by German nationalists to be rightfully part of a hoped-for united Germany in the future, despite what the French parts of their population wanted.
We Germans who know Germany and France, know better what suits the Alsatians than the unfortunates themselves. In the perversion of their French life, they have no exact idea of what concerns Germany.
In 1871, the newly created German Empire's demand for Alsace from France after its victory in theFranco-Prussian War was not simply a punitive measure. The transfer was controversial even among the Germans: TheGerman chancellor,Otto von Bismarck, was initially opposed to it, as he thought (correctly) that it would engender permanent French hostility toward Germany.[7] Some German industrialists did not want the competition from Alsatian industries, such as the cloth makers who would be exposed to competition from the sizeable industry in Mulhouse.Karl Marx also warned his fellow Germans:
"If Alsace and Lorraine are taken, then France will later make war on Germany in conjunction with Russia. It is unnecessary to go into the unholy consequences."[8]
Bismarck and the South German industrialists proposed to have Alsace ceded to Switzerland, while Switzerland would compensate Germany with another territory. The Swiss rejected the proposal, preferring to remain neutral between the French and Germans.[9]
TheGerman Emperor,Wilhelm I, eventually sided with army commanderHelmuth von Moltke, other Prussian generals and other officials who argued that a westward shift in the French border was necessary for strategic military and ethnographic reasons. From a linguistic perspective, the transfer involved people who for the most part spokeAlemannic German dialects. At the time, ethnic identity was often based primarily on language, unlike today's more multifaceted approach focusing on self-identification. From a military perspective, by early 1870s standards, shifting the frontier away from theRhine would give the Germans a strategic buffer against feared future French attacks. Due to the annexation, the Germans gained control of the fortifications ofMetz andStrasbourg (Strassburg) on the left bank of the Rhine and most of the iron resources of Lorraine.
The possibility of granting Alsace–Lorraine the status of a constituent state of the German Empire with its own sovereign and constitution was not considered, in part because Prussia was convinced that the population of the territory would first have to be Germanized, i.e., accustomed to the new German-Prussian form of government. The Imperial Territory (Reichsland) created on 28 June 1871 was therefore treated initially as an occupied territory and administered directly[10] by animperial governor (Oberpräsident) appointed by Wilhelm I. Although it was not technically part of theKingdom of Prussia, in practical terms, it amounted to the same thing since the emperor was also king of Prussia and the chancellor itsminister-president.
Memory of theNapoleonic Wars was still fresh in the 1870s. Wilhelm I himself had had to flee with the Prussian royal family toEast Prussia as a nine-year-old in 1806 and had served in theBattle of Waterloo. Until the Franco-Prussian War, the French had maintained a long-standing desire to establish their entire eastern frontier on the Rhine. Thus, most 19th-century Germans viewed them as aggressive and acquisitive people. In the years before 1870, the Germans feared the French more than the French feared the Germans.[verification needed] Many Germans at the time thought that the unification of Germany as the new Empire would in itself be enough to earnpermanent French enmity and thus desired a defensible border with their long-standing enemy. Any additional hostility earned from territorial concessions was downplayed as marginal and insignificant in the scheme.
The annexed area consisted of the northern part of Lorraine andAlsace.
The area around the town ofBelfort (now the FrenchTerritoire de Belfort) was not annexed. The town's heroic defence led byColonel Denfert-Rochereau, who surrendered only after receiving orders from Paris, allowed PresidentAdolphe Thiers to negotiate retention of the Belfort region.[11]
The town ofMontbéliard and its surrounding area to the south of Belfort, which have been part of theDoubs department since 1816 and therefore were not considered part of Alsace, were not included, even though they had been a Protestant enclave (County of Montbéliard) belonging toWürttemberg from 1397 to 1796.
This area corresponded to the present Frenchdépartements ofBas-Rhin (in its entirety),Haut-Rhin (except the area of Belfort and Montbéliard), and a small northeast section of theVosges département, all of which made upAlsace, and most of thedépartements ofMoselle (four-fifths of Moselle) and the northeast ofMeurthe (one-third of Meurthe), which were the eastern part ofLorraine.
The remaining two-thirds of thedépartement of Meurthe and the westernmost one-fifth ofMoselle, which had escaped German annexation, were joined to form the new Frenchdépartement ofMeurthe-et-Moselle.
The new border between France and Germany mainly followed the geo-linguistic divide between French and German dialects, except in a few valleys of the Alsatian side of theVosges mountains, the city ofMetz and its region and in the area ofChâteau-Salins (formerly in the Meurthedépartement), which were annexed by Germany although most people there spoke French.[c] In 1900, 11.6% of the population of Alsace–Lorraine spoke French as their first language (11.0% in 1905, 10.9% in 1910).
