The20th century departures of foreign nationals from Egypt primarily concerned European andLevantine communities. These communities consisting of British, French,Greeks,Italians,Armenians,Maltese andJews of Egyptian descent had been established inEgypt since the 19th century. These foreign nationals became known as the "Egyptianized", or theMutamassirun.[1] The foreign resident population in Egypt numbered around 200,000 by the end ofWorld War 1.[1] This departure of foreign nationals was precipitated by political instability, theSuez Crisis, the abolition of thecapitulations system, and the rise ofEgyptian nationalism underGamal Abdel Nasser. In 1956, the Egyptian Minister of InteriorZakaria Mohieddin said that of Egypt's 18,000 British and French citizens, 12,000 were ordered expelled, their properties seized by the Egyptian government.[2]
The movement of the Mutamassirun ("Egyptianized"), which included the British and French, and alsoJews,Greeks,Italians,Syro-Lebanese, andArmenians, began afterWorld War I.[3] According to Andrew Gorman, this was primarily a result of the "decolonization process and the rise ofEgyptian nationalism".[4][5][6] Following the invasion of Egypt by Britain, France, and Israel in 1956, the new presidentGamal Abdel Nasser enacted a set of sweeping regulations abolishing civil liberties while implementing targeted policies, allowing the state to stage mass arrests and strip away Egyptian citizenship from any group it desired.[7]
| Population of Egypt, 1907–60[2] | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1907 | 1917 | 1927 | 1937 | 1947 | 1960 | |
| Egyptians | 11,189,978 | 12,512,106 | 13,952,264 | 15,734,170 | 18,966,767 | 25,984,101 |
| European nationals | ||||||
| Greeks | 62,973 | 56,731 | 76,264 | 68,559 | 57,427 | 47,673 |
| Italians | 34,926 | 40,198 | 52,462 | 47,706 | 27,958 | 14,089 |
| British/Maltese | 20,356 | 24,354 | 34,169 | 31,523 | 28,246 | 25,175 |
| French | 14,591 | 21,270 | 24,332 | 18,821 | 9,717 | |
| Others | 16,664 | |||||
| Other Communities | ||||||
| Jews | 38,635 | 58,581 | 63,550 | 62,953 | 65,639 | 8,561 |
| Armenians | 7,747 | 12,854 | 17,145 | 16,886 | – | – |
| Syrians, Palestinians, and other Arab nationalities | 33,947 | 31,725 | 39,605 | 38,692 | – | 56,375 |
Egyptian Greeks, often referred to as "Egyptiot Greeks" or simply "Egyptiots", were a prominent ethnic community in Egypt with roots dating back centuries. The exodus of Greeks from Egypt started before thecoup d'état of 1952.
According toAl-Jazeera's documentary "Egypt: The Other Homeland," Greeks and Egyptians shared a connection rooted in theirancient civilizations. It was the Greeks who established the first cinemas, industries, and theaters in Egypt, and they introduced commodities like wine and cigarettes to Egyptian society. Flourishing Greek communities existed in cities such asAlexandria,Cairo, andPort Said. In the early 19th century, Greek immigrants to Egypt began cultivating the country'scotton industry, which significantly benefited the Egyptian economy.[8]
With the establishment ofGamal Abdel Nasser's new regime, the rise ofPan-Arab nationalism, and the subsequent nationalization of many industries in 1961 and 1963, thousands of Greek employees emigrated.[2] Initially, Nasser assured the Greeks that they would not be harmed by his new policies due to their demonstrated loyalty during theSuez Crisis. Greek volunteers joined theEgyptian Army against British and French troops, and large Greek elements were visible during protests throughout the country. The Greeks believed they would be exempt from the new procedures against foreigners, as promised by Nasser. However, between 1956 and 1960, Nasser reneged on his assurances, and Greeks were included in the measures targeting foreigners. With financial assistance from theGreek government, many Greeks began to leave. As a result, the Greek population in Egypt decreased by 80%.[8]
Many Greek schools,churches, small communities, and institutions subsequently closed, but many continue to function to this day. The Nasser regime saw a significant exodus of Greeks from Egypt, but most of the minority left the country either before or after the period 1952–1970. TheArab-Israeli war of 1967 contributed to the uprooting of the sizable Greek community in the Suez Canal cities, especially inPort Said.[2]
Despite their departure, the legacy of the Egyptian Greeks continues to endure through cultural institutions, traditions, and the memories of those who once called Egypt home. Many of them emigrated toAustralia, theUnited States,Canada,South Africa,Western Europe, and Greece. The term "Egyptio Greeks" serves as a reminder of their hybrid identity and the bonds that once connected them to both Egypt and Greece.
