The19th century began on 1 January 1801 (represented by theRoman numerals MDCCCI), and ended on 31 December 1900 (MDCCCXCX). It was the 9th century of the 2nd millennium. It was characterized by vast social upheaval.Slavery wasabolished in much ofEurope and theAmericas. TheFirst Industrial Revolution, though it began in the late18th century, expanded beyond its British homeland for the first time during the 19th century, particularly remaking the economies and societies of theLow Countries,France, theRhineland,Northern Italy, and theNortheastern United States. A few decades later, theSecond Industrial Revolution led to ever more massiveurbanization and much higher levels of productivity, profit, and prosperity, a pattern that continued into the20th century. TheCatholic Church, in response to the growing influence and power of modernism, secularism and materialism, formed theFirst Vatican Council in the late 19th century to deal with such problems and confirm certain Catholic doctrines as dogma. Religious missionaries were sent from the Americas and Europe to Asia, Africa and the Middle East.
Following the defeat ofFrance in theNapoleonic Wars, it marked the end of France’s status as the worldsuperpower. Britain took France’s status as the worldsuperpower, the British and Russian empires expanded considerably, becoming two of the world's leading powers. Russia expanded its territory to theCaucasus andCentral Asia. TheOttoman Empire underwent a period ofWesternization and reform known as theTanzimat, vastly increasing its control over core territories in the Middle East. However, it remained in decline and became known as thesick man of Europe, losing territory in theBalkans andNorth Africa.
The remaining powers in theIndian subcontinent, such as theMaratha andSikh empires, suffered a massive decline, and their dissatisfaction with theBritish East India Company's rule led to theIndian Rebellion of 1857 and the company's dissolution. India was later ruled directly by theBritish Crown through the establishment of theBritish Raj. During the post-Napoleonic era (after 1815), Britain enforced what became known as thePax Britannica, which ushered in unprecedentedglobalization on a massive scale. Britain's overseas possessions grew rapidly in the first half of the century, especially with the expansion of vast territories in Canada, Australia, India, and in the last two decades of the century in Africa. By the end of the 19th century, the British controlled a fifth of the world's land and a quarter of the world's population.
By the end of the century, Britain, France, Germany, and the United States had colonized almost all ofOceania. InEast Asia, China under theQing dynasty endured itscentury of humiliation by foreign powers that lasted until the first half of the 20th century. The last surviving man and woman, respectively, verified to have been born in the 19th century wereJiroemon Kimura (1897–2013) andNabi Tajima (1900–2018), both Japanese.
The 19th century was an era of rapidly acceleratingscientific discovery andinvention, with significant developments in the fields of mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, electricity, and metallurgy that laid the groundwork for the technological advances of the 20th century.[4] TheIndustrial Revolution began in Great Britain and spread to continental Europe, North America, and Japan.[5] TheVictorian era was notorious for the employment of young children in factories and mines, as well as strictsocial norms regarding modesty and gender roles.[6] Japan embarked on a program of rapid modernization following theMeiji Restoration, before defeating China, under theQing dynasty, in theFirst Sino-Japanese War.Advances in medicine and the understanding of human anatomy and disease prevention took place in the 19th century, and were partly responsible for rapidly acceleratingpopulation growth in theWestern world. Europe's population doubled during the 19th century, from approximately 200 million to more than 400 million.[7] The introduction ofrailroads provided the first major advancement in land transportation for centuries, changing the way people lived and obtained goods, and fuelling majorurbanization movements in countries across the globe. Numerous cities worldwide surpassed populations of a million or more during this century. London became the world'slargest city and capital of the British Empire. Its population increased from 1 million in 1800 to 6.7 million a century later. The last remaining undiscovered landmasses of Earth, including vast expanses of interiorAfrica andAsia, wereexplored during this century, and with the exception of the extreme zones of the Arctic and Antarctic, accurate and detailed maps of the globe were available by the 1890s.Liberalism became the pre-eminentreform movement in Europe.[8]
The 19th century was remarkable in the widespread formation of newsettlement foundations which were particularly prevalent across North America and Australia, with a significant proportion of the two continents' largest cities being founded at some point in the century.Chicago in theUnited States andMelbourne in Australia were non-existent in the earliest decades but grew to become the 2nd largest cities in the United States and British Empire respectively by the end of the century. In the 19th century, approximately 70 million people left Europe, with most migrating to the United States.[10]
The 19th century also saw the rapid creation, development, and codification of many sports, particularly in Britain and the United States.Association football,rugby union,baseball, and many other sports were developed during the 19th century, while the British Empire facilitated the rapid spread of sports such ascricket to many different parts of the world. Also,women's fashion was a very sensitive topic during this time, as women showing their ankles was viewed to be scandalous.
