The 2010ISCD study "Drug Harms in the UK: amulti-criteria decision analysis"[1] found that alcohol scored highest overall and inEconomic cost,Injury,Family adversities,Environmental damage, andCommunity harm.
Alcohol and society are closely intertwined, as it is widely consumed and legally permitted in most countries around the globe, despite its potential to lead to various issues.[2] According to a 2024World Health Organization (WHO) report, these harmful consequences of alcohol use result in 2.6 million deaths annually, accounting for 4.7% of all global deaths.[3]
Alcohol education is the planned provision of information and skills relevant to living in a world where alcohol is commonlymisused.[4] WHO Global Status Report on Alcohol and Health, highlights the fact that alcohol will be a larger problem in later years, with estimates suggesting it will be the leading cause of disability and death.[5]
In October 2024, the WHO Regional Office for Europe launched the "Redefine alcohol" campaign to address alcohol-related health risks, as alcohol causes nearly 1 in 11 deaths in the region. The campaign aims to raise awareness about alcohol's link to over 200 diseases, including several cancers, and to encourage healthier choices by sharing research and personal stories. It also calls for stricter regulation of alcohol to reduce its societal harm. This initiative is part of the WHO/EU Evidence into Action Alcohol Project, which seeks to reduce alcohol-related harm across Europe.[6]
Teetotalism is the practice of never consumingalcohol, specifically inalcoholic drinks. A person who practices (and possibly advocates) teetotalism is called a teetotaler (US) or teetotaller (UK), or said to be teetotal. Globally, in 2016, 57% of adults did not drink alcohol in the past 12 months, and 44.5% had never consumed alcohol.[7] A number oftemperance organisations have been founded in order to promote teetotalism and provide spaces for non-drinkers to socialise.[8]
Intermittent sobriety refers to planned periods of abstinence from alcohol, often as part of awareness campaigns or personal health initiatives.[9][10]
Notable examples include:
Dry January: An annual campaign encouraging people to abstain from alcohol for the month of January.
Dry July: A similar initiative held in July, often with a fundraising component for cancer-related charities.
Ocsober: An October-based challenge to abstain from alcohol.
Global per capita alcohol consumption has shown a downward trajectory since the 20th century, suggesting a shift towards prioritizing health and well-being.
Sober curiosity is often defined as having the option to question or change one's drinking habits, for mental or physical health reasons.[12] It may be practised in many ways, ranging from complete abstinence to more thought about when and how much is consumed.[13]
Since the onset of theCOVID-19 pandemic, more people in Europe have reduced their alcohol consumption.[14]
The recommended maximum intake (orsafe limits) of alcohol varies from no intake, to daily, weekly, or daily/weekly guidelines provided by health agencies of governments. The WHO published a statement inThe Lancet Public Health in April 2023 that"there is no safe amount that does not affect health".[7]
According to the U.S. Department of Agriculture, based onNHANES 2013–2014 surveys, women in the US ages 20 and up consume on average 6.8 grams/day and men consume on average 15.5 grams/day.[15] A March 2023 review found light-moderate daily drinking not significantly associated with increasedmortality rate, but higher intake raises risk, with women affected at lower levels than men.[16] However, according to a 2024systematic review andmeta-analysis, even at 20 g/day (1 large beer), the risk of developing an alcohol use disorder (AUD) is nearly 3 times higher than non-drinkers, and the risk of dying from an AUD is about 2 times higher than non-drinkers.[17]
Drinking alcohol is generally socially acceptable and is legal in most countries, unlike with many other recreational substances. Many students attending colleges, universities, and other higher education institutionsconsume alcoholic beverages. However, there are often restrictions on alcohol sale and use, for instance aminimum age for drinking and laws against public drinking and drinking and driving.[18] A 2024meta-analysis found that alcohol consumption increased on average each year, with the most significant rise occurring between the ages of 12 and 13. Drinking peaked around 22 years old, then began to decline at 24.[19]
Alcohol holds considerable societal and cultural significance, playing a role in social interactions across much of the world.Drinking establishments, such as bars andnightclubs, revolve primarily around the sale and consumption of alcoholic beverages, and parties, festivals, and social gatherings commonly involve alcohol consumption. Alcohol is related to varioussocietal problems, includingdrunk driving, accidental injuries,sexual assaults,domestic abuse, andviolent crime.[20] Alcohol remains illegal for sale and consumption ina number of countries, mainly in the Middle East.