The Italian presence in Egypt grew significantly in the early nineteenth century due to two main factors: the country's role as a refuge for Italian political exiles and the demand for workers during the modernization projects underMuhammad Ali andIsma'il. However, the Italian community in Egypt faced challenges during the mid-twentieth century.[9]
Beginning before the1952 coup d'état, many Italians left Egypt gradually. The rise of Pan-Arab nationalism under Gamal Abdel Nasser and the subsequentnationalization of industries in the1960s prompted thousands of Italian employees to emigrate, seeking better prospects elsewhere.[10]
Italian educational institutions, notablySalesian schools, underwent transformations that contributed to the departure of Italians from Egypt. Changes in state-level educational policies and the 'Egyptianization' strategy, aimed at integrating Egyptians into the workforce, limited opportunities for Italian expatriates.[10] By the early 1960s, over 40,000 Italians had left Egypt, mostly as "repatriates" or "national refugees," seeking refuge in Italy due to their ties to the country.[11]
The status of Egyptian Jews and their acquisition of Egyptian nationality have been subjects of debate, particularly regarding their motivations and the wider context of suspicion towards minorities, particularly Jews. Mahmud Abd al-Daher, in his workYahu' d Mis' r, argues that around 49% of Egyptian Jews held Egyptian nationality in 1897, primarily as Ottoman subjects residing locally. During the 19th century, Jewish immigrants arrived in Egypt from variousMediterranean countries andOttoman areas, contributing to the diverse community.[12]
Egyptian Company Law 138, promulgated in 1947, is cited as evidence that Egyptian Jews declared themselves 'Egyptian' only when their economic positions were challenged. This law facilitated the 'Egyptianization' process, aiming to ensure Egyptian control over the economy.[12] The diminishing public activities of Egyptian Jews after thePalestine War (1948) and the IsraeliLavon Affair (1954) further fueled skepticism towards them and their role in Egypt's economy.[13]
The Lavon Affair, also known asOperation Susannah, had far-reaching consequences for the Jewish community in Egypt and Israel's political landscape. The operation involved a clandestine plan by Israel's military intelligence branch,Aman, to carry out false-flag attacks in Egypt. The goal was to target Western and Egyptian institutions.[14] A small group of Egyptian Jews, trained in Israel and Egypt, were tasked with executing the attacks in the hopes of destabilising the regime of President Gamal Abdel Nasser and undermining relations between Egypt, theUnited States, and Britain.[15]
The operation commenced withbombings targeting post offices, a railway terminal, U.S. Information Agency libraries, and a British theater in Alexandria and Cairo. However, the Egyptian government became aware of the plan, leading to the arrest of the perpetrators. The failure of Operation Susannah shocked Israel's leaders, who were unwilling to accept responsibility for the activation of the sleeper cell. Due to the Israeli government's refusal to admit to the operation during the trial against them, the general Israeli population remained unaware, while the media depicted the trial as an unjust andanti-Semitic setup.[15] This situation, among other concerns, posed a significant threat to the safety of the more than 50,000 Jewish residents in Egypt.[16]
The complexity of Egyptian Jews' lives cannot be divorced from wider political events, such as the Palestine War of 1947–1948. Despite their contributions to Egyptian society, attitudes towards Egyptian Jews worsened over time, exacerbated by events like the Suez War and suspicions of involvement inZionist activities.[17] Many Egyptian Jews faced increased insecurity and were arrested during the Suez War, leading to a significant decrease in their numbers in the years following the conflict. The secret police raided Jewish owned properties on occasional basis and arrested Jewish citizens.[12]
Reasons for migration among Egyptian Jews included discontent, incidents of property damage supported by nationalist andIslamist slogans,[17] and the worsening attitudes towards them following the Palestine War and the Lavon Affair. Despite their contributions to Egypt's economy and society, the deteriorating relationship between Egyptians and Egyptian Jews ultimately led to a significant decrease in the Jewish population in Egypt in the aftermath of the Suez War.[12]
After the Suez Crisis of 1956, the secret police raided Jewish properties and arrested thousands of Jewish citizens. Thousands of Jews began to depart Egypt due to the increasing pressure.
Some 23,000—25,000 Jews out of 42,500 in Egypt left,[18] mainly for Israel, Western Europe, the United States, South America, and Australia.[19] Many were forced to sign declarations that they were voluntarily emigrating and agreed to the confiscation of their assets. Similar measures were enacted against British and French nationals in retaliation for the invasion. By 1957 the Jewish population of Egypt had fallen to 15,000.[20]
The Armenian community in Egypt boasts a rich and storied history, characterized by its distinct language,churches, and social institutions. Despite being a minority group, Armenians have made significant contributions to Egyptian society. However, the Armenian population in Egypt has experienced a decline over the years due to various factors, including migration to other countries and integration into broader Egyptian society. Extensiveintermarriage withMuslims and Christians has also contributed to this decline. Today, the Armenian community in Egypt numbers around 6,000 individuals, significantly smaller than in previous generations. The majority of Armenians are concentrated in Cairo and Alexandria, the country's two largest cities. Economically, Egyptian Armenians have often pursued self-employment as businessmen or craftsmen and tend to have higher levels of education compared to the national average.[21]
Armenians first arrived in Egypt asasylum seekers following theArmenian genocide of 1915 in the Ottoman Empire. At their peak, Armenians in Egypt numbered around 60,000 individuals. However, the year 1961 marked a significant turning point when the Egyptian government nationalized many industries, dealing a decisive blow to Egyptians, including Armenians, who were heavily involved in economic activities. This led to a further decrease in the Armenian population in Egypt as many chose to emigrate in search of better opportunities elsewhere.[22]
After the 1956 war, Egyptian military soldiers were patrolled to British and French properties and conducted search operations and ordered British and French citizens to leave within a week, they had to hand over their property to the Egyptian government.