After Napoleon's defeat, theCongress of Vienna was held to determine new national borders. TheConcert of Europe attempted to preserve this settlement was established to preserve these borders, with limited impact.
Due to the Napoleonic Wars, the royal family of Portugalrelocated to Brazil from 1808 to 1821, leading to Brazil having a separate monarchy from Portugal.
In 1830, the post-colonial nation ofGran Colombia dissolved and the nations ofColombia (including modern-day Panama),Ecuador, andVenezuela took its place.
The first revolution began inJanuary in Sicily.[clarification needed] Revolutions then spread across Europe after a separate revolution began inFrance in February. Over 50 countries were affected, but with no coordination or cooperation among their respective revolutionaries.
According to Evans and von Strandmann (2000), some of the major contributing factors were widespread dissatisfaction with political leadership, demands for more participation in government and democracy, demands for freedom of the press, other demands made by the working class, the upsurge of nationalism, and the regrouping of established government forces.[12]
Theabolitionism movement achieved success in the 19th century. TheAtlantic slave trade was abolished in the United States in 1808, and by the end of the century, almost every government had banned slavery. TheSlavery Abolition Act 1833 banned slavery throughout theBritish Empire, and theLei Áurea abolished slavery in Brazil in 1888.
The American Civil War took place from 1861 to 1865. Elevensouthern states seceded from theUnited States, largely over concerns related to slavery. In 1863, PresidentAbraham Lincoln issued theEmancipation Proclamation. Lincoln issued a preliminary[13] on September 22, 1862, warning that in all states still in rebellion (Confederacy) on January 1, 1863, he would declare their slaves "then, thenceforward, and forever free."[14] He did so.[15] TheThirteenth Amendment to the Constitution,[16] ratified in 1865, officially abolished slavery in the entire country.
In 1817, thePrincipality of Serbia becamesuzerain from the Ottoman Empire, and in 1867, it passed a constitution that defined its independence from the Ottoman Empire. In 1830,Greece became the first country to break away from theOttoman Empire after theGreek War of Independence. In 1831, theBosnian Uprising against Ottoman rule occurred. In 1831, TheFirst Egyptian–Ottoman War (1831–1833) occurred, between the Ottoman Empire and Egypt brought about byMuhammad Ali Pasha's demand to the Sublime Porte for control of Greater Syria, as reward for aiding the Sultan during the Greek War of Independence. As a result, Egyptian forces temporarily gained control of Syria, advancing as far north asKütahya.[18] In 1876,Bulgarians instigated theApril Uprising against Ottoman rule. Following theRusso-Turkish War, theTreaty of Berlin recognized the formal independence of the Serbia,Montenegro, andRomania.Bulgaria became autonomous.
TheTaiping Rebellion was the bloodiest conflict of the 19th century, leading to the deaths of around 20–30 million people. Its leader,Hong Xiuquan, declared himself the younger brother ofJesus Christ and developed a new Chinese religion known as theGod Worshipping Society. After proclaiming the establishment of theTaiping Heavenly Kingdom in 1851, the Taiping army conquered a large part of China, capturingNanjing in 1853. In 1864, after the death of Hong Xiuquan,Qing forces recaptured Nanjing and ended the rebellion.[19]
By 1872, the Japanese government underEmperor Meiji hadeliminated thedaimyō system and established a strong central government. Further reforms included the abolition of thesamurai class, rapid industrialization and modernization of government, closely following European models.[20]
1803: United States more than doubles in size when it buys out France's territorial claims in North America via theLouisiana Purchase. This begins the U.S.'s westward expansion to the Pacific, referred to as itsManifest Destiny, which involvesannexing and conquering land from Mexico, Britain, and Native Americans.
In Africa, European exploration and technology led to the colonization of almost the entire continent by 1898. New medicines such asquinine and more advancedfirearms allowed European nations to conquer native populations.[21]
Motivations for theScramble for Africa included national pride, desire for raw materials, and Christian missionary activity. Britain seized control of Egypt to ensure control of theSuez Canal, butEthiopia defeated Italy in theFirst Italo–Ethiopian War at theBattle of Adwa. France, Belgium, Portugal, and Germany also had substantial colonies. TheBerlin Conference of 1884–1885 attempted to reach agreement on colonial borders in Africa, but disputes continued, both amongst European powers and in resistance by the native populations.[21]
In 1867,diamonds were discovered in theKimberley region of South Africa. In 1886, gold was discovered inTransvaal. This led to colonization in Southern Africa by the British and business interests, led byCecil Rhodes.[21]
1808–1809: Russia conquers Finland from Sweden in theFinnish War.1816:Shaka rises to power over theZulu Kingdom. Zulu expansion was a major factor of theMfecane ("Crushing") that depopulated large areas of southern Africa.