That small francophone areas were affected was used in France to denounce the new border, since Germany had justified the annexation on linguistic grounds. The German administration was tolerant of the use of the French language (in sharp contrast to the use of the Polish language in theProvince of Posen), and French was permitted as an official language and school language in those areas where it was spoken by a majority. This changed in 1914 with theFirst World War.
Alsace-Lorraine as general governement (1870) and as Reichsland (1871–1918): place names, administrative boundaries, borderlines of German dialects and linguistic development up to 1905.
Under the provisions of theTreaty of Frankfurt, the inhabitants of the annexed areas received Alsace–Lorraine citizenship unless they had migrated directly from France. Until 1 October 1872, they had the option of retaining French citizenship. A total of 160,878 people, or about 10.4% of the total population, took the option. The proportion was particularly high in Upper Alsace, where 93,109 people (20.3%) declared that they wished to retain French citizenship, and much lower in Lower Alsace (6.5%) and Lorraine (5.8%).[12]
Originally it was envisaged that those who chose French citizenship would have to leave Alsace–Lorraine. They were allowed to either take their property with them or sell it. Ultimately only about 50,000 people left for France, corresponding to 3.2% of the population of Alsace–Lorraine. The approximately 110,000 optants who had not emigrated by 1 October 1872 lost their option of French citizenship, although they were not expelled by the German authorities but retained German citizenship. Some estimates of the total number of optants, however, are as high as 280,000, with the number who left for France set at about 130,000.[13]
After the Franco-Prussian War, Alsace–Lorraine was directly annexed to the German Empire as an imperial territory and was not a state in its own right. It was not until the decree of Emperor Wilhelm I on 29 October 1874[14] that a popular representation was established, the Territorial Committee (Landesausschuss). The members of the Territorial Committee were not elected by the people but appointed by the district assemblies (Bezirkstagen). The three district assemblies for Lorraine, Upper Alsace and Lower Alsace each appointed ten members. In 1879 the Territorial Committee was enlarged to 58 members who were indirectly elected by the district assemblies (Lorraine 11, Upper Alsace 10, Lower Alsace 13), the autonomous cities (1 member each from Strassburg, Mülhausen, Metz and Colmar) and the counties (20 members).[15] Initially the Territorial Committee had only an advisory function. In 1877 it was granted a legislative function and the right to create a budget. From 1879 it was allowed to initiate legislation, although theBundesrat in Berlin had to approve the laws before they were formally enacted by the emperor.[16] Also in 1879, the office ofimperial governor in Alsace–Lorraine (Reichsstatthalter) was introduced. He represented the Imperial Territory on behalf of the emperor. The state secretary of the Imperial Office for Alsace–Lorraine headed the government of the Territory.
On 22 June 1877, Eduard von Moeller, the first governor of Alsace–Lorraine, decreed that 90 place names in the district of Lorraine were to be changed from their French to the German forms.[17]
When the constitution of the Imperial Territory of Alsace–Lorraine of 31 May 1911[18] was enacted, a directly elected state parliament (Landtag) replaced the Territorial Committee. Alsace–Lorraine was granted its own constitution, a freely elected parliament and three representatives in the Bundesrat, the German federal council. Since the Bundesrat represented the interests of the states in Berlin, the members from each state were required to vote as a bloc. In Alsace–Lorraine, the governor determined how its three representatives voted. The votes were not counted if they gave an otherwise defeated Prussian motion a majority.[19]
The introduction of an upper house in parliament was criticized across party lines in Alsace–Lorraine. While upper houses had historical reasons in the other parts of Germany, there was no noble class in Alsace–Lorraine to be integrated in an upper house. It was thus a purely honorary body. The emperor's right to appoint members was particularly criticised.[20]
The upper house was composed of representatives of the major religious communities (Catholics, Lutherans, Protestant Reformed and Jews), the chambers of agriculture and commerce, the trade unions, the judiciary, the cities of Strassburg, Metz, Mülhausen and Colmar, and the University of Strassburg. There were also 18 members appointed by the emperor at the recommendation of the Bundesrat.
The lower house consisted of 60 deputies who were elected for a term of three years by majority vote in the 60 electoral districts. It was called the "People's Parliament" (Volksparlament) in distinction to the upper house, which consisted of notables. The minimum age for eligibility was 25. Male citizens aged 25 and over had the right to vote.