Research on the societal benefits of alcohol is rare, but a 2017 study suggested there it was beneficial.[21] Alcohol is often used as asocial lubricant; it increases occurrences ofDuchenne smiling, talking, andsocial bonding, even when participants are unaware of their alcohol consumption or lack thereof.[22] In a study of the UK, regular drinking was correlated with happiness, feeling that life was worthwhile, and life satisfaction. According to a causalpath analysis the cause was vice versa; alcohol consumption was not the cause, but rather that thelife satisfaction resulted in greater happiness and an inclination to visit pubs and develop a regular drinking venue. City centre bars were distinguished by their focus on maximizing alcohol sales. Community pubs had less variation in visible group sizes and longer, more focused conversations than those in city centre bars. Drinking regularly at a community pub led to higher trust in others and better networking with thelocal community, compared to non-drinkers and city centre bar drinkers.[21]
United NationsSustainable Development Goal 3 is part of "The Alcohol Policy Playbook," which is a resource for reaching the goals of the WHO European Framework for Action on Alcohol (2022–2025) and the WHO Global Alcohol Action Plan (2022–2030).[23]
The Global Information System on Alcohol and Health (GISAH) is a tool developed by the WHO to collect and analyze data on alcohol consumption, related health issues, and policy responses in countries.[24]
The WHO's SAFER initiative aims to reduce alcohol-related harm through a comprehensive set of strategies. The components of the initiative are as follows:[25]
Strengthen restrictions on alcohol availability
Advance and enforce drink driving countermeasures
Facilitate access to screening, brief interventions, and treatment
Enforce bans or comprehensive restrictions on alcohol advertising, sponsorship, and promotion
Raise prices on alcohol through excise taxes and pricing policies
Research has shown that variouspsychosocial factors can influence alcohol consumption patterns throughout an individual's life.
A 2024 study from UT Southwestern Medical Center indicates that higherIQ during high school is linked to a greater likelihood of moderate or heavy drinking in midlife, with each one-point increase in IQ correlating to a 1.6% higher probability of such drinking. The study also found that this relationship is influenced by psychosocial factors, particularly income and career stress, highlighting the need for further research in diverse populations.[26][27]
A chaplain pouring sacramental wine from acruet into achalice
The relationship betweenreligion and alcohol exhibits variations across cultures, geographical areas, and religious denominations. Some religions emphasize moderation and responsible use as a means of honoring the divine gift of life, while others impose outright bans on alcohol as a means of honoring the divine gift of life. Moreover, within the same religious tradition, there are many adherents that may interpret and practice their faith's teachings on alcohol in diverse ways. Hence, a wide range of factors, such as religious affiliation, levels of religiosity, cultural traditions, family influences, and peer networks, collectively influence the dynamics of this relationship.
The levels of alcohol use in spiritual context can be broken down into:
Symbolic use: In some Christian denominations, thesacramental wine is alcoholic, however, only a sip is taken, and it does not raise theblood alcohol content, and other denominations are using nonalcoholic wine. See alsoLibation.
Discourage consumption:Hinduism does not have a central authority which is followed by all Hindus, though religious texts generally discourage the use or consumption of alcohol.
Inebriating spiritual use: See thespiritual section.
In some cultures, including those with religious traditions, consuming alcohol in moderation to celebrate joyful occasions is accepted in a non-religious,secular context.
During the Jewish holiday ofPurim, Jews are obligated to drink (especiallyKosher wine) until their judgmental abilities become impaired according to theBook of Esther.[29][30][31] However, Purim has more of a national than a religious character.
While the terms "drug" and "medicine" are sometimes used interchangeably, "drug" can have anegative connotation, often associated with illegal substances like cocaine or heroin.[32]
The termnarcotic usually refers to opiates or opioids, which are called narcotic analgesics. In common parlance and legal usage, it is often used imprecisely to mean illicit drugs, irrespective of their pharmacology.[33] However, incountries with alcohol prohibition, it is classified and treated as a narcotic. Also, research acknowledges that alcohol can have similar effects to narcotics inhead and/ortrunk trauma situations.[34] In addition to these findings, recent research indicates that among chronic pain patients on long-term opioid therapy, alcohol consumption is connected to heightened opioid cravings.[35]
Thenormalization of alcohol consumption,[36] along with past misconceptions about its health benefits, also promoted by the industry,[37] further reinforces the mistaken idea that it is not a "drug". Even within the realm of scientific inquiry, the common phrase "drugs and alcohol" persists, implying that alcohol is somehow separate from other drugs.
