In the modern era, the Achaemenid Empire has been recognised for its imposition of a successful model of centralised bureaucratic administration, its multicultural policy, building complex infrastructure such asroad systems and anorganised postal system, the use of official languages across its territories, and the development of civil services, including its possession ofa large, professional army. Its advancements inspired the implementation of similar styles of governance by a variety of later empires.[22]
By 330 BC, the Achaemenid Empire was conquered byAlexander the Great, an ardent admirer of Cyrus; the conquest marked a key achievement in the then-ongoing campaign of hisMacedonian Empire.[23][24]Alexander's death marks the beginning of theHellenistic period, when most of the fallen Achaemenid Empire's territory came under the rule of thePtolemaic Kingdom and theSeleucid Empire, both of which had emerged as successors to the Macedonian Empire following thePartition of Triparadisus in 321 BC. Hellenistic rule remained in place for almost a century before the Iranian elites of the central plateau reclaimed power under theParthian Empire.[21]
The Achaemenid Empire borrows its name from the ancestor of Cyrus the Great, the founder of the empire,Achaemenes. The termAchaemenid means "of the family of the Achaemenis/Achaemenes" (Old Persian:𐏃𐎧𐎠𐎶𐎴𐎡𐏁,romanized: Haxāmaniš;[25] abahuvrihi compound translating to "having a friend's mind").[26] Achaemenes was himself a minor seventh-century ruler of theAnshan in southwestern Iran, and a vassal ofAssyria.[27]
Around 850 BC the original nomadic people who began the empire called themselves theParsa and their constantly shifting territoryParsua, for the most part localized around Persis.[21] The name "Persia" is a Greek andLatin pronunciation of the native word referring to the country of the people originating fromPersis (Old Persian:𐎱𐎠𐎼𐎿,romanized: Pārsa).[27] ThePersian term𐎧𐏁𐏂Xšāça, literally meaning "The Kingdom",[20] was used to refer to the Empire formed by their multinational state.[28]
The Persian nation contains a number of tribes as listed here. ... : thePasargadae,Maraphii, andMaspii, upon which all the other tribes are dependent. Of these, the Pasargadae are the most distinguished; they contain the clan of the Achaemenids from which spring the Perseid kings. Other tribes are the Panthialaei, Derusiaei,Germanii, all of which are attached to the soil, the remainder—theDai,Mardi,Dropici,Sagarti, beingnomadic.
The Achaemenids were initially rulers of the Elamite city ofAnshan near the modern city ofMarvdasht;[31] the title "King of Anshan" was an adaptation of the earlier Elamite title "King of Susa and Anshan".[32] There are conflicting accounts of the identities of the earliest Kings of Anshan. According to theCyrus Cylinder (the oldest extant genealogy of the Achaemenids) the kings of Anshan wereTeispes,Cyrus I,Cambyses I andCyrus II, also known as Cyrus the Great, who founded the empire.[31] The laterBehistun Inscription, written byDarius the Great, claims that Teispes was the son ofAchaemenes and that Darius is also descended from Teispes through a different line, but no earlier texts mention Achaemenes.[33] InHerodotus'Histories, he writes that Cyrus the Great was the son of Cambyses I andMandane of Media, the daughter ofAstyages, the king of the Median Empire.[34]
Cyrus revolted against the Median Empire in 553 BC, and in 550 BC succeeded in defeating the Medes, capturing Astyages and taking the Median capital city ofEcbatana.[35][36][37] Once in control of Ecbatana, Cyrus styled himself as the successor to Astyages and assumed control of the entire empire.[38] By inheriting Astyages' empire, he also inherited the territorial conflicts the Medes had with bothLydia and theNeo-Babylonian Empire.[39]
KingCroesus of Lydia sought to take advantage of the new international situation by advancing into what had previously been Median territory in Asia Minor.[40][41] Cyrus led a counterattack which not only fought off Croesus' armies, but also led to the capture ofSardis and the fall of the Lydian Kingdom in 546 BC.[42][43][c] Cyrus placedPactyes in charge of collecting tribute in Lydia and left, but once Cyrus had left Pactyes instigated a rebellion against Cyrus.[43][44][45] Cyrus sent the Median generalMazares to deal with the rebellion, and Pactyes was captured. Mazares, and after his deathHarpagus, set about reducing all the cities which had taken part in the rebellion. The subjugation of Lydia took about four years in total.[46]
When the power in Ecbatana changed hands from the Medes to the Persians, many tributaries to the Median Empire believed their situation had changed and revolted against Cyrus.[47] This forced Cyrus to fight wars againstBactria and the nomadicSaka in Central Asia.[48] During these wars, Cyrus established severalgarrison towns in Central Asia, including theCyropolis.[49]
Nothing is known of Persia–Babylon relations between 547 and 539 BC, but it is likely that there were hostilities between the two empires for several years leading up to the war of 540–539 BC and theFall of Babylon.[50] In October 539 BC, Cyrus won a battle against the Babylonians atOpis, then tookSippar without a fight before finally capturing the city ofBabylon on 12 October, where the Babylonian kingNabonidus was taken prisoner.[51][50][52] Upon taking control of the city, Cyrus depicted himself in propaganda as restoring the divine order which had been disrupted byNabonidus, who had promoted the cult ofSin rather thanMarduk,[53][54][55] and he also portrayed himself as restoring the heritage of theNeo-Assyrian Empire by comparing himself to the Assyrian kingAshurbanipal.[56][57][55] Cyrus is credited with freeing the people ofJudah from their exile and with authorizing the reconstruction of much ofJerusalem, including theSecond Temple.[58]
In 530 BC, Cyrus died and was succeeded by his eldest sonCambyses II, while his younger sonBardiya[d] received a large territory in Central Asia.[61][62] By 525 BC, Cambyses had successfully subjugatedPhoenicia andCyprus and was making preparations to invade Egypt with the newly created Persian navy.[63][64] PharaohAmasis II had died in 526, and had been succeeded byPsamtik III, resulting in the defection of key Egyptian allies to the Persians.[64] Psamtik positioned his army atPelusium in theNile Delta. He was soundly defeated by the Persians in theBattle of Pelusium before fleeing toMemphis, where the Persians defeated him and took him prisoner. After attempting a failed revolt, Psamtik III promptly committed suicide.[64][65]
Herodotus depicts Cambyses as openly antagonistic to the Egyptian people and their gods, cults, temples, and priests, in particular stressing the murder of the sacred bullApis.[66] He says that these actions led to a madness that caused him to kill his brother Bardiya (who Herodotus says was killed in secret),[67] his own sister-wife[68] and Croesus of Lydia.[69] He then concludes that Cambyses completely lost his mind,[70] and all later classical authors repeat the themes of Cambyses' impiety and madness. However, this is based on spurious information, as the epitaph of Apis from 524 BC shows that Cambyses participated in the funeral rites of Apis styling himself as pharaoh.[71]
Following the conquest of Egypt, theLibyans and the Greeks ofCyrene andBarca in present-day eastern Libya (Cyrenaica) surrendered to Cambyses and sent tribute without a fight.[64][65] Cambyses then planned invasions ofCarthage, the oasis of Ammon andEthiopia.[72] Herodotus claims that the naval invasion of Carthage was canceled because the Phoenicians, who made up a large part of Cambyses' fleet, refused to take up arms against their own people,[73] but modern historians doubt whether an invasion of Carthage was ever planned at all.[64] However, Cambyses dedicated his efforts to the other two campaigns, aiming to improve the Empire's strategic position in Africa by conquering theKingdom of Meroë and taking strategic positions in the western oases. To this end, he established a garrison atElephantine consisting mainly of Jewish soldiers, who remained stationed at Elephantine throughout Cambyses' reign.[64] The invasions of Ammon and Ethiopia themselves were failures. Herodotus claims that the invasion of Ethiopia was a failure due to the madness of Cambyses and the lack of supplies for his men,[74] but archaeological evidence suggests that the expedition was not a failure, and a fortress at theSecond Cataract of the Nile, on the border between Egypt and Kush, remained in use throughout the Achaemenid period.[64][75]
The events surrounding Cambyses's death and Bardiya's succession are greatly debated as there are many conflicting accounts.[60] According to Herodotus, as Bardiya's assassination had been committed in secret, the majority of Persians still believed him to be alive. This allowed twoMagi to rise up against Cambyses, with one of them sitting on the throne able to impersonate Bardiya because of their remarkable physical resemblance and shared name (Smerdis in Herodotus's accounts[d]).[76]Ctesias writes that when Cambyses had Bardiya killed he immediately put the magus Sphendadates in his place as satrap of Bactria due to a remarkable physical resemblance.[77] Two of Cambyses' confidants then conspired to usurp Cambyses and put Sphendadates on the throne under the guise of Bardiya.[78] According to theBehistun Inscription, written by the following kingDarius the Great, a magus named Gaumata impersonated Bardiya and incited a revolution in Persia.[59] Whatever the exact circumstances of the revolt, Cambyses heard news of it in the summer of 522 BC and began to return from Egypt, but he was wounded in the thigh in Syria and died of gangrene, so Bardiya's impersonator became king.[79][e] The account of Darius is the earliest, and although the later historians all agree on the key details of the story, that a magus impersonated Bardiya and took the throne, this may have been a story created by Darius to justify his own usurpation.[81] IranologistPierre Briant hypothesises that Bardiya was not killed by Cambyses, but waited until his death in the summer of 522 BC to claim his legitimate right to the throne as he was then the only male descendant of the royal family. Briant says that although the hypothesis of a deception by Darius is generally accepted today, "nothing has been established with certainty at the present time, given the available evidence".[82]
The Achaemenid Empire at its greatest extentc. 500 BC
According to theBehistun inscription, Gaumata ruled for seven months before being overthrown in 522 BC byDarius the Great (Old PersianDāryavuš, "who holds firm the good", also known asDarayarahush). The Magi, though persecuted, continued to exist, and a year following the death of the first pseudo-Smerdis (Gaumata), saw a second pseudo-Smerdis (Vahyazdāta) attempt a coup. The coup, though initially successful, failed.[83]
Herodotus writes[84] that the native leadership debated the best form of government for the empire.