For the late nineteenth century, the constitution was both conservative in defining the first chamber and progressive in the universal and equal manhood suffrage for electing the second chamber. The representation of trade unions in the first chamber was also remarkable since they were not yet legally recognized as workers' representatives. The first and only elections to the parliament of the Imperial Territory took place on 22 and 29 October 1911. The strongest parties were the Alsatian Centre and theSocial Democrats with 31.0% and 23.8% of the vote respectively, followed by the Lorraine Autonomists with 16.3%.
In 1874, Alsace–Lorraine was granted 15 seats in theGerman Reichstag. Between 6 and 10 of the 15 Alsatian–Lorraine deputies elected in each of the Reichstag elections from 1874 through 1887 were counted as "Protest Deputies" because of their opposition to the annexation. Shortly after the1874 election, the Protesters introduced a French-language motion in the Reichstag requesting that a plebiscite be held on the Imperial Territory's state affiliation: "May it please the Reichstag to decide that the population of Alsace–Lorraine, which has been incorporated into the German Empire by the Treaty of Frankfurt without having been consulted, be called upon to express its opinion on this annexation."[21] The motion was rejected by a large majority in the Reichstag. The population was also not asked for its opinion on state affiliation in 1918 when it returned to France.
Statue in the Place Maginot inNancy that personifies the loss of Alsace as the separation of a mother and daughter
The Protesters rejected both cooperation with the German authorities and constructive political work in the Reichstag. They did not attend its sessions after their election (some Lorraine deputies were not able to do so because of their lack of command of German). There were also people in political life who, for various motives, pleaded for an "attitude of reason". The so-called Autonomists were more or less either pro-German or pro-French and strove for a local autonomy of the Imperial Territory that was as far-reaching as possible.[22]
The Protestant minority population voted predominantly for the Autonomists from the1877 Reichstag election onwards. Over time, however, the population of Alsace–Lorraine turned more and more to the German parties, such as Catholics to theCentre Party, the Protestant bourgeoisie to the Liberals and Conservatives, and the emerging working class to the Social Democrats. The Protesters no longer played a significant role after the election of 1890.[22]
The majority of Alsace–Lorraine's inhabitants were sceptical of the German Empire during the first two decades and voted for regional parties (Alsace–Lorraine Protesters and Autonomists). After Chancellor Bismarck's dismissal in 1890, the party landscape loosened, and parties of the Empire (Social Democrats, Centre,National Liberals, Left Liberals and Conservatives) found more and more supporters. In the countryside and the predominantly French-speaking electoral districts of Lorraine, the Autonomists remained strong, while in the cities, especially Strassburg, they increasingly played only a subordinate role, with the Social Democrats dominating.
The election results, showing the percentage of votes and the number of seats won (in parentheses), were as follows:[23]
The flag of Alsace–Lorraine adopted by its parliament but not accepted by the national governmentThe imperial service flag used at state institutions in Alsace–Lorraine
The flag used officially in the Imperial Territory was the black-white-redflag of the German Empire. A modified imperial service flag of the Foreign Office was adopted on 29 December 1892 for use at state institutions in Alsace–Lorraine. It was the imperial tri-colour with the imperial eagle in the centre and the crowned escutcheon of Alsace–Lorraine in the upper left corner.
On 25 June 1912, the parliament of the Imperial Territory unanimously approved the proposal for a state flag consisting of the red and white striped flag of Alsace bearing a yellow Lorraine cross in the upper left corner. The decision to adopt the flag was never implemented by government authorities in Berlin. The flag was often raised privately and on semi-official occasions. It was not welcomed by German authorities and the military but was tolerated in part even in wartime. It was also used as the flag of the independentRepublic of Alsace–Lorraine of 12 November 1918 to 21 November 1918.[24][25]
Unofficially, the traditional red and white territorial flag was popular in Alsace and was often used decoratively and as a postcard motif. It was also sometimes taken as a sign of protest against the German annexation.[26]
In the decades after 1871, thefortress of Metz was expanded under German rule to become the largest fortification in the world, with a ring of outworks, some of which were located far in advance of the fortifications themselves.[27] Metz became a majority German-speaking city due to the influx of military personnel and other immigrants from the rest of Germany.[28]
When theGerman Army was formed after the foundation of the Empire, theXV Prussian Army Corps was created from existing troops. The corps' district was the new "Border Region" Alsace–Lorraine, as was that of theXVI Army Corps, which was formed in 1890. The southern regions of the Imperial Territory belonged to the districts of theXIV Army Corps, which was made up in 1871 oftroops from Baden. From 1912, the northeastern regions belonged to theXXI Army Corps.
