The term describes a scarf that is wrapped around the head, showing but also covering the hair, neck, and ears while leaving the face visible.[8][9] The use of the hijab has grown globally since the 1970s, with many Muslims viewing it as a symbol of modesty and faith; it is also worn as a form of adornment.[8][10] There is no consensus regarding its use. Many Islamic religious scholars in many cultures and countries argue that covering the head is required.[11][12][13][14] But many scholars have argued that covering the hair is not mandatory.[15] In practice, its prevalence varies from region to region. In some regions, most Muslim women choose to wear it.[16][17][12][18]
The termḥijāb was originally used to denote a partition and was sometimes used forIslamic rules of modesty.[8][19] In the verses of the Qur'an, the term sometimes refers to a curtain separating visitors toMuhammad's main house from his wives' lodgings. This has led somerevisionists to claim that the mandate of the Qur'an applied only to the wives of Muhammad and not to all women.[20][21] Another interpretation can also refer to theseclusion of women from men in thepublic sphere, whereas ametaphysical dimension may refer to "the veil which separates man, or the world, from God".[22] The Qur'an never uses the wordhijab (lit. 'barrier') to refer to women's clothing, but rather discusses the attire of women using other terms, such asJilbāb andkhimār (generic headscarf).[23][8][24][19][25][26]
There is variation in interpretations regarding the extent of covering required. Some legal systems accept the hijab as an order to cover everything except the face and hands,[27][22] whilst others accept it as an order to cover the whole body, including the face and hands, vianiqab.[28] These guidelines are found in texts of hadith andfiqh developed after the revelation of the Qur'an. Some state that these guidelines are aligned with Qur'anic verses (ayahs) about hijab,[14][29] while others interpret them differently with various conclusions on the extent of the mandate.[30][31][32]
Islamic veiling practices vary globally based onlocal laws and customs. In some regions, the hijab is mandated by law, while in others, its use is subject to restrictions or bans in both Europe and some Muslim countries.[33][34] Additionally, women face informal pressure regarding their choice to wear or not wear the hijab.[35][36] Muslim women often face heightened discriminationparticularly in workplaces, a trend intensified after the rise ofIslamophobia post-9/11.[37] Hijab-wearing women face overt and covert prejudice, with covert bias often leading to hostile treatment.[38] Studies show perceived discrimination can harm well-being[39] but is often overcome by religious pride and community, with hijab-wearing women finding strength andbelonging.[40]
The Arabic word hijab (Arabic:حجاب) is the verbal noun originating from the verbﺣَﺠَﺐَ (hajaba), from the triliteral rootح ج ب (H-J-B), which forms a large class of words mostly relating to concepts of hide, conceal, block.[41][42]
About seven verses address the way a woman should dress when walking in public;[43] Muslims have differed as how to understand these verses; Sunni[44][45]^ and Shia[46] scholars say hijab is mandatory, while Ismaili, accounting for ~0.25% of all Muslims, do not.[nb 1][48]
Qur'anic verses relating to dress materials use thekhimār which translates to "headscarf" in English,[49][50][51][52][53][54] coverings worn by women in Arabia at the advent of Islam mostly to protect against the hot sun and desert;[55] by some, it is a headcovering[51][54] andjilbāb (a dress or cloak) rather thanḥijāb.[19][nb 2]
The clearest verses on this topic areSurah An-Nur24:30-31, telling both men and women to dress and act modestly, with more detail on women's position.[56][57]
[Muhammad], tell believing men to lower their glances and guard their private parts: that is purer for them. God is well aware of everything they do. And tell believing women that they should lower their glances, guard their private parts, and not display their charms beyond what [it is acceptable] to reveal; they should let their headscarves fall to cover their necklines and not reveal their charms except to their husbands, their fathers, their husbands' fathers, their sons, their husbands' sons, their brothers, their brothers' sons, their sisters' sons, their womenfolk, their slaves, such men as attend them who have no sexual desire, or children who are not yet aware of women's nakedness; they should not stamp their feet so as to draw attention to any hidden charms. Believers, all of you, turn to God so that you may prosper.
InLuxenberg's Syro-Aramaic reading, the verse instead commands women to "snap their belts around their waists" as anidiom, the belt was asymbol for chastity.[58] According to him, the meanings of the words in the relevant part of the verse are as follows:خِمار Khimar; cummerbund,جيب jyb;[nb 3] sinus, sac,وَلْيَضْرِبْنَ; "let them hit."[nb 4]
InAl-Aḥzāb: 59, there is a statement that tells women to wear their "outer garments" when going out for various needs (such as defecation), interpreted by some as a command[57] and by others as a recommendation of protective measures against sexual harassment inMedina.[63] The word used in the verse is the plural form of jilbab (جَلَـٰبِيبِهِنَّ), which translates tocloak in English. This verse was legislated after thehijrah to Medina; most Muslim scholars consider the jilbab described not to include the face, although a small group believe covering the face is included.[64] The exact wording in Arabic (ذَٰلِكَ أَدْنَىٰٓ أَن يُعْرَفْنَ فَلَا يُؤْذَيْنَ) literally translates to "so that they will be recognized and not be harmed."[65]
O Prophet, tell your wives, your daughters, and the women of the believers to draw their cloaks over themselves. That is more suitable so that they will be recognized and not be harmed. And Allah is ever Forgiving and Merciful.
Protesters in Washington D.C. hold a sign depicting a woman wrapped in a U.S. flag hijab following Trump's signing ofExecutive Order 13769 in 2017.