Ever since theMacedonian kingAmyntas I surrendered his country to the Persians in about 512–511, Macedonians and Persians were strangers no more as well. The subjugation ofMacedonia was part of Persian military operations initiated byDarius the Great (521–486) in 513—after immense preparations—a huge Achaemenid army invaded theBalkans andtried to defeat the EuropeanScythians roaming to the north of theDanube river.[85] Darius' army subjugated severalThracian people, and virtually all other regions that touch the European part of theBlack Sea, such as parts of modernBulgaria,Romania,Ukraine, andRussia, before it returned toAsia Minor.[85][86] Darius left in Europe one of his commanders namedMegabazus whose task was to accomplish conquests in the Balkans.[85] The Persian troops subjugated gold-richThrace, the coastal Greek cities, and defeated and conquered the powerfulPaeonians.[85][87][88] Finally, Megabazus sent envoys to Amyntas, demanding acceptance of Persian domination, which the Macedonians did. The Balkans provided many soldiers for the multi-ethnic Achaemenid army. Many of the Macedonian and Persian elite intermarried, such as the Persian officialBubares who married Amyntas' daughter, Gygaea. Family ties that the Macedonian rulers Amyntas and Alexander enjoyed with Bubares ensured them good relations with the Persian kings Darius andXerxes I, who was also known as Xerxes the Great. The Persian invasion led indirectly to Macedonia's rise in power and Persia had some common interests in the Balkans; with Persian aid, the Macedonians stood to gain much at the expense of some Balkan tribes such as the Paeonians and Greeks. All in all, the Macedonians were "willing and useful Persian allies. Macedonian soldiers fought against Athens andSparta in Xerxes I's army.[85] The Persians referred to both Greeks and Macedonians asYauna ("Ionians", their term for "Greeks"), and to Macedonians specifically asYaunã Takabara or "Greeks with hats that look like shields", possibly referring to the Macedoniankausia hat.[89]
Greekhoplite and Persian warrior depicted fighting, on an ancientkylix, 5th century BC
TheIonian Revolt in 499 BC, and associated revolts in Aeolis, Doris, Cyprus, and Caria, were military rebellions by several regions of Asia Minor against Persian rule, lasting from 499 to 493 BC. At the heart of the rebellion was the dissatisfaction of the Greek cities of Asia Minor with the tyrants appointed by Persia to rule them, along with the individual actions of two Milesian tyrants,Histiaeus andAristagoras. In 499 BC, the then-tyrant ofMiletus, Aristagoras, launched a joint expedition with the Persian satrapArtaphernes toconquer Naxos, in an attempt to bolster his position in Miletus, both financially and in terms of prestige. The mission was a debacle, and sensing his imminent removal as a tyrant, Aristagoras chose to incite the whole of Ionia into rebellion against the Persian king, Darius I, who was commonly known as Darius the Great.[citation needed]
The Persians continued to reduce the cities along the west coast that still held out against them, before finally imposing a peace settlement in 493 BC on Ionia that was generally considered to be both just and fair. TheIonian Revolt constituted the first major conflict between Greece and the Achaemenid Empire, and as such represents the first phase of the Greco-Persian Wars. Asia Minor had been brought back into the Persian fold, but Darius had vowed to punish Athens and Eretria for their support of the revolt.[97] Moreover, seeing that the political situation in Greece posed a continued threat to the stability of his Empire, he decided to embark on the conquest of all of Greece. The first campaign of the invasion was to bring the territories in theBalkan peninsula back within the empire.[98] The Persian grip over these territories had loosened following the Ionian Revolt. In 492 BC, the Persian generalMardonius re-subjugatedThrace and madeMacedonia a fullysubordinate part of the empire; it had been a vassal as early as the late 6th century BC but retained a great deal of autonomy.[98] However, in 490 BC the Persian forces were defeated by the Athenians at theBattle of Marathon and Darius I would die before having the chance to launch an invasion of Greece.[99]
Achaemenid king fighting hoplites, seal and seal holder,Cimmerian Bosporus.
Xerxes I (485–465 BC, Old PersianXšayārša "Hero Among Kings"), son ofDarius I, vowed to complete the job. He organized a massive invasion aiming to conquerGreece. His army entered Greece from the north in the spring of 480 BC, meeting little or no resistance throughMacedonia andThessaly, but was delayed by a small Greek force for three days atThermopylae. A simultaneous navalbattle of Artemisium was tactically indecisive as large storms destroyed ships from both sides. The battle was stopped prematurely when the Greeks received news of the defeat at Thermopylae and retreated. The battle was a tactical victory for the Persians, giving them uncontested control of Artemisium and the Aegean Sea.[100]
Following his victory at theBattle of Thermopylae, Xerxes sacked the evacuated city ofAthens and prepared to meet the Greeks at the strategicIsthmus of Corinth and theSaronic Gulf. In 480 BC the Greeks won a decisive victory over the Persian fleet at theBattle of Salamis and forced Xerxes to retire toSardis.[101] The land army which he left in Greece underMardonius retook Athens but was eventually destroyed in 479 BC at theBattle of Plataea. The final defeat of the Persians atMycale encouraged the Greek cities of Asia to revolt, and the Persians lost all of their territories in Europe with Macedonia once again becoming independent.[85]Artabanus, the commander of the royal bodyguard and the most powerful official in the Persian court, assassinated Xerxes with the help of aeunuch, Aspamitres.[102] The exact year and date of Xerxes' assassination is disputed among historians.