The recruiting districts of the corps were outside Alsace–Lorraine, as was the case with the Upper and Lower Alsatian and Lorraine regiments that were established later within the corps as part of army enlargements. The corps were not always stationed in the Imperial Territory. Alsatians and Lorrainers who were called up for military service were distributed among allPrussian Army units, as were active and passivesocial democrats, who were also considered to be politically unreliable. It was not until 1903 that a quarter of Alsatian recruits were assigned on a trial basis to troops stationed in their native region.[29][30]
In 1910, 4.3% of the local population – about 80,000 men – were military personnel, which made Alsace–Lorraine the region in Germany with the highest concentration of troops.
At the end of 1913, protests broke out in the Alsatian town ofZabern, where two battalions of Prussian infantry were stationed. A young German lieutenant insulted the Alsatian population in a speech to soldiers and called for rebellious Alsatians to be stabbed. In what came to be known as theZabern Affair, the military reacted to the protests with arbitrary acts that were not covered by law. The assaults led to a Reichstag debate on the militaristic structures of German society and strained the relations between Alsace–Lorraine and the rest of Germany.[31]
The neo-Romanesque Metz railway station, built in 1908. KaiserWilhelm II instigated the construction of various buildings in Alsace–Lorraine that were to be representative of German architecture.
Planning began in 1871 for astrategic railway line from Berlin to Metz in order to integrate the new Imperial Territory militarily and strategically. The "cannon railway" was completed in the 1870s. The railways of the private French Eastern Railway Company (Compagnie desChemins de Fer de l'Est) – a total of 740 km of lines – were bought by the French state and then sold to Germany for 260 million gold marks. The purchase price was offset against the war compensation to be paid by France. TheImperial Railways in Alsace–Lorraine was the first railway owned by the German Reich.[32]
Until the First World War, the Imperial Territory experienced a great economic boom, and many new socio-political benefits such as social security and health insurance were introduced in line with developments in the rest of the German Empire.[citation needed]
In 1872, theUniversity of Strassburg was re-founded and in 1877 given the name "Emperor Wilhelm University" (afterEmperor Wilhelm I). Through generous expansion measures, it developed into one of the largest universities in the Empire. Professional training in Alsace developed as a result of stimuli from Germany. The German administration promoted the education of young Alsatian artists at German universities and academies, giving rise to the Cercle de Saint-Léonard, an artists' association that sought to combine German and Alsatian art.[33]
Religion and its role in popular attitudes to the annexation
Although the proportion of native speakers of German dialects in the new Imperial Territory was around 90%, Catholics in Alsace–Lorraine tended initially to be sceptical about the ethnographic unification with Germany, which had come about under the leadership of predominately ProtestantPrussia. While the Catholics frequently identified with the French Catholic state and feared disadvantage in Prussian hands, the local Protestants were in favour of becoming part of Germany. The Evangelical Lutheran Church professed allegiance to Germany, hoping to reduce French-influenced Catholic "paternalism". The rural population in particular supported their efforts, while quite a few critics of unification spoke out in the cities of Strassburg and Mülhausen.[34]
An 1898 American political cartoon that depicts the dispute over Alsace–Lorraine as a medieval romance
After theKulturkampf – the conflict between the state and the Catholic Church driven by ChancellorOtto von Bismarck – reached Alsace–Lorraine in 1872/73, the Catholic Church became a vehicle of resistance against the German authorities. In all of the Reichstag elections from 1874 to 1912, between three and seven of the 15 Alsace–Lorraine deputies were Catholic priests. The dispute reached a climax when, on 3 August 1873, a pastoral letter from the Bishop of Nancy-Toul calling for prayers for the reunification of Alsace–Lorraine with France was read in the Alsace–Lorraine districts of Château-Salins and Saarburg, which still belonged to his diocese.[22] The German authorities reacted with police measures, arrests and disciplinary proceedings as well as a ban on the Catholic press.
After the beginning of the 20th century, opposition to German authorities played hardly any role. There were no longer major social groups that advocated a return to France. The Protestants traditionally had a positive image of Germany, while after theDreyfus affair, the Jewish population regarded France with extreme suspicion. Catholics also turned away from France. The rise of socialism there permanently unsettled Catholic sentiments in Alsace–Lorraine. France's laicist policy from 1905 onwards (Law on the Separation of the Churches and the State) also led to alienation from France in Catholic circles. Germany had granted the region significantly more freedom, and the region's economic situation had developed positively. Especially the younger inhabitants who no longer had any contact with France saw themselves as Germans as a matter of course.[35]
Translation: "Here atGertwiller on 22 August 1914, three Alsatian farmers were shot against all justice. ... innocent victims of German barbarity. Alsatians! Remember!"