Criticism of the alcohol industry may note that the industry argues that "alcohol is not a drug".[38][39] Also, some religious organizations, such as the Catholic Church, requires alcoholicsacramental wine in theEucharist and do not explicitly categorize alcohol as a "drug" in the same manner as illicit substances.[40][41] This practice has been a longstanding tradition within the Church, reflecting its historical, theological significance, and normalization of alcohol use within its rituals. However, the term "Alcohol and Other Drugs", a term frequently used by public health authorities, emphasizes this inclusion by grouping alcohol with other substances that alter mood and behavior.
Paradoxically, despite being legal, alcohol, scientifically classified as a drug, has demonstrably been linked to greatersocial harm than most illegal drugs.[1][42] This contradicts the perception some hold of alcohol being a harmless substance.
Intervention alcohol warning labels (actual size 5.0 cm × 3.2 cm each). The label intervention included three rotating labels: (a) a cancer warning, (b) national drinking guidelines, and (c) standard drink information (four separate labels were developed for wine, spirits, coolers, and beer; wine example shown above)
Alcohol product labelling could be considered as a component of a comprehensivepublic health strategy to reduce alcohol-related harm. Adding health labels to alcohol containers is an important first step in raising awareness and has a longer-term utility in helping to establish a social understanding of the harmful use of alcohol.
Alcohol consumption is fully legal and available in most countries of the world.[2] Home made alcoholic beverages with low alcohol content like wine, and beer is also legal in most countries, but distillingmoonshine outside of a registered distillery remains illegal in most of them.
In addition, there are regulations on alcohol sales and use in many countries throughout the world.[2] For instance, the majority of countries have a minimumlegal drinking age to purchase or consume alcoholic beverages, although there are often exceptions such as underage consumption of small amounts of alcohol with parental supervision. Also, some countries have bans on public intoxication.[2] Drinking while driving or intoxicated driving is frequently outlawed and it may be illegal to have an open container of alcohol or liquor bottle in anautomobile, bus or aircraft.[2]
In Iran, consumption of alcohol (one glass) is punished by 80 lashes, but repeated offences may lead to death penalty, although rarely exercised. In 2012, two men were sentenced to death after a third offense in Khorasan.[48][49]
The "R" in WHO's SAFER initiative stands for "Raise prices on alcohol through excise taxes and pricing policies," emphasizing the importance of economic measures to mitigate alcohol-related harm.[25]
Austria, Switzerland and Germany determine that a barkeeper has to offer one or more non-alcoholic beverages at a cheaper price than any alcoholic drink. Before the so-calledApfelsaft-Paragraph (applejuice clause) was established in Germany in 2002 beer was often the cheapest beverage available.
Alcohol server training is a form ofoccupationaleducation typically provided to servers, sellers and consumers ofalcohol to preventintoxication,drunk driving andunderage drinking. This training is sometimes regulated and mandated by state and local laws, predominantly in North America, and increasingly in other English-speaking countries such as Australia. In some places, such as Australia, gaining such qualifications is required by law, before one can work to sell alcohol.
AnAbsolutLGBT marketing flyer in Portland, Oregon. The LGBT+ community has historically suffered from higher levels of substance abuse than non-LGBT+ individuals.