According to the narrations and the most well-known explanation of the verse, the verse was an expression directed towards free and Muslim women, not slaves or non-Muslim women, for whichTabari citesIbn Abbas.Ibn Kathir states that thejilbab was distinguishing free Muslim women from those ofJahiliyyah, so other men know they are free women and notslaves orprostitutes,[65] so they are not harassed.Al-Qurtubi concurs with Tabari about this ayah being for those who are free. It is reported thatUmar prohibitedfemale slaves from resembling free women by covering their hair.[66] Some later scholars likeIbn Hayyan,Ibn Hazm andMuhammad Nasiruddin al-Albani questioned cited common explanation. Ibn Hayyan believed that "believing women" referred to both free women and slaves as the latter are bound to more easily entice lust, and their exclusion is not clearly indicated. Ibn Hazm also believed that it covered Muslim slaves as it would violate the law of not molesting a slave or fornication with her like that with a free woman. He stated that anything not attributed to Muhammad should be disregarded.[67]: 114
What is said about the dimensions of the Jilbab in use varies; Qurtubi reports that ajilbab covers the whole body. He also cites theSahabah as saying it is no longer than arida (a shawl or a wrap that covers the upper body). He also reports a minority view which considers theniqab or head-covering as jilbab.Ibn Arabi considered that excessive covering would make it impossible for a woman to be recognised, which the verse mentions, though both Qurtubi and Tabari agree that the word recognition is about distinguishing free women.[67]: 111–113
The wordḥijāb in the Qur'an refers not to women's clothing but to a spatial partition or curtain.[19] Sometimes, its use is literal, as in the verse which refers to the screen that separated Muhammad's wives from the visitors to his house (33:53), while in other cases the word denotes separation between deity and mortals (42:51), wrongdoers and righteous (7:46, 41:5), believers and unbelievers (17:45), andlight from darkness (38:32).[19] The interpretations of theḥijāb as separation can be classified into three types: visual barrier, physical barrier, and ethical barrier. A visual barrier (for example, between Muhammad's family and the surrounding community) serves to hide from sight something, which emphasizes a symbolic boundary. A physical barrier is used to create a space that provides comfort and privacy for individuals, such as elite women. An ethical barrier, such as the expressionpurity of hearts in reference to Muhammad's wives and the Muslim men who visit them, makes something forbidden.[43]
`Umar bin Al-Khattab used to say toAllah's Messenger "Let your wives be veiled" But he did not do so. The wives of the Prophet used to go out to answer the call of nature at night only at Al-Manasi.' OnceSauda, the daughter of Zam`a, went out and she was a tall woman. `Umar bin Al-Khattab saw her while he was in a gathering, and said, "I have recognized you, O Sauda!" He said so as he was anxious for some Divine orders regarding the veil. SoAllah revealed the Verse of veiling.[71][72]
Aisha also reported that when Quran24:31 was revealed,
...the men ofAnsar went to the women of Ansar and recited to them the words Allah had revealed. Each man recited to his wife, his daughter, his sister and other female relatives. Each woman among them got up, took her decorated wrapper and wrapped herself up in it out of faith and belief in what Allah had revealed. They appeared behind the Messenger of Allah wrapped up, as if there were crows on their heads.[73][67]: 118
Although these narrations imply black clothing, other narrations indicate wives of Muhammad also wore other colored-clothes like yellow or rose.[74][67]: 124
Safiya bint Shaiba, said that 'A'ishah mentioned the women of Ansar, praised them and said good words about them. She then said: When Surat an-Nur came down, they took the curtains, tore them and made head covers (veils) of them.32:4091. This hadith is often translated as "...and covered their heads and faces with the cut pieces of cloth,"[75] Some commentators, such asIbn Hajar al-Asqalani inFatḥ al-Bārī, claimed that covering also covers the face, based on the word (Arabic:فَاخْتَمَرْنَ) in the text of this hadith.
According to some hadiths from Bukhari, Abu Dawud and Nasai, during the time of Muhammad, male and female Muslims were performing ablution from the same water bowl. "We used to perform ablution collectively, men and women, by lowering and dipping our hands into the same bowl." indicating that women could perform ablution in the presence of men. In this case, the arms up to the elbows, feet, face and the part of the head that are essential for ablution and wiping can be considered as free zones.[76]
Yahya related to me from Malik from Muhammad ibn Zayd ibn Qunfudh that his mother asked Umm Salama, the wife of the Prophet, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, "What clothes can a woman wear in prayer?" She said, "She can pray in the khimār and the diri' (Arabic:الدِّرْعِ,lit. 'shield, armature',transl. 'a woman's garment') that reaches down and covers the top of her feet."[77]
Aishah narrated that Allah's Messenger said: "TheSalat of a woman who has reached the age ofmenstruation is not accepted without a khimār."[78]
In early Islamic texts, the termhijab can mean "veil" or "curtain" referring seclusion.[79] The contemporary understanding of the hijab dates back to Hadith when the "verse of the hijab" descended upon the community in 627 CE[80] documented in Sura 33:53, states, "And when you ask [his wives] for something, ask them from behind a partition. That is purer for your hearts and their hearts".[81] As Muhammad's influence increased, he entertained more and more visitors in the mosque, which was then his home. Often, these visitors stayed the night only feet away from his wives' apartments. It is commonly understood that this verse was intended to protect his wives from these strangers.[82]
Available evidence suggests that veiling was not introduced into Arabia byMuhammad, but already existed there, particularly in the towns, although it was probably not as widespread as in the neighbouring countries such as Syria and Palestine.[83] Similarly to the practice among Greeks, Byzantines, Jews, and Assyrians, its use was associated withhigh social status.[83][nb 5]Leila Ahmed adds that Muhammad's concubines did not wear veils, while his wives did, and emphasizes that the term "darabat'ül hijab" was used among Muslims over time to mean "she entered amongMuhammad's wives."[84]
Traditional scholars had different opinions on covering the hands and face.Muslim scholars usually require women to cover everything but their hands and face in public,[22] but do not require theniqab (a face covering worn by some Muslim women). Some held the opinion that covering the face isrecommended if the woman's beauty is so great that it is distracting and causestemptation or public discord.[citation needed] In nearly all Muslim cultures, pre-pubescent girls are not required to wear a hijab.[85]
In private, and in the presence of close relatives (mahrams), rules on dress relax. However, in the presence of the husband, most scholars stress the importance of mutual freedom and pleasure of the husband and wife.[86]
Some scholars argue that beyond the body of a woman, her voice is also a part of her "awrah" and should not be heard by men outside her immediate family. They cite some hadiths citing women's voices as a source of temptation andfitna (charmingness, attractiveness) and should be kept private and some verse interpretations.[87]
A Tunisian woman wearing a hijabMalala Yousafzai, Pakistani education activist and 2014 Nobel Peace Prize laureate, wears a head scarf.