In French foreign policy, the demand for the return of Alsace and Lorraine faded in importance after 1880 with the decline of the monarchist element. WhenWorld War I broke out in 1914, recovery of the two lost provinces became the top French war goal.[36]
The increased militarization of Europe and the lack of negotiations between major powers led to harsh and rash actions taken by both sides in respect to Alsace–Lorraine duringWorld War I. As soon as war was declared, both the French and German authorities used the inhabitants of Alsace–Lorraine as propaganda pawns.[citation needed]
Germans living in France were arrested and placed into camps by French authorities. When the French army occupied certain villages, veterans of the 1870 conflict were sought out and arrested.[f]
The Germans responded to the outbreak of war with harsh measures against the Alsace–Lorraine populace.[37] The Zabern Affair had convinced the high command that the population was hostile to the German Empire and that it should be forced into submission.[citation needed] German troops occupied some homes. The German military feared that French partisans – orfrancs-tireurs, as they had been called during the Franco-Prussian War – would reappear.
German authorities developed policies aimed at reducing the influence of French. In Metz, French street names, which had been displayed in French and German, were suppressed in January 1915. Six months later, on 15 July 1915, German became the only official language in the region,[38] leading to the Germanization of the towns' names effective 2 September 1915.
Prohibiting the speaking of French in public further increased the exasperation of some of the natives, who were long accustomed to mixing their conversation with French language (seecode-switching); still, the use even of one word, as innocent as "bonjour", could incur a fine.[g] Some ethnic Germans in the region cooperated in the persecution as a way to demonstrate German patriotism.[h]
German authorities became increasingly worried about renewed French nationalism. The governor stated in February 1918: "Sympathies towards France and repulsion for Germans have penetrated to a frightening depth the petty bourgeoisie and the peasantry."[38][page needed] But in order to spare them possible confrontations with relatives in France and also to avoid any desertion of Alsatian soldiers to the French army,[39][i] German Army draftees from Alsace–Lorraine were sent mainly to the Eastern front or to the Navy (Kaiserliche Marine). About 15,000 Alsatians and Lorrainers served in the German Navy.
Metz and the Lorraine returned to France, front page ofLe Petit Journal dated 8 December 1918
In this chaotic situation, Alsace–Lorraine's state parliament proclaimed itself the supreme authority of the land with the name ofNationalrat, the Strasbourg Soviet proclaimed the foundation of aRepublic of Alsace–Lorraine, andJacques Peirotes, theSPDReichstag representative for Colmar, announced the establishment of French rule, urging Paris to send troops quickly.[40]
The soviet councils disbanded themselves with the departure of the German troops between 11 and 17 November.[41] The arrival of theFrench Army stabilized the situation: French troops put the region under military occupation and entered Strasbourg on 5 November. TheNationalrat proclaimed the annexation of Alsace to France on 5 December, but the action was not internationally recognized until theTreaty of Versailles was concluded in 1919.
France divided Alsace–Lorraine into thedépartements ofHaut-Rhin,Bas-Rhin, andMoselle (the same political structure as before the annexation and as created by the French Revolution, with slightly different limits). Even today,[when?] laws in the three regions are somewhat different from the rest of France. The specific provisions are known as thelocal law in Alsace–Moselle.
ThedépartementMeurthe-et-Moselle was maintained even after France recovered Alsace–Lorraine in 1919. The area of Belfort became a special status area and was not reintegrated intoHaut-Rhin in 1919 but instead was made a full statusdépartement in 1922 under the nameTerritoire-de-Belfort.[j]
The French government immediately started aFrancization campaign that included the forced deportation of all Germans who had settled in the area after 1870. For that purpose, the population was divided in four categories:A (French citizens before 1870),B (descendants of such French citizens),C (citizens of Allied or neutral states), andD (enemy aliens – Germans). By July 1921, 111,915 people categorized as "D" were expelled to Germany.[42][43] All place names were gallicized (e.g., Strassburg → Strasbourg, Mülhausen → Mulhouse, Schlettstadt → Sélestat, etc.).