A 2019 survey conducted by theAmerican Institute for Cancer Research (AICR) showed that only 45% of Americans were aware of the associated risk of cancer due to alcohol consumption, up from 39% in 2017.[50] The AICR believes thatalcohol advertising about the healthycardiovascular benefits of modest alcohol overshadow messages about the increased cancer risks.[50]
The alcohol industry has tried to market its products to appeal to impressionable youth and young adults.[51]
Drinking alcoholic beverages increase the risk forbreast cancer. Several studies indicate that the use ofmarketing by the alcohol industry to associate their products with breast cancer awareness campaigns, known aspinkwashing, is misleading and potentially harmful.[52][53][54][55]
The alcohol industries have marketed products directly to the LGBT+ community. In 2010, of the sampled parades that listed sponsors, 61% of the prides were sponsored by the alcohol industry.[56] A study found that alcohol consumption within LGBTQ+ communities presents a challenge for health promotion efforts. The positive association with alcohol within these communities makes it harder to reduce alcohol-related health issues.[57]
Astandard drink is a measure of alcohol consumption representing a fixed amount of pure ethanol, used in relation to recommendations about alcohol consumption and its relative risks to health. The size of a standard drink varies from 8g to 20g across countries, but 10g alcohol (12.7 millilitres) is used in the WHOAlcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT)'s questionnaire form example,[58] and has been adopted by more countries than any other amount.[59]
Addiction experts in psychiatry, chemistry, pharmacology, forensic science, epidemiology, and the police and legal services engaged indelphic analysis regarding 20 popular recreational substances. Alcohol was ranked 2nd in social harm, 6th in dependence, and 11th in physical harm.[42]
Alcohol-related crime refers to criminal activities that involvealcohol use as well as violations of regulations covering the sale or use of alcohol; in other words, activities violating thealcohol laws. Some crimes are uniquely tied to alcohol, such aspublic intoxication orunderage drinking, while others are simply more likely to occur together with alcohol consumption.[60][61]Underage drinking anddrunk driving are the most prevalent alcohol-specific offenses in the United States[60] and a major problem in many, if not most, countries worldwide.[62][63][64] Similarly, about one-third of arrests in the United States involve alcohol misuse,[20] and arrests for alcohol-related crimes constitute a high proportion of all arrests made by police in the US[65] and elsewhere.
Binge drinking is a style of drinking that is popular in several countries worldwide, and overlaps somewhat withsocial drinking since it is often done in groups. The degree of intoxication however, varies between and within various cultures that engage in this practice. A binge on alcohol can occur over hours, last up to several days, or in the event of extended abuse, even weeks. Due to thelong term effects of alcohol abuse, binge drinking is considered to be a majorpublic health issue.[66]
Binge drinking is more common in males, during adolescence and young adulthood. Heavy regular binge drinking is associated with adverse effects onneurologic,cardiac,gastrointestinal,hematologic,immune, andmusculoskeletal organ systems as well as increasing the risk of alcohol inducedpsychiatric disorders.[67][68] A US-based review of the literature found that up to one-third of adolescents binge-drink, with 6% reaching the threshold of having an alcohol-relatedsubstance use disorder.[69] Approximately one in 25 women binge-drinks during pregnancy, which can lead tofetal alcohol syndrome andfetal alcohol spectrum disorders.[70] Binge drinking during adolescence is associated with traffic accidents and other types of accidents, violent behavior as well as suicide. The more often a child or adolescent binge drinks and the younger they are the more likely that they will develop an alcohol use disorder including alcoholism. A large number of adolescents who binge-drink also consume other psychotropic substances.[71]
Drinking games are popular social activities, particularly among young adults and college students, but they come with significant health risks. These games often encourage rapid alcohol consumption, often leading to binge drinking, which can result in severe consequences such as alcohol poisoning:
Beer pong. Some writers have mentioned beer pong as contributing to "out of control" college drinking.[74][75][76]
Power hour. Players may have difficulty completing the specified number of drinks as the rate of consumption can raise theirblood alcohol content to high levels.[77][78]
Keg stand is another drinking game known for its extreme consumption style.[74]
Neknominate. The original rules of the game require the participants to film themselves drinking a pint of an alcoholic beverage. Five people are believed to have died as a result of playing the game, including a Cardiff man thought to have downed a pint of vodka,[72] and a London hostel worker who reportedly mixed an entire bottle of white wine with a quarter bottle of whisky, a small bottle of vodka and a can of lager.[73] In the latter case, the victim's nominator was interviewed by police, but it was ruled an accidental death without coercion.[79]
Inemotional self-regulation, some people turn to drugs such as alcohol.Drug use, an example of response modulation, can be used to alter emotion-associated physiological responses. For example, alcohol can producesedative andanxiolytic effects.[80] A 2013 study found that immaturedefense mechanisms are linked to placing a higher value onjunk food, alcohol, andtelevision.[81]
There is a two-way street betweenloneliness and drinking. People who drink more than once a week tend to feel lonelier, according to a study on Japanese workers during the COVID-19 pandemic.[82] On the other hand, feelings of loneliness can also lead people to drink more, as shown in a separate study.[83] Loneliness is a major risk factor for depression and alcoholism.[84]
Alcohol in association football has long been a complex issue, with significant cultural and behavioral implications. Football is widely observed in various settings such as television broadcasts, sports bars, and arenas, contributing to the drinking culture surrounding the sport. A 2007 study at the University of Texas at Austin monitored the drinking habits of 541 students over two football seasons. It revealed that high-profile game days ranked among the heaviest drinking occasions, similar to New Year's Eve. Male students increased their consumption for all games, while socially active female students drank heavily during away games. Lighter drinkers also showed a higher likelihood of risky behaviors during away games as their intoxication increased. This research highlights specific drinking patterns linked to collegiate sports events.[85]
A 2021 study, that examined the relationship between drunk texting andemotional dysregulation, found a positive correlation. The findings suggest that interventions targetingemotional regulation skills may be beneficial.[86]
In vino veritas is aLatin phrase that means'in wine, there is truth', suggesting a person under the influence of alcohol is more likely to speak their hidden thoughts and desires.