Men must cover from their belly buttons to their knees, though the schools differ on whether this includes covering the navel and knees or only what is between them.[97][98][99][100]
It is recommended that women wear clothing that is not form fitting to the body, such as modest forms of Western clothing (long shirts and skirts), or the more traditionaljilbāb, a high-necked, loose robe that covers the arms and legs. Akhimār orshaylah, a scarf or cowl that covers all but the face, is also worn in many different styles.[citation needed]
In Shia jurisprudence, by consensus, it is obligatory for women to cover their hair, and the entire body except her hands and face, while in the presence of people of the opposite sex other than close family members.[13][101][102][18]The major and most important Shia hadith collections such as Nahj Al-Balagha and Kitab Al-Kafi for the most part do not give any details about hijab requirements. However a quotation fromMan La Yahduruhu al-FaqihMusa al-Kadhim in reply to his brother makes reference to female hijab requirements during the salat (prayer), stating "She covers her body and head with it then prays. And if her feet protrude from beneath, and she doesn't have the means to prevent that, there is no harm".[103]
Leila Ahmed argues that head covering in Islam should not be seen as mandatory since it existed before the revelation of the Qur’an. It was introduced to Arabia through Arab interactions with Syria and Iran, where the hijab represented social status. Women who did not work in fields could afford to be secluded and veiled.[20][104] Among her arguments is that while some Qur'anic verses enjoin women in general to "draw their Jilbabs (overgarment or cloak) around them to be recognized as believers and so that no harm will come to them"[Quran33:58-59] and "guard their private parts ... and drape downkhimar over their breasts [when in the presence of unrelated men]",[Quran24:31] they urge modesty. The wordkhimar or "veil" refers to a piece of cloth that was popularly used to cover the head in ancient Arabia.[105] While the term "hijab" was originally anything that was used to conceal,[106] it became used to refer to concealing garments worn by women outside the house, specifically the headscarf or khimar.[107]
Modernist thinkers includingKaren Armstrong,Reza Aslan and Leila Ahmed, believe the requirements of the hijab were initially intended solely for Muhammad's wives, serving to preserve their sanctity. This was because Muhammad conducted religious and civic matters in the mosque next to his home.[20] Leila Ahmed further explains that Muhammad aimed at fostering a sense of privacy and protecting the intimate space of his wives from the constant presence of the bustling community at their doorstep. They argue that the termdarabat al-hijab ('taking the veil') was used synonymously and interchangeably with ‘becoming Prophet Muhammad's wife’ and that during Muhammad's life no other Muslim woman wore the hijab.Aslan suggests that Muslim women started to wear the hijab to emulate Muhammad's wives, who are revered as "Mothers of the Believers" in Islam,[20] and states "there was no tradition of veiling until around 627C.E." in the Muslim community.[20][21] The latter claim is widely disproved.[108]
Afghan army and police officials wearing hijabs inKandahar. (Period beforeTaliban rule)
Khaled Abou El Fadl argues that all Islamic moderates agree that, in all cases, the decision whether to wear the hijab should be a woman's autonomous decisionand that her choice must be respected because the moderate pro-choice position is based on the Quranic teachings that there ought to be no compulsion in religion.[109]
Many scholars argue that these contemporary views and arguments, however, contradict the hadith sources, the classical scholars, exegesis sources, historical consensus, and interpretations of thecompanions (such asAisha andAbdullah ibn Masud).[citation needed] Some traditionalist Muslim scholars accept the contemporary views and arguments as those hadith sources are not sahih andijma would no longer be applicable if it is argued by scholars (even if it is argued by only one scholar). Notable examples of traditionalist Muslim scholars who accept these contemporary views include the Indonesian scholarQuraish Shihab.[110]
Greek bronze statuette of a veiled and masked dancer, 2nd–3rd century BC
Veiling did not originate with the advent of Islam. Statuettes depicting veiled priestesses date back as far as 2500 BC.[111] Elite women in ancient Mesopotamia and in the Byzantine, Greek, and Persian empires wore the veil as a sign of respectability and high status.[112] In ancient Mesopotamia, Assyria had explicitsumptuary laws detailing which women must veil and which women must not, depending upon the woman's class, rank, and occupation in society.[112] Female slaves and prostitutes were forbidden to veil and faced harsh penalties if they did so.[19] Veiling was thus not only a marker of aristocratic rank, but also served to "differentiate between 'respectable' women and those who were publicly available".[19][112]
Strict seclusion and the veiling of matrons were also customary in ancient Greece. Between 550 and 323 BCE, prior to Christianity, respectable women in classical Greek society were expected to seclude themselves and wear clothing that concealed them from the eyes of strange men.[113] Roman pagan custom included the practice of the head covering worn by the priestesses ofVesta (Vestal Virgins).[114]
Pre-Islamic relief showing veiled women,Temple of Baal, Palmyra, Syria, 1st century CE
It is not clear whether the Hebrew Bible contains prescriptions with regard to veiling, but rabbinic literature presents it as a question of modesty (tzniut).[114] Modesty became an important rabbinic virtue in the early Roman period, and it may have been intended to distinguish Jewish women from their non-Jewish counterparts in Babylonian and later in Greco-Roman society.[114] According to rabbinical precepts, married Jewish women have to cover their hair (cf.Mitpaḥat). The surviving representations of veiled Jewish women may reflect general Roman customs rather than particular Jewish practices.[114] According toFadwa El Guindi, at the inception of Christianity, Jewish women were veiling their heads and faces.[19]
Intermixing of populations resulted in a convergence of the cultural practices of Greek, Persian, and Mesopotamian empires and the Semitic peoples of the Middle East.[19] Veiling and seclusion of women appear to have established themselves among Jews and Christians before spreading to urban Arabs of the upper classes and eventually among the urban masses.[19] In the rural areas it was common to cover the hair, but not the face.[19]
According to Leila Ahmed, the rigid norms pertaining to veiling and seclusion of women found in Christian Byzantine literature had been influenced by ancient Persian traditions, and there is evidence to suggest that they differed significantly from actual practice.[121] Leila Ahmed argues that "Whatever the cultural source or sources, a fierce misogyny was a distinct ingredient of Mediterranean and eventually Christian thought in the centuries immediately preceding the rise of Islam."[122]
During thehistory of slavery in the Muslim world, it is known that female slaves did show themselves unveiled. Slave women were visually identified by their way of dress. While Islamic law dictated that a free Muslim woman should veil herself entirely, except for her face and hands, in order to hide herawrah (intimate parts) and avoid sexual harassment, the awrah of slave women were defined differently, and she was only to cover between her navel and her knee.[123] This difference became even more prominent duringthe Abbasid Caliphate, when free Muslim women, in particular those of the upper classes, were subjected to even more sex segregation andharem seclusion, in contrast to theqiyan slave artists, who performed unveiled in male company.[124]
The practice of veiling was borrowed from the elites of the Byzantine and Persian empires, where it was a symbol of respectability and high social status, during theArab conquests of those empires.[125] Reza Aslan argues that "The veil was neither compulsory nor widely adopted until generations after Muhammad's death, when a large body of male scriptural and legal scholars began using their religious and political authority to regain the dominance they had lost in society as a result of the Prophet's egalitarian reforms".[82]
Because Islam identified with the monotheistic religions of the conquered empires, the practice was adopted as an appropriate expression of Qur'anic ideals regarding modesty and piety.[126] Veiling gradually spread to upper-class Arab women, and eventually it became widespread among Muslim women in cities throughout the Middle East. Veiling of Arab Muslim women became especially pervasive under Ottoman rule as a mark of rank and exclusive lifestyle, and Istanbul of the 17th century witnessed differentiated dress styles that reflected geographical and occupational identities.[19] Women in rural areas were much slower to adopt veiling because the garments interfered with their work in the fields.[127] Since wearing a veil was impractical for working women, "a veiled woman silently announced that her husband was rich enough to keep her idle."[128]