On 1 September 1939, the dayWorld War II started, residents of Alsace and Moselle living in the Franco-German border region were evacuated. This comprised about one third of the population of Alsace and Moselle, or about 600,000 residents. The evacuation was aimed at providing space for military operations and for protecting citizens from attack. The evacuees were allowed to return in July 1940, afterFrance surrendered to Germany.[44][45]
The area then came under German occupation.Nazi laws against homosexuality were applied to Alsace–Moselle, and homosexuals were deported. The Nazis also deported refugee and residentJews.[46]
After thedefeat of France in the spring of 1940, Alsace and Moselle were not formally annexed byNazi Germany. Although the terms of the armistice specified that the integrity of the whole French territory could not be modified in any way,Adolf Hitler, the GermanFührer, drafted an annexation law in 1940 that he kept secret, expecting to announce it in the event of a German victory.[48] Through a series of laws which individually seemed minor, Berlin took de facto control of Alsace–Lorraine, and Alsatians–Lorrainians could be drafted into theGerman Army. During the occupation, Moselle was integrated into aReichsgau namedWestmark and Alsace was amalgamated withBaden. Beginning in 1942, people from Alsace and Moselle were made German citizens by decree of theNazi government.[47]: 123–124
Beginning in October 1942, young Alsatian and Lorrainian men were inducted into theGerman armed forces. Sometimes they were known as themalgré-nous, which could be translated into English as "against our will".[k][49][50] A small minority volunteered, notably the author ofThe Forgotten Soldier, known by the pseudonymGuy Sajer. Ultimately 100,000 Alsatians and 30,000 Mosellans were enrolled, many of them to fight against theSoviet Red Army, on Germany'sEastern Front. Most of those who survived the war were interned inTambov in Russia in 1945. Many othersfought in Normandy against theAllies as themalgré-nous of the2nd SS Panzer Division Das Reich, some of whom were involved in theOradour sur Glane andTulle war crimes.
Speaking French was prohibited under German occupation, and learningstandard German was obligatory.
The German-linkedAlsatian dialect remains the lingua franca of the region, although perhaps used more by older people. Both French and German are taught in the schools.[51][52]
After incorporation into theGerman Empire, 100,000 to 130,000 people left for France and French Algeria
1910
1,874,014
+0.58% population growth per year during 1875–1910
1921
1,709,749
Death of young men in the German army (1914–1918); deportation of persons considered German by the French authorities.
1936
1,915,627
+0.76% population growth per year during 1921–1936
1946
1,767,131
Death of young men in the French army in 1939–1945; death of young men in the German army in 1942–1945; death of civilians and many people still refugees in the rest of France
1975
2,523,703
+1.24% population growth per year during 1946–1975, a period of rapid population and economic growth in France known as theTrente Glorieuses
2018
2,942,057
+0.36% population growth per year during 1975–2018, a period marked bydeindustrialization, rising unemployment (particularly in Moselle), and the migration of many people from northern and north-eastern France to the milder winters and economic dynamism of the Mediterranean and Atlantic regions of France
Moselle Franconian in the central northern part of Moselle aroundBoulay-Moselle (Bolchin in the local Moselle Franconian dialect) andBouzonville (Busendroff in the local Moselle Franconian dialect).
Rhine Franconian in the north-east of Moselle aroundForbach (Fuerboch in the local Rhine Franconian dialect),Bitche (Bitsch in the local Rhine Franconian dialect), andSarrebourg (Saarbuerj in the local Rhine Franconian dialect), as well as in the north-west ofAlsace aroundSarre-Union (Buckenum in the local Rhine Franconian dialect) andLa Petite-Pierre (Lítzelstain in the local Rhine Franconian dialect).
Transitional between Central German and Upper German:
South Franconian in the northernmost part of Alsace aroundWissembourg (Waisseburch in the local South Franconian dialect).
Alsatian in the largest part of Alsace and in a few villages aroundPhalsbourg in the extreme south-east of Moselle. Alsatian was the most spoken dialect in Alsace–Lorraine.
^An instruction dated 14 August 1920 from the assistant state secretary of the Presidency of the Council to the General Commissioner of the Republic inStrasbourg reminded residents that the termAlsace–Lorraine was prohibited and had to be replaced by the phrase "thedépartement ofHaut-Rhin, the département ofBas-Rhin, and the département ofMoselle". While the phrase was considered too long for a practical name, some used the termAlsace–Moselle to indicate the three départements concerned. However, the instruction was merely a Strasbourg governmental practice; it had no status under French law since it was not based on territorial authority.
^Only the département ofMeurthe changed its name and becameMeurthe-et-Moselle after the border changed; the border between 1871 and 1918 is shown in yellow.