AfterXerxes I was assassinated, he was succeeded by his eldest surviving sonArtaxerxes I. It was during his reign thatElamite ceased to be the language of government,[citation needed] and Aramaic gained in importance. It was probably during this reign that the solar calendar was introduced as the national calendar. Under Artaxerxes I,Zoroastrianism became thede facto religion of the empire.[citation needed]
After Persia had been defeated at theBattle of Eurymedon (469 or 466 BC[103]), military action between Greece and Persia was halted. When Artaxerxes I took power, he introduced a new Persian strategy of weakening the Athenians by funding their enemies in Greece. This indirectly caused the Athenians to move the treasury of theDelian League from the island ofDelos to the Athenian acropolis. This funding practice inevitably prompted renewed fighting in 450 BC, where the Greeks attacked at theBattle of Cyprus. AfterCimon's failure to attain much in this expedition, thePeace of Callias was agreed betweenAthens,Argos andPersia in 449 BC.[104][105]
When Artaxerxes died in 424 BC atSusa, his body was taken to the tomb already built for him in theNaqsh-e Rustam Necropolis. It was Persian tradition that kings begin constructing their own tombs while they were still alive. Artaxerxes I was immediately succeeded by his eldest and only legitimate son,Xerxes II.[107] However, after a few days on the throne, he was assassinated while drunk by Pharnacyas and Menostanes on the orders of his illegitimate brotherSogdianus, who apparently had gained the support of his regions. Sogdianus reigned for six months and fifteen days before being captured by his half-brother,Ochus, who had rebelled against him. Sogdianus was executed by beingsuffocated in ash because Ochus had promised he would not die by the sword, by poison or by hunger.[108] Ochus then took the royal name Darius II. Darius' ability to defend his position on the throne ended the short power vacuum.[109]
From 412 BCDarius II, at the insistence ofTissaphernes, gave support first to Athens, then to Sparta, but in 407 BC, Darius' sonCyrus the Younger was appointed to replace Tissaphernes and aid was given entirely to Sparta which finally defeated Athens in 404 BC. In the same year, Darius fell ill and died in Babylon. His death gave an Egyptian rebel namedAmyrtaeus the opportunity to throw offPersian control over Egypt. At his death bed, Darius' Babylonian wifeParysatis pleaded with him to have her second eldest son Cyrus (the Younger) crowned, but Darius refused. Queen Parysatis favoured Cyrus more than her eldest sonArtaxerxes II.Plutarch relates (probably on the authority ofCtesias) that the displaced Tissaphernes came to the new king on his coronation day to warn him that his younger brother Cyrus (the Younger) was preparing to assassinate him during the ceremony. Artaxerxes had Cyrus arrested and would have had him executed if their mother Parysatis had not intervened. Cyrus was then sent back as Satrap of Lydia, where he prepared an armed rebellion. Cyrus assembled a large army, including a contingent ofTen Thousand Greek mercenaries, and made his way deeper into Persia. The army of Cyrus was stopped by the royal Persian army ofArtaxerxes II atCunaxa in 401 BC, where Cyrus was killed. TheTen Thousand Greek Mercenaries includingXenophon were now deep in Persian territory and were at risk of attack. So they searched for others to offer their services to but eventually had to return to Greece.[101][110]
Artaxerxes II was the longest reigning of the Achaemenid kings and it was during this 45-year period of relative peace and stability that many of the monuments of the era were constructed. Artaxerxes moved the capital back toPersepolis, which he greatly extended. Also, the summer capital atEcbatana was lavishly extended with gilded columns and roof tiles of silver and copper.[111] The extraordinary innovation of the Zoroastrian shrines can also be dated to his reign, and it was probably during this period that Zoroastrianism spread fromArmenia throughoutAsia Minor and theLevant. The construction of temples, though serving a religious purpose, was not a purely selfless act, as they also served as an important source of income. From the Babylonian kings, the Achaemenids adopted the concept of a mandatory temple tax, a one-tenth tithe which all inhabitants paid to the temple nearest to their land or another source of income.[112]
Persian Empire timeline including important events and territorial evolution – 550–323 BC
Artaxerxes II became involved in a war with Persia's erstwhile allies, theSpartans, who, underAgesilaus II, invadedAsia Minor. To redirect the Spartans' attention to Greek affairs, Artaxerxes II subsidized their enemies: in particular theAthenians,Thebans andCorinthians. These subsidies helped to engage theSpartans in what would become known as theCorinthian War. In 387 BC, Artaxerxes II betrayed his allies and came to an arrangement with Sparta, and in theTreaty of Antalcidas he forced his erstwhile allies to come to terms. This treaty restored control of the Greek cities ofIonia andAeolis on the Anatolian coast to the Persians while giving Sparta dominance on the Greek mainland. In 385 BC hecampaigned against the Cadusians. Although successful against the Greeks, Artaxerxes II had more trouble with theEgyptians, who had successfully revolted against him at the beginning of his reign. An attempt to reconquer Egypt in 373 BC was completely unsuccessful, but in his waning years the Persians did manage to defeat a joint Egyptian–Spartan effort to conquerPhoenicia. He quashed theRevolt of the Satraps in 372–362 BC. He is reported to have had a number of wives. His main wife wasStateira, until she was poisoned by Artaxerxes II's mother Parysatis in about 400 BC. Another chief wife was a Greek woman ofPhocaea named Aspasia (not the same as the concubine ofPericles). Artaxerxes II is said to have had more than 115 sons from 350 wives.[113]
In 358 BC Artaxerxes II died and was succeeded by his sonArtaxerxes III. In 355 BC, Artaxerxes III forcedAthens to conclude a peace which required the city's forces to leaveAsia Minor and to acknowledge the independence of its rebellious allies.[114] Artaxerxes started a campaign against the rebelliousCadusians, but he managed to appease both of the Cadusian kings. One individual who successfully emerged from this campaign was Darius Codomannus, who later occupied the Persian throne asDarius III.[citation needed]
Detail ofDarius, with a label in Greek (ΔΑΡΕΙΟΣ, top right) giving his name.
In 343 BC, Artaxerxes committed responsibility for the suppression of the Cyprian rebels toIdrieus, prince ofCaria, who employed 8,000 Greek mercenaries and fortytriremes, commanded byPhocion the Athenian, and Evagoras, son of the elderEvagoras, the Cypriot monarch.[117][118] Idrieus succeeded in reducing Cyprus. Artaxerxes initiated a counter-offensive againstSidon by commandingBelesys, satrap of Syria, andMazaeus,satrap of Cilicia, to invade the city and to keep thePhoenicians in check. Both satraps suffered crushing defeats at the hands of Tennes, the Sidonese king, who was aided by 40,000 Greek mercenaries sent to him byNectanebo II and commanded byMentor of Rhodes. As a result, the Persian forces were driven out ofPhoenicia.[118]
After this, Artaxerxes personally led an army of 330,000 men againstSidon. Artaxerxes' army comprised 300,000-foot soldiers, 30,000cavalry, 300 triremes, and 500 transports or provision ships. After gathering this army, he sought assistance from the Greeks. Though refused aid byAthens andSparta, he succeeded in obtaining a thousand Theban heavy-armed hoplites under Lacrates, three thousand Argives under Nicostratus, and six thousand Æolians,Ionians, and Dorians from the Greek cities of Asia Minor. This Greek support was numerically small, amounting to no more than 10,000 men, but it formed, together with the Greek mercenaries from Egypt who went over to him afterward, the force on which he placed his chief reliance, and to which the ultimate success of his expedition was mainly due. The approach of Artaxerxes sufficiently weakened the resolution of Tennes that he endeavoured to purchase his own pardon by delivering up 100 principal citizens of Sidon into the hands of the Persian king and then admitting Artaxerxes within the defences of the town. Artaxerxes had the 100 citizens transfixed with javelins, and when 500 more came out as supplicants to seek his mercy, Artaxerxes consigned them to the same fate. Sidon was then burnt to the ground, either by Artaxerxes or by the Sidonian citizens. Forty thousand people died in the conflagration.[118] Artaxerxes sold the ruins at a high price to speculators, who calculated on reimbursing themselves by the treasures which they hoped to dig out from among the ashes.[119] Tennes was later put to death by Artaxerxes.[120] Artaxerxes later sent Jews who supported the revolt toHyrcania on the south coast of theCaspian Sea.[121][122]
The reduction of Sidon was followed closely by the invasion of Egypt. In 343 BC, Artaxerxes III, in addition to his 330,000 Persians, had now a force of 14,000 Greeks furnished by the Greek cities of Asia Minor: 4,000 underMentor, consisting of the troops that he had brought to the aid of Tennes from Egypt; 3,000 sent by Argos; and 1,000 from Thebes. He divided these troops into three bodies, and placed at the head of each a Persian and a Greek. The Greek commanders were Lacrates of Thebes,Mentor of Rhodes and Nicostratus of Argos while the Persians were led by Rhossaces, Aristazanes, andBagoas, the chief of the eunuchs.Nectanebo II resisted with an army of 100,000 of whom 20,000 were Greek mercenaries. Nectanebo II occupied theNile and its various branches with his large navy.[citation needed]