By the 19th century, upper-class urban Muslim and Christian women in Egypt wore a garment which included a head cover and aburqa (muslin cloth that covered the lower nose and the mouth).[19] The name of this garment,harabah, derives from early Christian and Judaic religious vocabulary, which may indicate the origins of the garment itself.[19] Up to the first half of the twentieth century, rural women in the Maghreb and Egypt put on a form ofniqab when they visited urban areas, "as a sign of civilization".[129]
A model displaying a fashionable hijab at "Moslema In Style Fashion Show" inKuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Western clothing largely dominated fashion in Muslim countries in the 1960s and 1970s.[130][131] For example, inPakistan, Afghanistan and Iran, some women wore short skirts, flower printedhippie dresses, flared trousers,[132] and went out in public without the hijab.[citation needed] This changed following theSoviet–Afghan War,[citation needed] military dictatorship in Pakistan, andIranian revolution of 1979, when traditional conservative attire including theabaya, jilbab and niqab made a comeback.[133][134] There were demonstrations in Iran in March 1979 after the hijab law, decreeing that women in Iran would have to wear scarves to leave the house, was brought in.[135] However, this phenomenon did not happen in all countries with a significant Muslim population; in Turkey there has been a decline on women wearing the hijab in recent years,[136] although under Erdoğan Turkey is becoming more conservative and Islamic, as Turkey repeals the1982 headscarf ban in public sector,[137] and the founding of new fashion companies catering to women who want to dress more conservatively.[138]
Egyptian leader PresidentGamal Abdel Nasser claimed that, in 1953, he was told by the leader of theMuslim Brotherhood organization that they wanted to enforce the wearing of the hijab, to which Nasser responded, "Sir, I know you have a daughter in college, and she doesn't wear a headscarf or anything! Why don't you make her wear the headscarf? So you can't make one girl, your own daughter, wear it, and yet you want me to go and make ten million women wear it?"[139]
The late-twentieth century saw a resurgence of the hijab in Egypt after a long period of decline as a result of westernization. Already in the mid-1970s some college aged Muslim men and women began a movement meant to reunite and rededicate themselves to the Islamic faith.[140][141] This movement was named theSahwah,[142] or awakening, and sparked a period of heightened religiosity that began to be reflected in the dress code.[140]The uniform adopted by the young female pioneers of this movement was named al-Islāmī (Islamic dress) and was made up of an "al-jilbāb—an unfitted, long-sleeved, ankle-length gown in austere solid colors and thick opaque fabric—and al-khimār, a head cover resembling a nun'swimple that covers the hair low to the forehead, comes under the chin to conceal the neck, and falls down over the chest and back".[140] In addition to the basic garments that were mostly universal within the movement, additional measures of modesty could be taken depending on how conservative the followers wished to be. Some women choose to also utilize a face covering (niqāb) that leaves only eye slits for sight, as well as both gloves and socks in order to reveal no visible skin.[143]
Soon this movement expanded outside of the youth realm and became a more widespread Muslim practice. Women viewed this way of dress as a way to both publicly announce their religious beliefs as well as a way to simultaneously reject Western influences of dress and culture that were prevalent at the time. Despite many criticisms of the practice of hijab being oppressive and detrimental to women's equality,[141] many Muslim women view the way of dress to be a positive thing. It is seen as a way to avoid harassment and unwanted sexual advances in public and works to desexualize women in the public sphere in order to instead allow them to enjoy equal rights of complete legal, economic, and political status. This modesty was not only demonstrated by their chosen way of dress but also by their serious demeanor which worked to show their dedication to modesty and Islamic beliefs.[140]
Taekwondo medalists from Spain, Britain, Iran and Egypt at Rio Olympics, 2016[144]
Controversy erupted over the practice. Many people, both men and women from backgrounds of both Islamic and non-Islamic faith questioned the hijab and what it stood for in terms ofwomen and their rights. There was questioning of whether in practice the hijab was truly a female choice or if women were being coerced or pressured into wearing it.[140]
As the awakening movement gained momentum, its goals matured and shifted from promoting modesty towards more of a political stance in terms of retaining support forPan-Islamism and a symbolic rejection of Western culture and norms. Today the hijab means many different things for different people. For Islamic women who choose to wear the hijab it allows them to retain their modesty, morals and freedom of choice.[141]
After theSeptember 11 attacks, the discussion and discourse on the hijab in Western nations intensified as Islamic traditions and theology came under greater scrutiny, with Hijabis facing extensive discrimination.[145] According to the Harvard University Pluralism Project: "Some Muslim women cover their head only during prayer in the mosque; other Muslim women wear the hijab; still others may cover their head with a turban or a loosely draped scarf."[146]
Wearing or not wearing a hijab can also be an act of protest. In August 2014 a mother of one of theCamp Speicher massacre victims threw her headscarf at the Iraqi parliament speaker,Salim al-Jabouri.
The styles and practices of hijab vary widely across the world. An opinion poll conducted in 2014 by The University of Michigan's Institute for Social Research asked residents of seven Muslim-majority countries (Egypt, Iraq, Lebanon, Tunisia, Turkey, Pakistan, and Saudi Arabia) which style of women's dress they considered to be most appropriate in public.[147] The survey found that the headscarf (in its tightly- or loosely-fitting form) was chosen by the majority of respondents in Egypt, Iraq, Tunisia and Turkey. The response rate for people of Turkey was just about 60%.[147] In Saudi Arabia, 63% gave preference to theniqab face veil; in Pakistan theniqab, the full-lengthchador robe and the headscarf, received about a third of the votes each; while in Lebanon half of the respondents in the sample (which included Christians and Druze) opted for no head covering at all.[147][148] The survey found "no significant difference" in the preferences between surveyed men and women, except in Pakistan, where more men favoured conservative women's dress.[148] However, women more strongly support women's right to choose how to dress.[148] People with university education are less conservative in their choice than those without one, and more supportive of women's right to decide their dress style, except in Saudi Arabia.[148]
Some fashion-conscious women have been turning to non-traditional forms of hijab such as turbans.[149][150] While some regard turbans as a proper head cover, others argue that it cannot be considered a proper Islamic veil if it leaves the neck exposed.[149]
In Iran, where wearing the hijab is legally required, many women push the boundaries of the state-mandated dress code, risking a fine or a spell in detention.[151] The former Iranian presidentHassan Rouhani had vowed to rein in the morality police and their presence on the streets has decreased since he took office, but the powerful conservative forces in the country have resisted his efforts, and the dress codes are still being enforced, especially during the summer months.[152] AfterEbrahim Raisi became president, he started imposing hijab laws strictly, announcing use of facial recognition in public transport to enforce hijab law.[153] An Iranian woman,Mahsa Amini, died in custody of 'morality police' after they arrested her on new stricter hijab laws, which led towidespread protests.[154] Women's resistance in Iran is gaining traction as an increasing number of women challenge the mandatory wearing of the hijab. Smith (2017) addressed the progress that Iranian women have made in her article, "Iran surprises by realizing Islamic dress code for women,"[155] published byThe Times, a news organization based in the UK. The Iranian government has enforced their penal dress codes less strictly and instead of imprisonment as a punishment have implemented mandatory reform classes in the liberal capital, Tehran. General Hossein Rahimi, the Tehran's police chief stated, "Those who do not observe the Islamic dress code will no longer be taken to detention centers, nor will judicial cases be filed against them" (Smith, 2017). The remarks of Tehran's recent police chief in 2017 reflect political progress in contrast with the remarks of Tehran's 2006 police chief.[155][156] Iranian women activists have made a headway since 1979 relying on fashion to enact cultural and political change.