^For example, the entry for 26 October 1914 in Spindler's[37] journal reads:
"Then he advises me to speak no French. The streets are infested with informers, men and women who reach for rewards and make arrests of passers-by for a simple"merci" said in French. It goes without saying that these measures incite people's joker spirit. A woman at the market, who probably was unaware that"bonchour" and"merci" are French, was taken to task by a German woman, because she answered her"Guten Tag" with a"bonchour" . Then the good woman, with her fists on her hips, challenges her client :"I've had enough of your stupid yammering! Do you know what?" [something close to"Kiss my ...!" here]"Is that last bit French too?"[37][page needed]
NOTE ON TRANSLATION:The businesswoman's final remark (she was speaking in colloquialAlemannic German) was
"Jetz grad genua mit dene dauwe Plän! Wisse Sie was? Leeke Sie mich ...! Esch des am End au franzêsch?"[37][page needed]
^We can read inL'Alsace pendant la guerre[37] how the exasperation of the population gradually increased. On 29 September 1914, Spindler heard a characteristic statement:
"... the interior decorator H., who repairs the mattresses of the Ott house, said to me this morning:"If only it was the will of God that we became French again, and that these damnedSchwowebittel were thrown out of the country! And then, you know, there are chances that it happens."
It is the first time since the war I heard an ordinary man frankly expressing this wish."[37][page needed]
^One of the famous cases was the desertion of all the Alsatian soldiers from their German battalion on the eve of the Verdun offensive to warn the French army of the imminent attack.[39]
^As an artifact of its prior alignment, the name of Belfort still[when?] seen on the Colmar prefecture building is a sous-prefecture remnant.
^Fernbach, David (ed.)Marx: The First International and After, p. 178, Letter to the Brunswick committee of the Social-Democratic Workers' Party, fromMarx-Engels-Werke,Penguin Books, Harmondsworth, 1974
^Harbich, Jürgen (1965).Der Bundesstaat und seine Unantastbarkeit [The Federal State and its Inviolability] (in German). Berlin: Duncker & Humblot. p. 141.
^Huber, Ernst Rudolf (1969).Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichte seit 1789. Band IV: Struktur und Krisen des Kaiserreiches [German Constitutional History since 1789. Vol. 4: Structure and Crises of the Empire] (in German). Stuttgart: Verlag W. Kohlhammer. p. 453.
^"Bekanntmachung Nr. 142 vom 22. Juni 1877" [Announcement Nr. 142 of 22 June 1877].Amts-Blatt für den Bezirk Lothringen [Official Gazette for the District of Lorraine] (in German). Lothringer Zeitung. 1877. pp. 181–182.Archived from the original on 4 November 2023. Retrieved16 October 2023.
^Egelhaaf, Gottlob (1918).Geschichte der neuesten Zeit vom Frankfurter Frieden bis zur Gegenwart [History of Recent Times from the Peace of Frankfurt to the Present Day] (in German) (7th ed.). Stuttgart: Carl Krabbe Verlag. p. 534.
^Preibusch, Sophie Charlotte (2010).Verfassungsentwicklungen im Reichsland Elsaß–Lothringen 1871–1918: Integration durch Verfassungsrecht? [Constitutional Developments in the Reichsland Alsace–Lorraine 1871–1918: Integration through Constitutional Law?] (in German). Berlin: Berliner Wissenschafts Verlag. pp. 417 ff.ISBN978-3-8305-2047-4.
^abcHiery, Hermann (1986). "Kapitel 5: Zwischen Autonomisten und Protestlern (1874–1887)" [Chapter 5: Between Autonomists und Protesters (1874–1887)].Reichstagswahlen im Reichsland [Reichstag Elections in the Imperial Territory] (in German). Düsseldorf: Droste-Verlag. pp. Ch. 5.ISBN3-7700-5132-7.
^Schroda, Julia (2008).Nationaler Anspruch und regionale Identität im Reichsland Elsass–Lothringen im Spiegel des französischsprachigen Elsassromans (1871–1914) [National aspirations and regional identity in the Imperial Territory Alsace–Lorraine as reflected in the French-language Alsace novel (1871–1914)] (in German). Bern: Peter Lang. p. 450.
^Fisch, Stefan (2002). "Das Elsass im Deutschen Kaiserreich (1870/71–1918)" [Alsace in the German Empire (1870/71–1918)]. In Erbe, Michael (ed.).Das Elsass. Historische Landschaft im Wandel der Zeit [Alsace. Historical Landscape through the Ages] (in German). Stuttgart: Kohlhammer.ISBN978-3170157712.