The character of the country, intersected by numerous canals and full of strongly fortified towns, was in his favour and Nectanebo II might have been expected to offer a prolonged, if not even a successful resistance. However, he lacked good generals, and, over-confident in his own powers of command, he was out-maneuvered by the Greek mercenary generals, and his forces were eventually defeated by the combined Persian armies. After his defeat, Nectanebo hastily fled toMemphis, leaving the fortified towns to be defended by their garrisons. These garrisons consisted of partlyGreek and partly Egyptian troops; between whom jealousies and suspicions were easily sown by the Persian leaders. As a result, the Persians were able to rapidly reduce numerous towns across Lower Egypt and were advancing upon Memphis when Nectanebo decided to quit the country and flee southwards toEthiopia.[118] The Persian army completely routed the Egyptians and occupied the Lower Delta of the Nile. Following Nectanebo fleeing to Ethiopia, all of Egypt submitted to Artaxerxes. The Jews in Egypt were sent either toBabylon or to the south coast of theCaspian Sea, the same location that the Jews ofPhoenicia had earlier been sent.[citation needed]
After this victory over the Egyptians, Artaxerxes had the city walls destroyed, started a reign of terror, and set about looting all the temples.Persia gained a significant amount of wealth from this looting. Artaxerxes also raised high taxes and attempted to weakenEgypt enough that it could never revolt against Persia. For the 10 years that Persia controlled Egypt, believers in the native religion were persecuted and sacred books were stolen.[123] Before Artaxerxes returned to Persia, he appointed Pherendares assatrap of Egypt. With the wealth gained from his reconquering Egypt, Artaxerxes was able to amply reward his mercenaries. He then returned to his capital having successfully completed his invasion of Egypt.[citation needed]
After his success in Egypt, Artaxerxes returned to Persia and spent the next few years effectively quelling insurrections in various parts of the Empire so that a few years after his conquest of Egypt, the Persian Empire was firmly under his control. Egypt remained a part of the Persian Empire from then untilAlexander the Great's conquest of Egypt.[citation needed]
After the conquest of Egypt, there were no more revolts or rebellions against Artaxerxes. Mentor andBagoas, the two generals who had most distinguished themselves in the Egyptian campaign, were advanced to posts of the highest importance. Mentor, who was governor of the entire Asiatic seaboard, was successful in reducing to subjection many of the chiefs who during the recent troubles had rebelled against Persian rule. In the course of a few years, Mentor and his forces were able to bring the whole Asian Mediterranean coast into complete submission and dependence.[citation needed]
Bagoas went back to the Persian capital with Artaxerxes, where he took a leading role in the internal administration of the Empire and maintained tranquillity throughout the rest of the Empire. During the last six years of the reign of Artaxerxes III, the Persian Empire was governed by a vigorous and successful government.[118]
The Persian forces inIonia andLycia regained control of theAegean and theMediterranean Sea and took over much ofAthens' former island empire. In response,Isocrates of Athens started giving speeches calling for a 'crusade against the barbarians' but there was not enough strength left in any of the Greek city-states to answer his call.[124]
Although there were no rebellions in the Persian Empire itself, the growing power and territory ofPhilip II of Macedon inMacedon (against whichDemosthenes was in vain warning the Athenians) attracted the attention of Artaxerxes. In response, he ordered that Persian influence was to be used to check and constrain the rising power and influence of the Macedonian kingdom. In 340 BC, a Persian force was dispatched to assist theThracian prince,Cersobleptes, to maintain his independence. Sufficient effective aid was given to the city ofPerinthus that the numerous and well-appointed army with which Philip had commenced his siege of the city was compelled to give up the attempt.[118] By the last year of Artaxerxes' rule, Philip II already had plans in place for an invasion of the Persian Empire, which would crown his career, but the Greeks would not unite with him.[125]
In 338 BC Artaxerxes was poisoned byBagoas with the assistance of a physician.[126]
TheBattle of Issus, betweenAlexander the Great on horseback to the left, andDarius III in the chariot to the right, represented in a Pompeiimosaic dated 1st century BC –Naples National Archaeological MuseumAlexander's first victory over Darius, the Persian king depicted in medieval European style in the 15th century romanceThe History of Alexander's Battles
Artaxerxes III was succeeded byArtaxerxes IV Arses, who before he could act was also poisoned by Bagoas. Bagoas is further said to have killed not only all Arses' children, but many of the other princes of the land. Bagoas then placedDarius III, a nephew of Artaxerxes IV, on the throne. Darius III, previously theSatrap of Armenia, personally forced Bagoas to swallow poison. In 334 BC, when Darius was just succeeding in subduing Egypt again, Alexander and his battle-hardened troopsinvaded Asia Minor.[citation needed]
In the ensuing chaos created by Alexander's invasion of Persia, Cyrus's tomb was broken into and most of its luxuries were looted. When Alexander reached the tomb, he was horrified by the manner in which it had been treated, and questioned the Magi, putting them on trial.[128][129] By some accounts, Alexander's decision to put the Magi on trial was more an attempt to undermine their influence and display his own power than a show of concern for Cyrus's tomb.[130] Regardless, Alexander the Great ordered Aristobulus to improve the tomb's condition and restore its interior, showing respect for Cyrus.[128] From there he headed toEcbatana, where Darius III had sought refuge.[131]
Darius III was taken prisoner byBessus, hisBactriansatrap and kinsman. As Alexander approached, Bessus had his men murder Darius III and then declared himself Darius' successor, as Artaxerxes V, before retreating into Central Asia leaving Darius' body in the road to delay Alexander, who brought it to Persepolis for an honourable funeral. Bessus would then create a coalition of his forces, to create an army to defend against Alexander. Before Bessus could fully unite with his confederates at the eastern part of the empire,[132] Alexander, fearing the danger of Bessus gaining control, found him, put him on trial in a Persian court under his control, and ordered his execution in a "cruel and barbarous manner."[133]
Alexander generally kept the original Achaemenid administrative structure, leading some scholars to dub him as "the last of the Achaemenids".[134] Upon Alexander's death in 323 BC, his empire was divided among his generals, theDiadochi, resulting in a number of smaller states. The largest of these, which held sway over the Iranian plateau, was theSeleucid Empire, ruled by Alexander's generalSeleucus I Nicator. Native Iranian rule would be restored by theParthians of northeastern Iran over the course of the 2nd century BC through theParthian Empire.[135]
Dārēv I (Darios I) used for the first time the title ofmlk (King). 2nd century BC.
During an apparent transitional period, corresponding to the reigns of Vādfradād II and another uncertain king, no titles of authority appeared on the reverse of their coins. The earlier titleprtrk' zy alhaya (Frataraka) had disappeared. UnderDārēv I (Darios I) however, the new title ofmlk, or king, appeared, sometimes with the mention ofprs (Persis), suggesting that the kings of Persis had become independent rulers.[138]
When theParthianArsacid kingMithridates I (c. 171–138 BC) took control ofPersis, he left the Persian dynasts in office, known as theKings of Persis, and they were allowed to continue minting coins with the title ofmlk ("King").[137]
With the reign of Šābuhr, the son ofPāpag, the kingdom of Persis then became a part of theSasanian Empire. Šābuhr's brother and successor, Ardaxšir (Artaxerxes) V, defeated the last legitimate Parthian king,Artabanos V in 224 AD, and was crowned atCtesiphon asArdaxšir I (Ardashir I),šāhanšāh ī Ērān, becoming the first king of the newSasanian Empire.[138]
Both the later dynasties of theParthians andSasanians would on occasion claim Achaemenid descent. Recently there has been some corroboration for the Parthian claim to Achaemenid ancestry via the possibility of an inherited disease (neurofibromatosis) demonstrated by the physical descriptions of rulers and from the evidence of familial disease on ancient coinage.[143]
Satrapies of the Achaemenid Empire showing their ancient names and the extent of their territory.
Cyrus the Great founded the empire as a multi-state empire, governed from four capital cities:Pasargadae,Babylon,Susa andEcbatana. The Achaemenids allowed a certain amount of regional autonomy in the form of thesatrapy system. A satrapy was an administrative unit, usually organized on a geographical basis. A 'satrap' (governor) was the governor who administered the region, a 'general' supervised military recruitment and ensured order, and a 'state secretary' kept the official records. The general and the state secretary reported directly to the satrap as well as the central government. At differing times, there were between 20 and 30 satrapies.
Cyrus the Great created an organized army including theImmortals unit, consisting of 10,000 highly trained soldiers[144] Cyrus also formed an innovativepostal system throughout the empire, based on several relay stations calledChapar Khaneh.[145]
Persepolis Administrative Archives provide many insights into the Achaemenid government system. Found atPersepolis in the 1930s, they are mostly in ancientElamite; the remains of more than 10,000 of these cuneiform documents have been uncovered.Aramaic is represented by about 1,000 or more original records.[146] Only one tablet inOld Persian has been identified so far.[147]
Also, many seals and seal impressions are found in these Persepolis archives. These documents represent administrative activity and flow of data in Persepolis over more than fifty consecutive years (509–457 BC).
The Persiandaric was the firstgold coin which, along with a similar silver coin, thesiglos, introduced the bimetallicmonetary standard of the Achaemenids, which has continued until today.[148] This was accomplished byDarius I, who reinforced the empire and expandedPersepolis as a ceremonial capital;[149] he revolutionized the economy by placing it on the silver and gold coinage.