In Turkey the hijab was formerly banned in private and state universities and schools. The ban applied not to the scarf wrapped around the neck, traditionally worn by Anatolian villager women, but to the head covering pinned neatly at the sides, calledtürban in Turkey, which has been adopted by a growing number of educated urban women since the 1980s. As of the mid-2000s, over 60% of Turkish women covered their head outside home. However the majority of those wear a traditional, non-Islamic head covering and only 11% wore atürban.[157][158][159][160] The ban was lifted from universities in 2008,[161] from government buildings in 2013,[162] and from schools in 2014.[163]
The hijab is also a common cultural practice for Muslims in the West. For example, in a 2016 Environics poll, a large majority (73%) of Canadian Muslim women reported wearing some sort of head-covering in public (58% wear the hijab, 13% wear thechador and 2% wear theniqab). Wearing a head covering in public had increased since the 2006 survey.[164] Women who wear the Hijab may be called "hijabi".
Meanwhile, in a Pew Research Center poll from 2011, most Muslim American women also reported wearing hijab, 36% indicating they wore hijab whenever they were in public, with an additional 24% saying they wore it most or some of the time; 40% said they never wore hijab.[165]
Map showing prevalence of hijab wearing across the world and indicating countries where there are restrictions on wearing it
Some governments encourage and even oblige women to wear the hijab, while others have banned it in at least some public settings. In many parts of the world women also experience informal pressure for or against wearing the hijab, including physical attacks.
InGaza, there was a campaign by religious conservatives such asHamas to impose the hijab on women during theFirst Intifada. In 1990, theUnified National Leadership of the Uprising (UNLU) declared that it rejected the imposition of a hijab policy for women, and targeted those who seek to impose the hijab, but that declaration was argued to have come too late, as many women had already yielded to the pressure in order to avoid harassment.[166] Afterassuming the government in the Gaza Strip in June 2007, Hamas sought to enforce Islamic law, imposing the hijab on women at courts, institutions and schools.[167][168]
Iran transitioned from banning veils in 1936 to mandating Islamic dress for women following the 1979 Islamic Revolution.[169] By 1980, veiling was required in government and educational settings, with the 1983 penal code imposing 74 lashes for not adhering to the hijab, though the exact requirements were unclear.[169][170][171] This led to public tensions and vigilante actions regarding proper hijab.[169][170] Subsequent regulations in 1984 and 1988 clarified dress-code standards, and the current penal code prescribes fines or prison terms for failing to observe hijab, without detailing its specific form.[169][172][173]
The enforcement of the dress code in Iran has fluctuated between strict and relaxed over the years, leading to ongoing debate between conservatives and reformists likeHassan Rouhani.[172][174] The United Nations Human Rights Council has urged Iran to uphold the rights of those advocating for dress code reforms.[175] Government and religious institutions mandate the khimar headscarf and overcoat, while women in other public areas often wear a loosely tied headscarf.[citation needed] The government officially promotes stricter veiling, citing both Islamic principles and pre-Islamic Iranian culture.[176]
Ruhollah Khomeini maintained that women do not have to wear a full-body cover. He stated that women can choose any kind of attire they like so long as it covers them properly and they have a hijab. His successor,Ali Khamenei, stated that the hijab does not hinder participation in social, political, or academic activities.[13] In 2024, the formerpresident of Iran Hassan Rouhani criticised the reinstatement ofIran's morality police and the implementation of the "Noor plan" by law enforcement authorities. He expressed shock over the hijab law approved by theGuardian Council which predicted severe punishment for those violating it, saying that it "aligns neither with theConstitution, nor with justice, nor with theQur'an andIslamic culture."[177][178]
The Indonesian province ofAceh encourages Muslim women to wear hijab in public.[179][180]Indonesia's central government granted Aceh's local government the right to imposeSharia in 2001, although that no local regulations should conflict with Indonesian national laws, in a deal aiming to put an end to the separatist movement in the province.[180]
Saudi Arabia formally required women to cover their hair and wear a full-body garment, though enforcement varies.[181][182][183] Saudi women typically wear the abaya, while foreigners may choose long coats.[34] Regulations are enforced by religious police, which once faced criticism for their role in a fire rescue where schoolgirls' lack of hijabs was reportedly a factor, leading to 15 deaths.[184]
During theTaliban regime inAfghanistan, the wearing of the hijab is mandated for women. The requirement extends to covering not only their heads but also their faces, as it was believed that doing so would prevent any perceived impropriety and maintain modesty in society.[35]
The tradition of veiling hair inPersian culture has ancient pre-Islamic origins,[185] but the widespread custom was ended byReza Shah's government in 1936, as the hijab was considered to be incompatible with modernization and he ordered "unveiling" act orKashf-e hijab. In some cases the police arrested women who wore the veil and would forcibly remove it. These policies had popular support but outraged theShi'a clerics, to whom appearing in public without their cover was tantamount to nakedness. Some women refused to leave the house out of fear of being assaulted by Reza Shah's police.[186] In 1941, the compulsory element in the policy of unveiling was abandoned.
Turkey had a ban on headscarves at universities until recently. In 2008, the Turkish government attempted to lift a ban on Muslim headscarves at universities, but were overturned by the country's Constitutional Court.[187] In December 2010, however, the Turkish government ended the headscarf ban in universities and schools.[188] The ban for civil servants remains in place.[188][189]
InTunisia, women were banned from wearing the hijab in state offices in 1981; in the 1980s and 1990s, more restrictions were put in place.[190]
In June 2024, Tajikistan's parliament passed a bill banning "foreign clothing" and religious celebrations for children during the Islamic holidays ofEid al-Fitr andEid al-Adha. The upper house, Majlisi Milli, approved the legislation on June 19, following approval by the lower house, Majlisi Namoyandagon, on May 8. The bill specifically targets the hijab, a traditional Islamic headscarf. This formalization of restrictions comes after years of Tajikistan unofficially discouraging Islamic attire, including headscarves and bushy beards.[191] In 2007, the Ministry of Education banned both Islamic clothing and Western-style miniskirts in schools, a policy later extended to all public institutions. Minister of CultureShamsiddin Orumbekzoda toldRadio Free Europe that Islamic dress was "really dangerous". Under previous laws, women wearing hijabs are already banned from entering the country's government offices.[192][193]
On 15 March 2004, France passeda law banning "symbols or clothes through which students conspicuously display their religious affiliation" in public primary schools, middle schools, and secondary schools. In the Belgian city ofMaaseik, the niqāb has been banned since 2006.[195] On 13 July 2010, France's lower house of parliament overwhelmingly approved a bill that would ban wearing the Islamic full veil in public. It became the first European country to ban the full-face veil in public places,[196] followed by Belgium, Latvia, Bulgaria, Austria, Denmark and some cantons of Switzerland in the following years.