Parental supervision of alcohol consumption for minors
Some parents are willing to provide alcohol for their children if they drink it in a controlled environment. Furnishing alcohol to one's own children is permitted in 31 states, while it's illegal to do so for other people's children in all fifty states.[87] However, despite research indicating negative consequences, many parents mistakenly believe that providing alcohol to their underage children will protect them from drinking-related harm. This misconception persists even though studies have shown a connection between parental alcohol supply and unfavorable outcomes related to alcohol consumption among minors.[88] Parental provision of alcohol during childhood may raise the risk of risky drinking in adolescence. However, methodological limitations hinder causal conclusions. To clarify this relationship, more robust longitudinal studies are needed that differentiate between sips and full drinks, accurately measure confounding factors, and apply multivariable adjustments.[89]
Parental attitudes that are less restrictive regarding children's alcohol consumption are linked to an earlier onset of alcohol use, increased frequency of use, and higher instances of drunkenness among children. Additionally, when children perceive their parents as having more lenient attitudes towards alcohol, they are more likely to engage in drinking themselves.[90] Adolescents permitted to drink by their parents were more likely to quickly move from their first drink to binge drinking (5 or more drinks at once) and heavy drinking (3 or more times in the past year). These findings contradict the belief that parental approval of underage drinking protects against alcohol misuse, highlighting the risks associated with adolescent heavy drinking.[91]
Parents may face significant legal consequences in various countries and jurisdictions if they knowingly allow their children to drink alcohol without supervision. This liability arises from a perceived failure to protect the child from the risks associated with alcohol consumption, which could lead to investigations bychild protective services.
Some studies have made a connection betweenhookup culture and substance use.[92] Most students said that their hookups occurred after drinking alcohol.[92][93][94] Frietas stated that in her study, the relationships between drinking and the party scene and between alcohol and hookup culture were "impossible to miss".[95]: 41
A0-0-1-3 media campaign poster specifically highlighting thatresponsible alcohol use may prevent risky sexual behavior that often results in unplanned pregnancy
Alcohol intoxication is associated with an increased risk that people will become involved inrisky sexual behaviors, such as unprotected sex.[99] Both men,[100] and women,[101] reported higher intentions toavoid using a condom when they were intoxicated by alcohol.
The relationship between drinking alcohol and howHIV develops and progresses in people has been the subject of prior research investigations.[107][108][109][110][111] To date, HIV has been recognized as an alcohol-attributable STI in the WHO’s most recent comparative risk assessment or related exercises.[112]
Alcohol causes a plethora of detrimental effects in society.[20] A 2023 systematic review estimated the societal costs of alcohol use to be around 2.6% of theGDP.[113] Manyemergency room visits involve alcohol use.[20] Alcohol availability and consumption rates and alcohol rates are positively associated withnuisance,loitering,panhandling, anddisorderly conduct inpublic space.[114]
A 2011 study challenged the perception ofheroin as the more dangerous substance. The research suggests, when considering the wider social, physical, and financial costs, alcohol may be more harmful.[115]
Individuals who engage with or share alcohol-related content onsocial networking services tend to exhibit higher levels of alcohol use and related issues.[116]
Manystudents attending colleges, universities, and otherhigher education institutions consumealcoholic beverages. The laws and social culture around this practice vary by country and institution type, and within an institution, some students may drink heavily whereas others maynot drink at all. In the United States, drinking tends to be particularly associated withfraternities.