Darius also introduced a regulated and sustainable tax system that was precisely tailored to each satrapy, based on their supposed productivity and their economic potential. For instance,Babylon was assessed for the highest amount and for a startling mixture of commodities – 1,000silver talents, four months' supply of food for the army.India was clearly already fabled for its gold;Egypt was known for the wealth of its crops; it was to be the granary of the Persian Empire (as later of Rome's) and was required to provide 120,000 measures of grain in addition to 700 talents of silver. This was exclusively a tax levied on subject peoples.[153] There is evidence that conquered and rebellious enemies could be sold into slavery.[154] Alongside its other innovations in administration and taxation, the Achaemenids may have been the first government in the ancient Near East to register private slave sales and tax them using an early form ofsales tax.[155]
Other accomplishments of Darius' reign included the codification of thedāta (a universal legal system which would become the basis of later Iranian law), and the construction of a new capital atPersepolis.[156][157]
Under the Achaemenids, trade was extensive and there was an efficient infrastructure that facilitated the exchange of commodities in the far reaches of the empire. Tariffs on trade, along with agriculture and tribute, were major sources of revenue for the empire.[153][158]
Letter from the Satrap of Bactria to the governor of Khulmi, concerning camel keepers, 353 BCPart of the royal road that connected Ekbatan to Anatolia, this road is still in use today
The satrapies were linked by a 2,500-kilometer highway, the most impressive stretch being theRoyal Road fromSusa toSardis, built by command of Darius I. It featured stations andcaravanserais at specific intervals. The relays of mounted couriers (theangarium) could reach the remotest of areas in fifteen days. Herodotus observes that "there is nothing in the world that travels faster than these Persian couriers. Neither snow, nor rain, nor heat, nor gloom of night stays these courageous couriers from the swift completion of their appointed rounds."[159] Despite the relative local independence given by the satrapy system, royal inspectors, the "eyes and ears of the king", toured the empire and reported on local conditions.[citation needed]
Another highway of commerce was theGreat Khorasan Road, an informal mercantile route that originated in the fertile lowlands of Mesopotamia and snaked through the Zagros highlands, through the Iranian plateau and Afghanistan into the Central Asian regions ofSamarkand,Merv andFerghana, allowing for the construction of frontier cities likeCyropolis. Following Alexander's conquests, this highway allowed for the spread of cultural syncretic fusions likeGreco-Buddhism into Central Asia and China, as well as empires like theKushan,Indo-Greek andParthian to profit from trade between East and West. This route was greatly rehabilitated and formalized during theAbbasid Caliphate, during which it developed into a major component of the famedSilk Road.[160]
Despite its humble origins in Persis, the empire reached an enormous size under the leadership ofCyrus the Great. Cyrus created a multi-state empire where he allowed regional rulers,satraps, to rule as his proxy over a certain designated area of his empire called asatrapy. The basic rule of governance was based upon loyalty and obedience of each satrapy to the central power, or the king, and compliance with tax laws.[161] Due to the ethno-cultural diversity of the subject nations under the rule of Persia, its enormous geographic size, and the constant struggle for power by regional competitors,[21] the creation of a professional army was necessary for both maintenance of the peace and to enforce the authority of the king in cases of rebellion and foreign threat.[22][144] Cyrus managed to create a strong land army, using it to advance in his campaigns inBabylonia, Lydia, andAsia Minor, which after his death was used by his sonCambyses II, inEgypt againstPsamtik III. Cyrus would die battling a local Iranian insurgency in the empire, before he could have a chance to develop a naval force.[162] That task would fall toDarius I, who would officially give Persians their own royal navy to allow them to engage their enemies on multiple seas of this vast empire, from theBlack Sea and theAegean Sea, to thePersian Gulf,Ionian Sea and theMediterranean Sea.[citation needed]
The Achaemenid infantry consisted of three groups: theImmortals, theSparabara, and theTakabara, though in the later years of the Achaemenid Empire, a fourth group, theCardaces, were introduced.[citation needed]
TheImmortals were described byHerodotus as being heavyinfantry, led byHydarnes II, that were kept constantly at a strength of exactly 10,000 men. He claimed that the unit's name stemmed from the custom that every killed, seriously wounded, or sick member was immediately replaced with a new one, maintaining the numbers and cohesion of the unit.[187] They had wicker shields, short spears, swords or large daggers, and bow and arrows. Underneath their robes they worescale armour coats. The spear counterbalances of the common soldiery were of silver; to differentiate commanding ranks, the officers' spear butt-spikes were golden.[187] Surviving Achaemenid colored glazed bricks and carved reliefs represent the Immortals as wearing elaborate robes, hoop earrings and gold jewellery, though these garments and accessories were most likely worn only for ceremonial occasions.[188]
Color reconstruction of Achaemenid infantry on theAlexander Sarcophagus (end of 4th century BC).
TheSparabara were usually the first to engage in hand-to-hand combat with the enemy. Although not much is known about them today, it is believed that they were the backbone of the Persian army who formed ashield wall and used their two-metre-long spears to protect more vulnerable troops such asarchers from the enemy. The Sparabara were taken from the full members of Persian society, were trained from childhood to be soldiers and when not called out to fight on campaigns in distant lands they practised hunting on the vast plains ofPersia. However, when all was quiet and thePax Persica held true, the Sparabara returned to normal life farming the land and grazing their herds. Because of this, they lacked true professional quality on the battlefield, yet they were well trained and courageous to the point of holding the line in most situations long enough for a counter-attack. They were armoured with quiltedlinen and carried large rectangularwicker shields as a form of light maneuverable defence. This, however, left them at a severe disadvantage against heavily armoured opponents such as thehoplite, and their two-metre-long spear was not able to give the Sparabara ample range to plausibly engage a trainedphalanx. The wicker shields were able to effectively stop arrows but not strong enough to protect the soldier from spears. However, the Sparabara could deal with most other infantry, including trained units from the East.[citation needed]
The Achaemenids relied heavily onarchery. Major contributing nations were theScythians,Medes,Persians, and theElamites. Thecomposite bow was used by the Persians and Medes, who adopted it from the Scythians and transmitted it to other nations, including the Greeks.[189] Achaemenid armies typically used socketed, three-bladed (also known as trilobate or Scythian)arrowheads. These arrowheads were cast from leaded tin-bronze, which made them amenable to mass-production unlike the wrought iron arrowheads of the period that had to be individually forged.[190][191][192][193][194]
TheTakabara were a rare unit who were a tough type ofpeltasts.[195] They tended to fight with their own native weapons which would have included a crescent-shaped light wickerworkshield andaxes as well as light linen cloth andleather. The Takabara were recruited from territories that incorporated modern Iran.
The Persian cavalry was crucial for conquering nations and maintained its importance in the Achaemenid army to the last days of the Achaemenid Empire. The cavalry was separated into four groups. Thechariot archers,horse cavalry, thecamel cavalry, and thewar elephants.[citation needed]
In the later years of the Achaemenid Empire, the chariot archer had become merely a ceremonial part of the Persian army, yet in the early years of the Empire, their use was widespread. The chariot archers were armed with lances, bows, arrows, swords, andscale armour. The horses were also suited with scale armour similar to scale armour of theSassaniancataphracts. The chariots would contain imperial symbols and decorations.