Belgium banned the full-face veil in 2011 in places like parks and on the streets. In September 2013, the electors of the Swiss canton of Ticino voted in favour of a ban on face veils in public areas.[197] In 2016, Latvia and Bulgaria banned the burqa in public places.[198][199] In October 2017, wearing a face veil became also illegal in Austria. This ban also includes scarves, masks and clown paint that cover faces to avoid discriminating against Muslim dress.[196] In 2016, Bosnia-Herzegovina's supervising judicial authority upheld a ban on wearing Islamic headscarves in courts and legal institutions, despite protests from the Muslim community that constitutes 40% of the country.[200][201] In 2017, theEuropean Court of Justice ruled that companies were allowed to bar employees from wearing visible religious symbols, including the hijab. However, if the company has no policy regarding the wearing of clothes that demonstrate religious and political ideas, a customer cannot ask employees to remove the clothing item.[202] In 2018, the Danish parliament passed a law banning the full-face veil in public places.[203]
In 2016, more than 20 French towns banned the use of theburqini, a style of swimwear intended to accord with rules of hijab.[204][205][206] Dozens of women were subsequently issued fines, with some tickets citing not wearing "an outfit respecting good morals and secularism", and some were verbally attacked by bystanders when they were confronted by the police.[204][207][208][209] Enforcement of the ban also hit beachgoers wearing a wide range of modest attire besides the burqini.[204][209] Media reported that in one case the police forced a woman to remove part of her clothing on a beach in Nice.[207][208][209] The Nice mayor's office denied that she was forced to do so and the mayor condemned what he called the "unacceptable provocation" of wearing such clothes in the aftermath of theNice terrorist attack.[204][209]
A team of psychologists in Belgium have investigated, in two studies of 166 and 147 participants, whether the Belgians' discomfort with the Islamic hijab, and the support of its ban from the country's public sphere, is motivated by the defence of the values of autonomy and universalism (which includes equality), or by xenophobia/ethnic prejudice and by anti-religious sentiments. The studies have revealed the effects of subtle prejudice/racism, values (self-enhancement values and security versus universalism), and religious attitudes (literal anti-religious thinking versus spirituality), in predicting greater levels of anti-veil attitudes beyond the effects of other related variables such as age and political conservatism.[210]
In 2019, Austria banned the hijab inschools for children up to ten years of age. The ban was motivated by the equality between men and women and improving social integration with respect to local customs. Parents who send their child to school with a headscarf will be fined 440 euro.[211] The ban was overturned in 2020 by theAustrian Constitutional Court.[212]
In India, Muslim women are allowed to wear the hijab and/orburqa anytime, anywhere.[214][215][216] However, in January 2022, a number of colleges in the South Indian state ofKarnataka stopped female students wearing the hijab from entering the campus, following which the state government issued a circular banning 'religious clothes' in educational institutions whereuniforms are prescribed.[217] On 15 March 2022, the Karnataka High Court, in a verdict, upheld the hijab ban in educational institutions where uniforms are prescribed, arguing that the practice is non-essential in Islam.[218] The hijab ban was condemned inside India and abroad by officials in countries including theUnited States,Bahrain andPakistan, as well as byHuman Rights Watch, and by figures likeMalala Yousafzai.[219][220]
A study published by human rights bodyPeople's Union for Civil Liberties reported that the move to ban hijab has widened the social divide and increased fear among Muslims in Karnataka.[221]
In Xinjiang province, theChinese government has banned women from wearing veils as part of a major crackdown on what it sees as religious extremism from MuslimUighurs.[222]
InSrinagar, the capital of the Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir, a previously unknown militant group calling itselfLashkar-e-Jabbar claimed responsibility for a series of acid attacks on women who did not wear theburqa in 2001, threatening to punish women who do not adhere to their vision of Islamic dress. Women of Kashmir, most of whom are not fully veiled, defied the warning, and the attacks were condemned by prominent militant and separatist groups of the region.[223][224]
Somewomen in Jordan have reported unofficial pressure to wear a hijab in 2018.[225]
In recent years, women wearing the hijab have been subjected to verbal and physical attacks worldwide, particularly following terrorist attacks.[226][36][227] Louis A. Cainkar writes that the data suggest that women in hijab rather than men are the predominant target of anti-Muslim attacks, not because they are more easily identifiable as Muslims, but because they are seen to represent a threat to the local moral order that the attackers are seeking to defend.[36] Some women stop wearing the hijab out of fear or following perceived pressure from their acquaintances, but many refuse to stop wearing it out of religious conviction, even when they are urged to do so for self-protection.[36]
Kazakhstan has no official ban on wearing the hijab, but those who wear it have reported that authorities use a number of tactics to discriminate against them.[228]
In 2015, authorities inUzbekistan organized a "deveiling" campaign in the capital cityTashkent, during which women wearing the hijab were detained and taken to a police station. Those who agreed to remove their hijab were released "after a conversation", while those who refused were transferred to the counterterrorism department and given a lecture. Their husbands or fathers were then summoned to convince the women to obey the police. This followed an earlier campaign in theFergana Valley.[229]
After the election ofShavkat Mirziyoyev as President of Uzbekistan in December 2016, Muslims were given the opportunity to openly express their religious identity, which manifested itself in the wider spread of hijabs in Uzbekistan. In July 2021, the state allowed the wearing of the hijab in public places.[230]
InKyrgyzstan in 2016, the government sponsored street banners aiming to dissuade women from wearing the hijab.[231]
Workplace discrimination against hijab-wearing women
Discrimination against Muslims often affects women more due to the hijab making them more visible, leading toworkplace prejudice, particularly after the rise ofIslamophobia post-9/11.[37] Hijab-wearing Muslim women face both overt and covert discrimination in job applications and workplace environments, with covert bias often resulting in more hostile treatment.[38] Perceived discrimination can harm well-being,[39] but may also be overcome by religious pride and community; studies show hijab-wearing women often find greater strength andbelonging despite challenges.[40]
The issue of discrimination against Muslims affects Muslim women more due to the hijab making them more identifiable compared to Muslim men. Particularly after theSeptember 11 attacks and the coining of the termIslamophobia, some of Islamophobia's manifestations are seen within the workplace.[37] Women wearing the hijab are at risk of discrimination in their workplace because the hijab helps identify them for anyone who may hold Islamophobic attitudes.[232][233] Their association with the Islamic faith automatically projects any negative stereotyping of the religion onto them.[234] As a result of the heightened discrimination, some hijab-wearing Muslim women in the workplace resort to taking off their hijab in hopes to prevent any further prejudice acts.[235]
A number of hijab-wearing women who were interviewed expressed that perceived discrimination also poses a problem for them.[236] To be specific, Muslim women shared that they chose not to wear the headscarf out of fear of future discrimination.[236]