1830: End of the Java War. The whole area of Yogyakarta and Surakarta Manca nagara Dutch seized. 27 September, Klaten Agreement determines a fixed boundary between Surakarta and Yogyakarta and permanently divide the kingdom of Mataram was signed by Sasradiningrat, Pepatih Dalem Surakarta, and Danurejo, Pepatih Dalem Yogyakarta. Mataram is a de facto and de yure controlled by the Dutch East Indies.
The 19th century saw the birth of science as a profession; the termscientist was coined in 1833 byWilliam Whewell,[25] which soon replaced the older term ofnatural philosopher. Among the most influential ideas of the 19th century were those ofCharles Darwin (alongside the independent researches ofAlfred Russel Wallace), who in 1859 published the bookThe Origin of Species, which introduced the idea ofevolution bynatural selection. Another important landmark in medicine and biology were the successful efforts to prove thegerm theory of disease. Following this,Louis Pasteur made the firstvaccine againstrabies, and also made many discoveries in the field of chemistry, including theasymmetry of crystals. In chemistry,Dmitri Mendeleev, following theatomic theory ofJohn Dalton, created the firstperiodic table ofelements. In physics, the experiments, theories and discoveries ofMichael Faraday,André-Marie Ampère,James Clerk Maxwell, and their contemporaries led to the creation ofelectromagnetism as a new branch of science.Thermodynamics led to an understanding of heat and the notion of energy was defined. Other highlights include the discoveries unveiling the nature of atomic structure and matter, simultaneously with chemistry – and of new kinds of radiation. In astronomy, the planet Neptune was discovered. In mathematics, the notion of complex numbers finally matured and led to a subsequent analytical theory; they also began the use ofhypercomplex numbers.Karl Weierstrass and others carried out thearithmetization of analysis for functions ofreal andcomplex variables. It also saw rise tonew progress in geometry beyond those classical theories of Euclid, after a period of nearly two thousand years. The mathematical science of logic likewise had revolutionary breakthroughs after a similarly long period of stagnation. But the most important step in science at this time were the ideas formulated by the creators of electrical science. Their work changed the face of physics and made possible for new technology to come about including a rapid spread in the use of electric illumination and power in the last two decades of the century and radio wave communication at the end of the 1890s.
Thomas Edison was an American inventor, scientist, and businessman who developed many devices that greatly influenced life around the world, including themotion picture camera,phonograph and long-lasting, practical electriclight bulb.Built for the Netphener bus company in 1895, theBenz Omnibus was the first motor bus in history.
1844: First publicly fundedtelegraph line in the world—between Baltimore and Washington—sends demonstration message on 24 May, ushering in the age of the telegraph. This message read "What hath God wrought?" (Bible, Numbers 23:23)
c.1875/1880: Introduction of the widespread use of electriclighting. These included early crude systems in France and the UK and the introduction of large scale outdoorarc lighting systems by 1880.[27]
On the literary front the new century opens withromanticism, a movement that spread throughout Europe in reaction to 18th-century rationalism, and it develops more or less along the lines of the Industrial Revolution, with a design to react against the dramatic changes wrought on nature by the steam engine and the railway.William Wordsworth andSamuel Taylor Coleridge are considered the initiators of the new school in England, while in the continent the GermanSturm und Drang spreads its influence as far as Italy and Spain. French arts had been hampered by theNapoleonic Wars but subsequently developed rapidly.Modernism began.[30]
TheRealism andRomanticism of the early 19th century gave way toImpressionism andPost-Impressionism in the later half of the century, with Paris being the dominant art capital of the world. In the United States theHudson River School was prominent. 19th-century painters included:
1805: TheBattle of Trafalgar eliminates the French and Spanish naval fleets and allows for British dominance of the seas, a major factor for the success of theBritish Empire later in the century.
1819: 29 January,Stamford Raffles arrives in Singapore withWilliam Farquhar to establish a trading post for theBritish East India Company; 8 February, the treaty is signed between Sultan Hussein of Johor, Temenggong Abdul Rahman and Stamford Raffles. Farquhar is installed as the first Resident of the settlement.
1816:Year Without a Summer: Unusually cold conditions wreak havoc throughout the Northern Hemisphere, likely influenced by the 1815 explosion ofMount Tambora.
1836:Samuel Colt popularizes therevolver and sets up a firearms company to manufacture his invention of theColt Paterson revolver, a six bullets firearm shot one by one without reloading manually.