The horses used by the Achaemenids for cavalry were often suited with scale armour, like most cavalry units. The riders often had the same armour as Infantry units, wicker shields, short spears, swords or large daggers, bow and arrow, and scale armour coats. The camel cavalry was different, because the camels and sometimes the riders, were provided little protection against enemies, yet when they were offered protection, they would have lances, swords, bow, arrow, and scale armour. The camel cavalry was first introduced into the Persian army byCyrus the Great, at theBattle of Thymbra. The elephant was most likely introduced into the Persian army byDarius I after hisconquest of the Indus Valley. Elephants may have been used in Greek campaigns by Darius andXerxes I, but Greek accounts only mention 15 of them being used at theBattle of Gaugamela.[citation needed]
Since its foundation by Cyrus, the Persian empire had been primarily a land empire with a strong army but void of any actual naval forces. By the 5th century BC, this was to change, as the empire came across Greek and Egyptian forces, each with their own maritime traditions and capabilities.Darius I was the first Achaemenid king to invest in a Persian fleet.[196] Even by then no true "imperial navy" had existed either in Greece or Egypt. Persia would become the first empire, under Darius, to inaugurate and deploy the first regular imperial navy.[196] Despite this achievement, the personnel for the imperial navy would not come from Iran, but were oftenPhoenicians (mostly fromSidon),Egyptians andGreeks chosen by Darius the Great to operate the empire's combat vessels.[196]
At first the ships were built in Sidon by the Phoenicians; the first Achaemenid ships measured about 40 meters in length and 6 meters in width, able to transport up to 300 Persiantroops at any one trip. Soon, other states of the empire were constructing their own ships, each incorporating slight local preferences. The ships eventually found their way to the Persian Gulf[196] and Persian naval forces laid the foundation for a strong Persian maritime presence there. Persians also had ships often of a capacity 100 to 200 troops patrolling the empire's various rivers including theKarun,Tigris andNile in the west, as well as theIndus.[196]
The Achaemenid navy established bases located along the Karun, and in Bahrain, Oman, and Yemen. The Persian fleet was not only used for peace-keeping purposes along the Karun but also opened the door to trade with India via the Persian Gulf.[196] Darius's navy was in many ways a world power at the time, but it would beArtaxerxes II who in the summer of 397 BC would build a formidable navy, as part of a rearmament which would lead to his decisive victory atKnidos in 394 BC, re-establishing Achaemenid power inIonia. Artaxerxes II would also use his navy to later on quell a rebellion in Egypt.[197]
The construction material of choice was wood, but some armoured Achaemenid ships had metallic blades on the front, often meant to slice enemy ships using the ship's momentum. Naval ships were also equipped with hooks on the side to grab enemy ships, or to negotiate their position. The ships were propelled by sails or manpower. The ships the Persians created were unique. As far as maritime engagement, the ships were equipped with twomangonels that would launch projectiles such as stones, or flammable substances.[196]
Xenophon describes his eyewitness account of a massive military bridge created by joining 37 Persian ships across the Tigris. The Persians used each boat's buoyancy to support a connected bridge above which supply could be transferred.[196]Herodotus also gives many accounts of the Persians using ships to build bridges.[198][199]
Darius I, in an attempt to subdue theScythian horsemen north of the Black Sea, crossed over at theBosphorus, using an enormous bridge made by connecting Achaemenid boats, then marched up to theDanube, crossing it by means of a second boat bridge.[200] The bridge over the Bosphorus essentially connected the nearest tip of Asia to Europe, encompassing at least some 1000 meters of open water if not more. Herodotus describes the spectacle, and calls it the "bridge of Darius":[201]
Strait called Bosphorus, across which the bridge of Darius had been thrown, is hundred and twentyfurlongs in length, reaching from theEuxine, to thePropontis. The Propontis is five hundred furlongs across and fourteen hundred long. Its waters flow into theHellespont, the length of which is four hundred furlongs ...
Years later, a similar boat bridge would be constructed byXerxes I, in his invasion of Greece. Although the Persians failed to capture the Greek city-states completely, the tradition of maritime involvement was carried down by the Persian kings, most notably Artaxerxes II. Years later, when Alexander invaded Persia and during his advancement into India, he took a page from the Persian art of war, by havingHephaestion andPerdiccas construct a similar boat-bridge at the Indus river in India in the spring of 327 BC.[202]
One of the two gold deposition plates. Two more were in silver. They all had the same trilingual inscription (DPh inscription).[203]
During the reign of Cyrus II and Darius I, and as long as the seat of government was still atSusa inElam, the language of the chancellery wasElamite. This is primarily attested in thePersepolis fortification and treasury tablets that reveal details of the day-to-day functioning of the empire.[204] In the grand rock-face inscriptions of the kings, the Elamite texts are always accompanied byAkkadian (Babylonian dialect) andOld Persian inscriptions, and it appears that in these cases that the Elamite texts are translations of the Old Persian ones. It is then likely that although Elamite was used by the capital government in Susa, it was not a standardized language of government everywhere in the empire. The use of Elamite is not attested after 458 BC.[205]
Following the conquest ofMesopotamia, theAramaic language (as used in that territory) was adopted as a "vehicle for written communication between the different regions of the vast empire with its different peoples and languages. The use of a single official language, which modern scholarship has dubbed "Official Aramaic" or "Imperial Aramaic", can be assumed to have greatly contributed to the astonishing success of the Achaemenids in holding their far-flung empire together for as long as they did."[206] In 1955, Richard Frye questioned the classification of Imperial Aramaic as an "official language", noting that no surviving edict expressly and unambiguously accorded that status to any particular language.[207] Frye reclassifies Imperial Aramaic as thelingua franca of the Achaemenid empire, suggesting that the use of Aramaic language in Achaemenid empire was more widespread than generally thought. Many centuries after the fall of the empire,Aramaic script and—asideograms—Aramaic vocabulary would survive as the essential characteristics of thePahlavi writing system.[208]
Although Old Persian also appears on some seals and art objects, that language is attested primarily in the Achaemenid inscriptions of Western Iran, suggesting then that Old Persian was the common language of that region. However, by the reign of Artaxerxes II, the grammar and orthography of the inscriptions was so "far from perfect"[209] that it has been suggested that the scribes who composed those texts had already largely forgotten the language, and had to rely on older inscriptions, which they to a great extent reproduced verbatim.[210]
When the occasion demanded, Achaemenid administrative correspondence was conducted inGreek, making it a widely usedbureaucratic language.[9] Even though the Achaemenids had extensive contacts with the Greeks and vice versa, and had conquered many of the Greek-speaking areas both inEurope andAsia Minor during different periods of the empire, the native Old Iranian sources provide no indication of Greek linguistic influence.[9] However, there is plenty of evidence (in addition to the accounts of Herodotus) that Greeks, apart from being deployed and employed in the core regions of the empire, also evidently lived and worked in the heartland of the Achaemenid Empire, namely Iran.[9] For example, Greeks were part of the various ethnicities that constructedDarius' palace in Susa, apart from the Greek inscriptions found nearby there, and one short Persepolis tablet written in Greek.[9]
Herodotus mentions that the Persians were invited to greatbirthday feasts (Herodotus,Histories 8), which would be followed by many desserts, a treat which they reproached the Greeks for omitting from their meals. He also observed that the Persians drank wine in large quantities and used it even for counsel, deliberating on important affairs when drunk, and deciding the next day, when sober, whether to act on the decision or set it aside.[211]
It was during the Achaemenid period thatZoroastrianism reached southwestern Iran, where it came to be accepted by the rulers and through them became a defining element of Persian culture. The religion was not only accompanied by a formalization of the concepts and divinities of the traditional Iranianpantheon but also introduced several novel ideas, including that offree will.[214][215]
Mithra[216] was worshipped in the Empire;[217][218] his temples and symbols were the most widespread,[219] most people bore names related to him[220] and most festivals were dedicated to him.[221][222]
During the reign ofArtaxerxes I andDarius II, the Greek historianHerodotus wrote: "[the Persians] have no images of the gods, no temples nor altars, and consider the use of them a sign of folly. This comes, I think, from their not believing the gods to have the same nature with men,as the Greeks imagine."[223] He claims the Persians offer sacrifice to: "the sun and moon, to the earth, to fire, to water, and to the winds. These are the only gods whose worship has come down to them from ancient times. At a later period, they began the worship ofUrania, which they borrowed from theArabians andAssyrians.Mylitta is the name by which the Assyrians know this goddess, to whom the Persians referred asAnahita."[223]
The Babylonian scholar and priestBerosus records—although writing over seventy years after the reign ofArtaxerxes II—that the emperor had been the first to make cult statues of divinities and have them placed in temples in many of the major cities of the empire.[224] Berosus also substantiates Herodotus when he says the Persians knew of no images of gods until Artaxerxes II erected those images. On the means of sacrifice, Herodotus adds "they raise no altar, light no fire, pour no libations."[225] Herodotus also observed that "no prayer or offering can be made without amagus present".[225]
The position of women in the Achaemenid Empire differed depending on which culture they belonged to and therefore varied depending on the region. The position of Persian women in actual Persia has traditionally been described from mythological Biblical references and the sometimes biased Ancient Greek sources, neither of them fully reliable as sources, but the most reliable references are the archeological Persepolis Fortification Tablets (PFT), which describes women in connection to the royal court in Persepolis, from royal women to female laborers who were recipients of food rations at Persepolis.[226]
The hierarchy of the royal women at the Persian court was ranked with the king's mother first, followed by the queen and the king's daughters, the king's concubines, and the other women of the royal palace.[226] The king normally married a female member of the royal family or a Persian noblewoman related to a satrap or another important Persian man; it was permitted for members of the royal family to marry relatives, but there is no evidence for marriage between closer family members than half-siblings.[226] The king's concubines were often either slaves, sometimes prisoners of war, or foreign princesses, whom the king did not marry because they were foreigners, and whose children did not have the right to inherit the throne.[226]
Greek sources accuse the king of having hundreds of concubines secluded in aharem, but there is no archeological evidence supporting the existence of a harem, or the seclusion of women from contact with men, at the Persian court.[226] The royal women joined the king at breakfast and dinner and accompanied him on his journeys.[226] They may have participated in the royal hunt, as well as during the royal banquets;Herodotus relates how the Persian envoys at the Macedonian court demanded the presence of women during a banquet because it was the custom for women to participate in the banquets in their own country.[226] The queen may have attended the king's audience, and archeological evidence shows that she gave her own audiences, at least for female supplicants.[226] Royal women and noblewomen at court could furthermore travel on their own, accompanied by both male and female staff, own and manage their own fortune, land, and business.[226] Depictions of Persian women show them with long dresses and veils which did not cover their faces nor their hair, only flowing down over their neck at the back of the head as an ornament.[226]
Royal and aristocratic Achaemenid women were given an education in subjects that did not appear compatible with seclusions, such as horsemanship and archery.[227][228] Royal and aristocratic women held and managed vast estates and workshops and employed large numbers of servants and professional laborers.[229] Royal and aristocratic women do not seem to have lived in seclusion from men, since it is known that they appeared in public[230] and traveled with their husbands,[230] participated in hunting[231] and in feasts:[232] at least the chief wife of a royal or aristocratic man did not live in seclusion, as it is clearly stated that wives customarily accompanied their husbands at dinner banquets, although they left the banquet when the "women entertainers" came in and the men began "merrymaking".[233]
No woman ever ruled the Achaemenid Empire, asmonarch or asregent, but some queen's consorts are known to have had influence over the affairs of state, notablyAtossa andParysatis.