The discrimination hijab-wearing Muslim women face goes beyond affecting their work experience; it also interferes with their decision to uphold religious obligations. As a result, hijab-wearing Muslim women in the United States have worries regarding their ability to follow their religion, because it might mean they are rejected employment.[237] Ali, Yamada, and Mahmoud (2015)[238] state that women of color who also follow the religion of Islam are considered to be in what is called "triple jeopardy", due to being a part of two minority groups subject to discrimination.[citation needed]
A study by Ali et al. (2015)[238] found a relationship between the discrimination Muslims face at work and their job satisfaction. In other words, the discrimination hijab-wearing Muslim women face at work is associated with their overall feeling of contentment of their jobs, especially compared to other religious groups.[239]
Hijab-wearing Muslim women not only experience discrimination whilst in their job environment; they also experience discrimination in their attempts to get a job. An experimental study conducted on potential hiring discrimination among Muslims found that in terms of overt discrimination there were no differences between Muslim women who wore traditional Islamic clothing and those who did not. However, covert discrimination was noted towards Muslim who wore the hijab, and as a result were dealt with in a hostile and rude manner.[38] While observing hiring practices among 4,000 employers in the U.S., experimenters found that employers who self-identified asRepublican tended to avoid making interviews with candidates who appeared Muslim on their social network pages.[240]
One instance that some view as hijab discrimination in the workplace that gained public attention and made it to the Supreme Court wasEEOC v. Abercrombie & Fitch. TheU.S Equal Employment Opportunity Commission took advantage of its power granted by Title VII and made a case for a young hijabi female who applied for a job, but was rejected due to her wearing a headscarf which violated Abercrombie & Fitch's pre-existing and longstanding policy against head coverings and all black garments.[241]
Discrimination levels differ depending on geographical location; for example, South Asian Muslims in the United Arab Emirates do not perceive as much discrimination as their South Asian counterparts in the U.S.[242] Although, South Asian Muslim women in both locations are similar in describing discrimination experiences as subtle and indirect interactions.[242] The same study also reports differences among South Asian Muslim women who wear the hijab, and those who do not. For non-hijabis, they reported to have experienced more perceived discrimination when they were around other Muslims.[242]
Perceived discrimination is detrimental to well-being, both mentally and physically.[39] However, perceived discrimination may also be related to more positive well-being for the individual.[40] A study in New Zealand concluded that while Muslim women who wore the headscarf did in fact experience discrimination, these negative experiences were overcome by much higher feelings of religious pride, belonging, and centrality.[40]
The World Hijab Day (WHD), which is an annualevent founded byBangladeshi American Nazma Khan in 2013,[243] takes place on 1 February each year in 140 countries worldwide.[244] Its stated purpose is to encourage women of all religions and backgrounds to wear and experience the hijab for a day and to educate and spread awareness on why hijab is worn.[245]
^Beyza Bilgin states that the expression 'let them put their outer coverings over themselves' in the 59th verse ofAl-Ahzab was revealed because they harassed women under the conditions of that day, considering them to be concubines, and commented as follows:[47]
"In other words, veiling is a security issue that arose according to the needs of that period. These are not taken into consideration at all and are reflected as God's command. Women have been called God's command for a thousand years. Women said the same thing to their daughters and daughters-in-law."
She said the following about covering herself inprayer :
"They tell me; 'Do you cover yourself while praying?' Of course, I cover up when I'm in congregation. I am obliged not to disturb the peace. But I also pray with my head uncovered in my own home. Because the Quran's requirement for prayer is not covering up, but ablution and turning towards the qibla. This is a thousand year old issue. It's so ingrained in us. But this should definitely not be underestimated. Because people do it thinking it is God's command. But on the other hand, we should not declare a person who does not cover up as a bad woman."[47]
^The term hijab is used in the Qur'an in the sense of "a curtain" or "partition"; verses that use the term (eg. 7:46, 33:53) are not related to dress code.[54][19]
^Google Translate gives similar pronunciations of this word with the same meaning in many languages; For example Turkish, Persian, Urdu, Greek, Pashto, Somali, Hungarian, Albanian, Georgian….
^One of the biggest difficulties in understanding the Quran for those who do not knowits language may be shifts inlinguistic usage over the centuries. Studies involving understanding, interpreting and translating the Quran can contain individual tendencies, reflections and even distortions[59][60] caused by the region,sect,[61] education, religious ideology[62] and knowledge of the people who made them.
^It is reported thatUmar prohibitedfemale slaves from resembling free women by covering their hair.[66]
^Spurgeon, Andrew B. (14 August 2016).Twin Cultures Separated by Centuries: An Indian Reading of 1 Corinthians. Langham Publishing. p. 196.ISBN978-1-78368-139-6.Ghoonghat (alsoghunghat orjhund) is the Hindi word used for a veil or a scarf that a woman in northern India wears to cover her head or face (in states such as Gujarat, Rajasthan, Haryana, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, and Assam). Sometimes the end of a sari ordupatta (a long scarf) is pulled over the head or face to function as aghoonghat.
^abcAhmad, A. S., King, E. B.(2010). An experimental field study of interpersonal discrimination toward Muslim job applicants.Personnel Psychology,63(4), 881–906
^abcPascoe, E. A., & Smart Richman, L. (2009). Perceived discrimination and health: a meta-analytic review.Psychological Bulletin,135(4), 531
^There are occasional misinterpretations, mistranslations, and even distortions. Translating the meanings of the Holy Quran has always been challenging for translators, as the Quran has an exoteric and an esoteric meaning.https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED613311.pdf
^Therefore, it can be noted that the ideology of religion, attitude, and social context of the translators, as well as the involvement of the state, might affect the translation of the Holy Qur’an into various target languages. Gunawan, F. (2022). The ideology of translators in Quranic translation: lessons learned from Indonesia. Cogent Arts & Humanities, 9(1).https://doi.org/10.1080/23311983.2022.2088438
^Those who show sensitivity to close these places at times other than ablution are respected, but those who do not do this are not despised Prof. Dr. Yaşar Nuri Öztürk - Islam in the Quran – P. Number: 615-616
^Slininger, Sara (2014)."Veiled Women: Hijab, Religion, and Cultural Practice"(PDF).Eastern Illinois University. Retrieved29 November 2024.Arabia practiced veiling in pre-Islamic times, the Banū Ismāʿīl and Banū Qaḥṭān. Veiling was a sign of a women's social status within those societies
^El Fadl, Khaled Abou (2005), The Great Theft: Wresting Islam From the Extremists, Harper San Francisco, p.274
^Kahf, Mohja (2008). "From Her Royal Body the Robe Was Removed: The Blessings of the Veil and the Trauma of Forced Unveilings in the Middle East".The Veil: Women Writers on Its History, Lore, and Politics. University of California Press. p. 27.