^Schlesier, Stephanie (2007). Duhamelle, Christophe; Kossert, Andreas; Struck, Bernhard (eds.).Grenzregionen. Ein europäischer Vergleich vom 18. bis zum 20. Jahrhundert [Border Regions. A European Comparison from the 18th to the 20th Century] (in German). Frankfurt am Main: Campus. p. 66.ISBN978-3593384481.
^Militärgeschichtliches Forschungsamt [Military History Research Office], ed. (1983).Deutsche Militärgeschichte in sechs Bänden 1648–1938 [German Military History in Six Volumes 1648–1938] (in German). Vol. V. Munich: Bernard & Graefe Verlag. p. 27.ISBN978-3881991124.
^Militärgeschichtliches Forschungsamt [Military History Research Office], ed. (1983).Deutsche Militärgeschichte in sechs Bänden 1648–1938 [German Military History in Six Volumes 1648–1938] (in German). Vol. IV. Munich: Bernard & Graefe Verlag. p. 260.ISBN978-3881991124.
^Reusch, Nina; Scriba, Arnulf (12 October 2016)."Die Zabern-Affäre".Deutsches Historisches Museum (in German).Archived from the original on 10 February 2023. Retrieved27 September 2023.
^Trouillet, Jean-Georges (2018).Les Chemins de fer Impériaux d'Alsace–Lorraine [Reichs-Eisenbahnen in Elsass–Lothringen] (in French). Husseren-les-Châteaux: Éditions Drei Exen Verlag. p. 49.ISBN978-2-9565934-0-9.
^Stoskopf, Nicolas (2019). "Le cercle de Saint-Léonard et l'animation de la scène artistique strasbourgeoise (1895–1910)" [The Saint-Léonard Circle and the artistic scene in Strassburg (1895–1910)].La Revue de la Bibliothèque National et Univérsitaire de Strasbourg [The Review of the Strasbourg National and University Library] (in French). Vol. 19. Strasbourg: University of Strasbourg. pp. 126–133.
^Bendel, Rainer; Pech, Robert; Spannenberger, Norbert (2015).Kirche und Gruppenbildungsprozesse deutscher Minderheiten in Ostmittel- und Mitteleuropa 1918–1933 [Church and Group Formation Processes of German Minorities in East-Central and Central Europe 1918–1933] (in German). Münster: Lit Verlag. p. 63.ISBN978-3643118066.
^Ther, Philipp; Sundhaussen, Holm, eds. (2001).Nationalitätenkonflikte im 20. Jahrhundert: Ursachen von inter-ethnischer Gewalt [Nationality Conflicts in the 20th Century: Causes of Inter-ethnic Violence] (in German). Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. p. 177.ISBN978-3447044943.
^Seager, Frederic H. (1969). "The Alsace–Lorraine Question in France, 1871–1914". in Charles K. Warner, ed.,From the Ancien Régime to the Popular Front, pp. 111–126.
^abGrandhomme, Jean-Noël (2008).Boches ou tricolores. Strasbourg, FR: La nuée bleue.
^abDenizot, Alain (1996).Guerre mondiale, 1914–1918 - Campagnes et batailles. pp. 67–68.[full citation needed]
^Fortier, Jacques (16 November 2008) «La chute de l'Empire»,Dernières Nouvelles d'Alsace(Fr.)
^Grandhomme, Jean-Noël (November 2008). "Le retour de l'Alsace–Lorraine".L'Histoire (in French) (336).
^Douglas, R.M. (2012).Ordnungsgemäße Überführung - Die Vertreibung der Deutschen nach dem Zweiten Weltkrieg (in German). C.H. Beck. pp. 94 ff.ISBN978-3-406-62294-6.
^abJäckel, Eberhard (1966) « L'annexion déguisée », dansFrankreich in Hitlers Europa – Die deutsche Frankreichpolitik im Zweiten Weltkrieg, Deutsche Verlag-Anstalg GmbH, Stuttgart.
^ Jäckel (1966) § "La France dans l'Europe de Hitler"[47]: 123–124
^Schlund, Pierre (2011)Souvenirs de guerre d'un Alsacien, Éditions Mille et une vies,ISBN978-2-923692-18-0
^Durand, Paul (1945)En passant par la Lorraine; gens et choses de chez nous 1900–1945, Éditions Le Lorrain, p. 131-132
^abcRademacher, Michael (2006)."Verwaltungsgeschichte Elsaß–Lothringen 1871–1919" [Administrative History of Alsace–Lorraine 1871–1919].eirenicon: Deutsche Verwaltungsgeschichte (in German).Archived from the original on 29 October 2023. Retrieved29 September 2023.
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