List of hazing deaths in the United States highlights a troubling trend, as there has been at least one university hazing death each year from 1969 to 2021.[117] Over 200 university hazing deaths have occurred since 1838, with 40 deaths between 2007 and 2017 alone.[118] Alcohol poisoning is the biggest cause of death.[118]
Alcohol abuse among college students refers to unhealthy alcohol drinking behaviors by college and university students. While thelegal drinking age varies by country, the high number of underage students that consume alcohol has presented many problems and consequences for universities. The causes of alcohol abuse tend to bepeer pressure, fraternity or sorority involvement, andstress. College students who abuse alcohol can suffer fromhealth concerns, poor academic performance or legal consequences. Prevention and treatment include campus counseling, stronger enforcement of underage drinking or changing the campus culture.
Recent research indicates that the abundance of alcohol retailers and the availability of inexpensive alcoholic beverages are linked to heavy alcohol consumption among collegestudents.[119]
Many Native Americans in the United States have been harmed by, or become addicted to, drinking alcohol.[120] Among contemporary Native Americans andAlaska Natives, 11.7% of all deaths are related to alcohol.[121][122] By comparison, about 5.9% of global deaths are attributable to alcohol consumption.[123] Because of negativestereotypes and biases based on race and social class, generalizations and myths abound around the topic of Native American alcohol misuse.[124]
A man lies on the street next to his belongings after having been drinking.
Conditions such as alcoholism andmental illness are often associated with homelessness.[125] For people in Russia, especially the youth, alcohol, and substance use is a major cause and reason for becoming and continuing to be homeless.[126] Also,street children from areas with limited resources have reported a high lifetime prevalence of substance use. The most commonly used substances areinhalants, followed by tobacco, alcohol, and marijuana.[127]
Overwork is linked to an increased risk of unhealthy alcohol consumption.[128] Also,unemployment can heighten the risk of alcohol consumption and smoking.[129] As many as 15% of employees show problematic alcohol-related behaviors in the workplace, such as drinking before going to work or even drinking on the job.[20]
A United States Forces Korea poster, warning soldiers not to engage in prostitution or purchase a "bar fine", here referred to as a "night off"
Abargirl is a woman who is paid to entertain patrons in a bar or nightclub. A bar fine is a payment made by a customer to the operators of a bar or nightclub in East and Southeast Asia, allowing her to leave work early, typically to accompany a customer outside for sexual services.[130] Femalesex workers in low- and middle-income countries have high rates of harmful alcohol use, which is associated with increased risk of risky sexual behavior.[131] Screening carried out in the 1990s in Malawi, an African country, indicated that about 80 per cent of bargirls carried theHIV virus. Research carried out at the time indicated thateconomic necessity was a major consideration in engaging and persisting in sex work.[132]
A 2022 study found thatbartenders experience high levels of hazardous alcohol and drug use, particularly among those working over 40 hours a week, with males and individuals aged 26–40 exhibiting the most problematic consumption, underscoring the need for targeted preventative interventions and further investigation into the underlying risk factors.[133]
A man on the street of Moscow asks for money for alcoholic drinks.
Alcohol consumption can contribute tosecondary poverty (where people fall back into poverty after escaping it). TheBureau of Labor Statistics found that "the average American consumer dedicates 1 percent of all their spending to alcohol".[134]
Some popular tourist destinations, are cracking down on theimpacts of tourism from excessive drinking. In an effort to promote a moresustainable tourism industry, these locations are implementing new regulations to curbbinge drinking. This includesLlucmajor,Palma,Calvia (Magaluf) inMajorca andSant Antoni inIbiza, where late-night sales of alcohol will be banned. This comes after years of issues with rowdy tourists and the negative impacts it has on local residents.[135]
The Drunkard's Progress: from the first glass to the grave, shows how a single drink starts an arc that ends in suicide.
Most people are under the influence ofsedative-hypnotic drugs (such as alcohol or benzodiazepines) when they die by suicide,[136] with alcoholism present in between 15% and 61% of cases.[137] Countries that have higher rates of alcohol use and a greater density of bars generally also have higher rates of suicide.[138] About 2.2–3.4% of those who have been treated for alcoholism at some point in their life die by suicide.[138] Alcoholics who attempt suicide are usually male, older, and have tried to take their own lives in the past.[137] In adolescents who misuse alcohol, neurological and psychological dysfunctions may contribute to the increased risk of suicide.[139]
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