There are no evidence of any women being employed as an official in the administration or within religious service, however, there are plenty of archeological evidence of women being employed as free labourers in Persepolis, where they worked alongside men.[226] Women could be employed as the leaders of their workforce, known by the titlearraššara pašabena, which were then given a higher salary than the male workers of their workforce;[226] and while female laborers were given less than men, qualified workers within the crafts were given equal pay regardless of their sex.[226]
Achaemenid architecture included large cities, temples, palaces, andmausoleums such as thetomb of Cyrus the Great. The quintessential feature of Persian architecture was its eclectic nature with elements of Median, Assyrian, and Asiatic Greek all incorporated, yet maintaining a unique Persian identity seen in the finished products.[234] Its influence pervades the regions ruled by the Achaemenids, from the Mediterranean shores to India, especially with its emphasis on monumental stone-cut design and gardens subdivided by water-courses.[235]
Achaemenid art includesfrieze reliefs, metalwork such as theOxus Treasure, decoration of palaces, glazed brick masonry, fine craftsmanship (masonry, carpentry, etc.), and gardening. Although the Persians took artists, with their styles and techniques, from all corners of their empire, they did not just produce a combination of styles, but a synthesis of a new unique Persian style.[236]
One of the most remarkable examples of both Achaemenid architecture and art is the grand palace ofPersepolis, and its detailed workmanship, coupled with its grand scale. In describing the construction of hispalace at Susa, Darius I records that:
Yaka timber was brought fromGandara and fromCarmania. The gold was brought fromSardis and fromBactria ... the precious stone lapis-lazuli and carnelian ... was brought fromSogdiana. The turquoise fromChorasmia, the silver and ebony fromEgypt, the ornamentation fromIonia, the ivory fromEthiopia and fromSindh and fromArachosia. The stone-cutters who wrought the stone were Ionians andSardians. The goldsmiths wereMedes andEgyptians. The men who wrought the wood were Sardinians and Egyptians. The men who wrought the baked brick were Babylonians. The men who adorned the wall, those were Medes and Egyptians.
Many Achaemenid rulers built tombs for themselves. The most famous,Naqsh-e Rustam, is an ancient necropolis located about 12 km north-west ofPersepolis, with the tombs of four of the kings of the dynasty are carved in this mountain:Darius I,Xerxes I,Artaxerxes I andDarius II. Other kings constructed their own tombs elsewhere.Artaxerxes II andArtaxerxes III preferred to carve their tombs beside their spring capitalPersepolis, the left tomb belonging toArtaxerxes II and the right tomb belonging toArtaxerxes III, the last Achaemenid king to have a tomb. The tomb of the founder of the Achaemenid dynasty,Cyrus the Great, was built inPasargadae (now a world heritage site).[237]
The Achaemenid Empire left a lasting impression on the heritage and cultural identity of Asia and the Middle East, and influenced the development and structure of futureempires. In fact, the Greeks, and later on the Romans, adopted the best features of the Persian method of governing an empire.[238] The Persian model of governance was particularly formative in the expansion and maintenance of theAbbasid Caliphate, whose rule is widely considered the period of the 'Islamic Golden Age'. Like the ancient Persians, the Abbasid dynasty centered their vast empire in Mesopotamia (at the newly founded cities ofBaghdad andSamarra, close to the historical site of Babylon), derived much of their support from Persian aristocracy and heavily incorporated the Persian language and architecture into Islamic culture.[239] The Achaemenid Empire is noted in Western history as the antagonist of theGreek city-states during theGreco-Persian Wars and for the emancipation of theJewish exiles in Babylon. The historical mark of the empire went far beyond its territorial and military influences and included cultural, social, technological and religious influences as well. For example, manyAthenians adopted Achaemenid customs in their daily lives in a reciprocal cultural exchange,[240] some being employed by or allied to the Persian kings. The impact of theEdict of Cyrus is mentioned in Judeo-Christian texts, and the empire was instrumental in the spread ofZoroastrianism as far east as China. The empire also set the tone for thepolitics, heritage andhistory ofIran (also known as Persia).[241] HistorianArnold Toynbee regarded Abbasid society as a "reintegration" or "reincarnation" of Achaemenid society, as the synthesis of Persian, Turkic and Islamic modes of governance and knowledge allowed for the spread ofPersianate culture over a wide swath of Eurasia through the Turkic-originSeljuq,Ottoman,Safavid andMughal empires.[239] HistorianBernard Lewis wrote that
The work of Iranians can be seen in every field of cultural endeavor, including Arabic poetry, to which poets of Iranian origin composing their poems in Arabic made a very significant contribution. In a sense, Iranian Islam is a second advent of Islam itself, a new Islam sometimes referred to as Islam-i-Ajam. It was this Persian Islam, rather than the original Arab Islam, that was brought to new areas and new peoples: to the Turks, first in Central Asia and then in the Middle East in the country which came to be called Turkey, and of course to India. The Ottoman Turks brought a form of Iranian civilization to the walls of Vienna. [...] By the time of the great Mongol invasions of the thirteenth century, Iranian Islam had become not only an important component; it had become a dominant element in Islam itself, and for several centuries the main centers of the Islamic power and civilization were in countries that were, if not Iranian, at least marked by Iranian civilization ... The major centers of Islam in the late medieval and early modern periods, the centers of both political and cultural power, such as India, Central Asia, Iran, Turkey, were all part of this Iranian civilization.[242]
Georg W. F. Hegel in his workThe Philosophy of History introduces the Persian Empire as the "first empire that passed away" and its people as the "first historical people" in history. According to his account:
The Persian Empire is an empire in the modern sense—like that which existed in Germany, and the great imperial realm under the sway of Napoleon; for we find it consisting of a number of states, which are indeed dependent, but which have retained their own individuality, their manners, and laws. The general enactments, binding upon all, did not infringe upon their political and social idiosyncrasies, but even protected and maintained them; so that each of the nations that constitute the whole, had its own form of constitution. As light illuminates everything—imparting to each object a peculiar vitality—so the Persian Empire extends over a multitude of nations, and leaves to each one its particular character. Some have even kings of their own; each one its distinct language, arms, way of life and customs. All this diversity coexists harmoniously under the impartial dominion of Light ... a combination of peoples—leaving each of them free. Thereby, a stop is put to that barbarism and ferocity with which the nations had been wont to carry on their destructive feuds.[243]
Will Durant, the American historian and philosopher, during one of his speeches, "Persia in the History of Civilization", as an address before theIran–America Society inTehran on 21 April 1948, stated:
For thousands of years Persians have been creating beauty. Sixteen centuries before Christ there went from these regions or near it ... You have been here a kind of watershed of civilization, pouring your blood and thought and art and religion eastward and westward into the world ... I need not rehearse for you again the achievements of your Achaemenid period. Then for the first time in known history an empire almost as extensive as the United States received an orderly government, a competence of administration, a web of swift communications, a security of movement by men and goods on majestic roads, equalled before our time only by the zenith of Imperial Rome.[244]
King of Persia in addition toPharaoh of Egypt, having re-conquered the land after it was lost during the reign of Artaxerxes II. His birth name was Ochus.