^abcAhmed, Leila (1992).Women and Gender in Islam. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 15.
^Ahmed, Leila (1992).Women and Gender in Islam. New Haven: Yale University Press. pp. 27–28.
^"On Account of the Angels: Why I Cover My Head". Orthodox Christian Information Center. Retrieved8 April 2022.St. John Chrysostom thought that Paul, in admonishing women to wear a covering "because of the angels," meant it "not at the time of prayer only, but also continually, she ought to be covered." Fr. Rhodes agrees: "The veil can be the constant symbol of the true woman of God … a way of life … a testimony of faith and of the salvation of God, not only before men, but angels as well."
^Anderson, Cory A. (2013).The Ornament of a Spirit: Exploring the Reasons Covering Styles Change.Stoneboro: Ridgeway Publishing. pp. 14–21,29–30, 85.
^Anderson, Cory A. (2013).The Ornament of a Spirit: Exploring the Reasons Covering Styles Change.Stoneboro: Ridgeway Publishing. p. 13.
^Gupta, Kamala (2003).Women In Hindu Social System (1206–1707 A.D.). Inter-India Publications.ISBN9788121004145.Hindu ladies covered their head with a kind of veil known as Ghoonghat.
^Gupta, Kamala (1987).Social Status of Hindu Women in Northern India, 1206-1707 A.D. Inter-India Publications. p. 131.ISBN978-81-210-0179-3.The Hindu ladies covered their heads with a kind of veil known asghoonghat.
^Ahmed, Leila (1992).Women and Gender in Islam. New Haven: Yale University Press. pp. 26–28.
^Ahmed, Leila (1992).Women and Gender in Islam. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 35.
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^Caswell, F. M. (2011). The Slave Girls of Baghdad: The Qiyan in the Early Abbasid Era. Storbritannien: I.B.Tauris. 6-7
^abcdeEl Guindi, Fadwa; Zuhur, Sherifa."Ḥijāb". The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World. Archived fromthe original on 24 October 2014. Retrieved11 October 2012.
^abcBullock, Katherine (2000). "Challenging Medial Representations of the Veil".The American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences.17 (3):22–53.doi:10.35632/ajis.v17i3.2045.
^Elsaie, Adel."Dr". United States of Islam. Archived fromthe original on 24 December 2012.
^Strategies for promotion of chastity (Persian), the official website of Iranian Majlis (04/05/1384 AP,available onlineArchived 19 October 2017 at theWayback Machine)
^"Coverings for women 'not mandatory', says Saudi crown prince ahead of US charm offensive".The New Arab (Al-Araby Al-Jadeed). 20 March 2018.Archived from the original on 2 January 2019. Retrieved1 January 2019.Islamic clothing in Saudi Arabia is compulsory, but the crown prince has claimed this does not have to the case so long as women maintain a modest appearance in public. Saudi Arabia requires women to wear the black robe and hijab by law.
^Saroglou, Vassilis; Lamkaddem, Bahija; Van Pachterbeke, Matthieu; Buxant, Coralie (2009). "Host society's dislike of the Islamic veil: The role of subtle prejudice, values, and religion".International Journal of Intercultural Relations.33 (5):419–428.CiteSeerX10.1.1.471.6175.doi:10.1016/j.ijintrel.2009.02.005.
^Bergenfeld, Irina; Clark, Cari Jo; Sandhu, Seema; Yount, Kathryn M.; Essaid, Aida A.; Sajdi, Jude; Abu Taleb, Rand; Robbin, Zoe; Batayeh, Brian; Zwooqar, Ahad; Spencer, Rachael A. (2022). ""There Is Always an Excuse to Blame the Girl": Perspectives on Sexual Harassment at a Jordanian University".Violence Against Women.28 (14):3457–3481.doi:10.1177/10778012221079373.ISSN1077-8012.PMID35200046.
^Malikov A. and Djuraeva D. 2021. Women, Islam, and politics in Samarkand (1991–2021), International Journal of Modern Anthropology. 2 (16): 563. DOI: 10.4314/ijma.v2i16.2
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^Cole, Darnell; Ahmadi, Shafiqa (2003). "Perspectives and Experiences of Muslim Women Who Veil on College Campuses".Journal of College Student Development.44:47–66.doi:10.1353/csd.2003.0002.S2CID145659665.
^abReeves, T., Mckinney, A., & Azam, L. (2012). Muslim women's workplace experiences: Implications for strategic diversity initiatives.Equality, Diversity and Inclusion,32(1), 49-67.
^abAli, S., Yamada, T., & Mahmood, A. (2015). Relationships of the practice of Hijab, workplace discrimination, social class, job stress, and job satisfaction among Muslim American women.Journal of Employment Counseling,52(4), 146-157
^Harrison, A. K. (2016). Hiding under the veil of “dress policy”: Muslim women, hijab, and employment discrimination in the United States.Georgetown Journal of Gender and the Law,17(3), 831
^abcPasha-Zaidi, N. (2015). Judging by appearances: Perceived discrimination among South Asian Muslim women in the US and the UAE.Journal of International Women's Studies,16(2), 70-97
Bukhārī, Muḥammad ibn Ismāʻīl (1997).Ṣaḥīḥ Al-Bukhārī: The Translation of the Meanings of Sahih Al-Bukhari : Arabic-English (in Arabic). Darussalam Pub. & Distr.ISBN9960-717-32-1.
Elver, Hilal.The Headscarf Controversy: Secularism and Freedom of Religion (Oxford University Press; 2012); 265 pages; Criticizes policies that serve to exclude pious Muslim women from the public sphere in Turkey, France, Germany, and the United States.
Yurdakul, Gökce and Anna C. Korteweg.The Headscarf Debates: Conflicts of National BelongingArchived 3 March 2021 at theWayback Machine (Stanford University Press; 2014) Media debates on stigmatizing Muslim women and how Muslim women respond to these critics for the country cases of Germany, Turkey, the Netherlands and France.
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