A barricade in theParis Commune, 18 March 1871. Around 30,000 Parisians were killed, and thousands more were later executed.Black Friday, 9 May 1873, Vienna Stock Exchange. ThePanic of 1873 andLong Depression followed.
1874: TheSociété Anonyme Coopérative des Artistes Peintres, Sculpteurs, and Graveurs, better known as theImpressionists, organize and present their first public group exhibition at the Paris studio of the photographerNadar.
1874: The Home Rule Movement is established inIreland.
Born on 19 April 1897, JapaneseJiroemon Kimura died on 12 June 2013, marking the death of the last man verified to have been born in the century.[35][36][37] Kimura remains to date theoldest verified man in history.[38] Subsequently, on 21 April 2018, JapaneseNabi Tajima (born 4 August 1900) died as the last person to verifiably have been born in the century.[39]
^Cleveland, William L.; Bunton, Martin (2016).A History of the Modern Middle East.doi:10.4324/9780429495502.ISBN9780429495502.S2CID153025861.The 19th century is frequently characterized as a period of tension between forces of continuity and change. The reformers who advocated the adoption of European institutions and technology, have often been portrayed as the progressive elements of society courageously charting the course toward an inevitably Westernized twentieth century. Conversely, the adherents of continuity, who viewed with alarm the dismantling of the Islamic order and sought to preserve tradition and retain the values and ideals that had served Ottoman and Islamic society so well for so long, are sometimes portrayed as nothing but archaic reactionaries. But we should avoid these simplistic characterizations if we are to appreciate the agonizing and dangerous process of transforming an established religious, social and political worldview.
^McPherson, J. M. (2014). "Emancipation Proclamation and Thirteenth Amendment", in E. Foner and J. A. Garraty (eds.),The Reader's Companion to American History. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.[1] Retrieved fromArchived 2018-11-06 at theWayback Machine
^Reilly, Thomas H. (2004).The Taiping heavenly kingdom rebellion and the blasphemy of empire (1 ed.). Seattle: University of Washington Press.ISBN978-0295801926.
^abcKerr, Gordon (2012).A Short History of Africa: From the Origins of the Human Race to the Arab Spring. Harpenden, Herts [UK]: Pocket Essentials. pp. 85–101.ISBN9781842434420.
Langer, William.An Encyclopedia of World History (5th ed. 1973); highly detailed outline of eventsonline free
Morris, Richard B. and Graham W. Irwin, eds.Harper Encyclopedia of the Modern World: A Concise Reference History from 1760 to the Present (1970)online frr
New Cambridge Modern History (13 vol 1957–79), old but thorough coverage, mostly of Europe; strong on diplomacy
Bury, J. P. T. ed.The New Cambridge Modern History: Vol. 10: the Zenith of European Power, 1830–70 (1964)online
Crawley, C. W., ed.The New Cambridge Modern History Volume IX War and Peace In An Age of Upheaval 1793–1830 (1965)online
Darby, H. C. and H. FullardThe New Cambridge Modern History, Vol. 14: Atlas (1972)
Hinsley, F.H., ed.The New Cambridge Modern History, vol. 11, Material Progress and World-Wide Problems 1870–1898 (1979)online
Taylor, A. J. P. "International Relations" in F.H. Hinsley, ed.,The New Cambridge Modern History: XI: Material Progress and World-Wide Problems, 1870–98 (1962): 542–66.online
Anderson, M. S.The Ascendancy of Europe: 1815–1914 (3rd ed. 2003)
Blanning, T. C. W. ed.The Nineteenth Century: Europe 1789–1914 (Short Oxford History of Europe) (2000) 320 pp
Bruun, Geoffrey.Europe and the French Imperium, 1799–1814 (1938)online.
Cameron, Rondo.France and the Economic Development of Europe, 1800–1914: Conquests of Peace and Seeds of War (1961), awide-ranging economic and business history.
Evans, Richard J.The Pursuit of Power: Europe 1815–1914 (2016), 934 pp
Gildea, Robert.Barricades and Borders: Europe 1800–1914 (3rd ed. 2003) 544 pp,online 2nd ed, 1996
Ajayi, J. F. Ade, ed.UNESCO General History of Africa, Vol. VI, Abridged Edition: Africa in the Nineteenth Century until the 1880s (1998)
Akyeampong, Emmanuel; Bates, Robert H; Nunn, Nathan; Robinson, James A, eds. (2014).Africa's Development in Historical Perspective.doi:10.1017/CBO9781139644594.ISBN9781139644594.
_-_Portrait_of_Leo_Tolstoy_(1887).jpg)
%2c_Ni%25C3%25A9pce_1827_%25E2%2580%2594_HRC_2020_(cropped).jpg)
.jpg)
_2.jpg)
_edit.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