^The standard was described as "a golden eagle mounted upon a lofty shaft." This image is a reconstruction, the design based onan Achaemenid tile from Persepolis, and the coloring based on theAlexander Mosaic, which depicts the standard in dark red and gold.[1]
^Either King (Xšāyaθiya) orKing of Kings (Xšāyaθiya xšāyaθiyānām)
^The chronology of the reign of Cyrus is uncertain, and these events are alternatively dated in 542–541 BC.[39]
^abBardiya is referred to by a variety of names in Greek sources, including Smerdis, Tanyoxarces, Tanoxares, Mergis and Mardos. The earliest account to mention him is theBehistun Inscription, which has his name as Bardiya.[59][60]
^Sources differ on the circumstances of Cambyses' death. According to Darius the Great in theBehistun Inscription, he died of natural causes.[59] According to Herodotus, he died after accidentally wounding himself in the thigh.[80] The true cause of death remains uncertain.[62]
^Yarshater, Ehsan (1993).The Cambridge History of Iran. Vol. 3.Cambridge University Press. p. 482.ISBN978-0-521-20092-9.Of the four residences of the Achaemenids named byHerodotus—Ecbatana,Pasargadae orPersepolis,Susa andBabylon—the last [situated in Iraq] was maintained as their most important capital, the fixed winter quarters, the central office of bureaucracy, exchanged only in the heat of summer for some cool spot in the highlands. Under theSeleucids and theParthians the site of the Mesopotamian capital moved slightly to the north on theTigris—toSeleucia andCtesiphon. It is indeed symbolic that these new foundations were built from the bricks of ancientBabylon, just as laterBaghdad, a little further upstream, was built out of the ruins of theSassanian double city ofSeleucia-Ctesiphon.
^abcdeTucker, Elizabeth (2001). "Greek and Iranian". In Christidis, Anastasios-Phoivos (ed.).A History of Ancient Greek: From the Beginnings to Late Antiquity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0-521-83307-3.
^abTaagepera, Rein (1979). "Size and Duration of Empires: Growth-Decline Curves, 600 B.C. to 600 A.D".Social Science History.3 (3/4): 121.doi:10.2307/1170959.ISSN0145-5532.JSTOR1170959.
^Shahbazi, A. Shapour (2012). "The Achaemenid Persian Empire (550–330 bce)". InDaryaee, Touraj (ed.).The Oxford handbook of Iranian history. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 131.ISBN978-0-19-973215-9.Although the Persians and Medes shared domination and others were placed in important positions, the Achaemenids did not—could not—provide a name for their multinational state. Nevertheless, they referred to it as Khshassa, "the Empire".
^Taagepera, Rein (1979). "Size and Duration of Empires: Growth-Decline Curves, 600 B.C. to 600 A.D".Social Science History.3 (3/4): 123.doi:10.2307/1170959.JSTOR1170959.A superimposition of the maps of Achaemenid and Alexander's empires shows a 90% match, except that Alexander's realm never reached the peak size of the Achaemenid realm.
^Van de Mieroop, Marc (25 June 2015).A history of the ancient Near East ca. 3000–323 BC (Third ed.). Chichester, West Sussex, UK.ISBN978-1-118-71817-9.OCLC904507201.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
^The Oxford Classical Dictionary by Simon Hornblower and Antony Spawforth,ISBN978-0-19-860641-3, p. 1515, "The Thracians were subdued by the Persians by 516"
^West, Willis Mason (1904).The ancient world from the earliest times to 800 CE. Allyn and Bacon. p. 137.The Athenian support was particularly troubling to Darius since he had come to their aid during their conflict with Sparta.
^Zawadzki, S. (1995–1996). "The Circumstances of Darius II's Accession".Jahrbericht Ex Oriente Lux.34:45–49.
^Maurice Whittemore Mather (ed.), Joseph William Hewitt (ed.),Xenophon:Anabasis, Books 1–4. University of Oklahoma Press, 1979,ISBN978-0-8061-1347-0,p. 44.
^Bruce, Frederick Fyvie (1990).The Acts of the Apostles: The Greek Text with Introduction and Commentary. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. p. 117.ISBN978-0-8028-0966-7.
^Ashrafian, Hutan (2011). "Limb gigantism, neurofibromatosis and royal heredity in the Ancient World 2500 years ago: Achaemenids and Parthians".J Plast Reconstr Aesthet Surg.64 (4): 557.doi:10.1016/j.bjps.2010.08.025.PMID20832372.
^M. Dandamayev, "Foreign Slaves on the Estates of the Achaemenid Kings and their Nobles", in Trudy dvadtsat' pyatogo mezhdunarodnogo kongressa vostokovedov II, Moscow, 1963, pp. 151–152
^The words are actually inscribed on thefrieze of theJames A. Farley Post Office Building in the borough of Manhattan in New York City. The inscription is based on: Herodotus with George Rawlinson, trans.,The History of Herodotus (New York, New York: Tandy-Thomas Co., 1909), vol. 4, Book 8, § 98,p. 147.Archived 8 March 2021 at theWayback Machine
^Moorey, P. R. S. (1980).Cemeteries of the First Millennium B.C. at Deve Hüyük, near Carchemish, salvaged by T. E. Lawrence and C. L. Woolley in 1913. British Archaeological Reports Limited. p. 65.ISBN978-0-86054-101-1.
^Delrue, Parsival (2007). "Trilobate Arrowheads at Ed-Dur (U.A.E, Emirate of Umm Al-Qaiwain)".Arabian Archaeology and Epigraphy.18 (2):239–250.doi:10.1111/j.1600-0471.2007.00281.x.
^John Manuel Cook (1983).The Persian Empire. Schocken Books. p. 109.ISBN978-0-8052-3846-4.The Achaemenids maintained some bridges on their main routes. What we hear of is boat bridges, which seem to have been in normal use on the Tigris in Babylonia...
^Dandamayev, Muhammad (2002)."Persepolis Elamite Tablets".Encyclopedia Iranica. Archived from the original on 21 January 2012. Retrieved1 November 2013.
^Shaked, Saul (1987). "Aramaic".Encyclopedia Iranica. Vol. 2. New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul. pp. 250–61 [251].
^Frye, Richard N.; Driver, G. R. (1955). "Review of G.R. Driver's 'Aramaic Documents of the Fifth Century B.C.'".Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies.18 (3/4):456–61.doi:10.2307/2718444.JSTOR2718444. p. 457.
^Geiger, Wilhelm;Ernst Kuhn (2002).Grundriss der iranischen Philologie: Band I. Abteilung 1. Boston: Adamant. pp. 249ff.
^Ware, James R.; Kent, Roland G. (1924). "The Old Persian Cuneiform Inscriptions of Artaxerxes II and Artaxerxes III".Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association.55:52–61.doi:10.2307/283007.JSTOR283007. p. 53
^Gershevitch, Ilya (1964). "Zoroaster's own contribution".Journal of Near Eastern Studies.23 (1):12–38.doi:10.1086/371754.S2CID161954467. p. 20.
^abcdefghijklmMaria Brosius, "Women i. In Pre-Islamic Persia", Encyclopædia Iranica, online edition, 2021, available at Women i. In Pre-Islamic Persia (accessed on 26 January 2021). Originally Published: 2000. Last Updated: March 15, 2010. Encyclopædia Iranica, online edition, New York, 1996 –https://iranicaonline.org/articles/women-iArchived 3 November 2020 at theWayback Machine
^(Ctesias, frg. 16 (56) in Jacoby, Fragmente III/C, p. 471)
Brosius, Maria (2021).A History of Ancient Persia: The Achaemenid Empire. Wiley-Blackwell.ISBN978-1-444-35092-0.
Heidorn, Lisa Ann (1992).The Fortress of Dorginarti and Lower Nubia during the Seventh to Fifth Centuries B.C. (PhD). University of Chicago.
Howe, Timothy; Reames, Jeanne (2008).Macedonian Legacies: Studies in Ancient Macedonian History and Culture in Honor of Eugene N. Borza. Regina Books.ISBN978-1-930053-56-4.
Olmstead, A.T. (2022).History of the Persian Empire. University of Chicago Press.
Lavan, Myles; Payne, Richard E.; Weisweiler, John, eds. (2016). "Cosmopolitan Politics: The Assimilation and Subordination of Elite Cultures".Cosmopolitanism and Empire: Universal Rulers, Local Elites, and Cultural Integration in the Ancient Near East and Mediterranean. Oxford University Press.
Tavernier, Jan (2007).Iranica in the Achaeamenid Period (ca. 550–330 B.C.): Lexicon of Old Iranian Proper Names and Loanwords, Attested in Non-Iranian Texts. Peeters Publishers.ISBN978-90-429-1833-7.
Kosmin, Paul J. (2014).The Land of the Elephant Kings: Space, Territory, and Ideology in Seleucid Empire. Harvard University Press.ISBN978-0-674-72882-0.
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