12 Archaeology of BCE 200 – CE 1200 Assam (Northeast India): Pre-literary to Historical and Early Medieval Periods BRATATEE BARMANIntroduction developments, transition from a non-literary to aSeveral ancient remains dating back to the historical literary society, phases of art and architecturalperiod and the early medieval period dot the North- developments, religious transmission, intra and inter-eastern states of Assam, Meghalaya, Arunachal regional trade and communications is still at naissance.Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur and Tripura. The available This paper explores the trends in the existingarchaeological and historical sources suggest existence archaeological research and discusses scope of certainof advanced agrarian cultures on the Brahmaputra methods for future archaeological investigations.River valley (Sharma 2005), which left traces of Problemsmonumental structures, from the beginning of theCommon Era (Choudhury 1966; Choudhury 1985; Our knowledge of the region is based so far, on a fewChoudhury 2013). Such construction ranges from the archaeological explorations (Dutta 2006; Sarma 2007)monolithic stone stupas of Sri Surya Pahar, Assam and excavations carried out within Assam at Ambari(IAR 1992), brick stupas of Vedagokuguri, Meghalaya (Dutta 2006), Sri Surya Pahar (IAR 1992, 1995-96,(Sharma 1993) and Shyam Sundar, Tripura (IAR 2002) 2000); Meghalaya (Sharma 1993); Tripura (IAR 2002-to the brick temples of Na Nath (Assam) and stone 03, 2003-04); and Arunachal Pradesh (IAR 1988-1989;temple remains of Malinithan, Arunachal Pradesh 1993-1994); and Manipur (Sharma 1994). These(IAR 1972). Proliferation of structures built of brick explorations and excavations provide a rough spatial-and decorative terracotta plaques make an appearance temporal sequence from 400 CE - 1500 CE. However,from 500 CE – 600 CE in Assam followed by structures there is lack of a system to theorise these developmentsbuilt of stones since the late 900 CE Assam and and categorise them within region specific timelinescontinue through 1000 CE Meghalaya (Sharma 1993) (Sarma 2014). There is also, a lack of widely acceptedand 1200 CE – 1300 CE Arunachal Pradesh. This terminology to address the various time periods inperiod can also be identified with a refined tradition history. Scholars have used varied terms to refer to theof terracotta art, stone carving. However, our entire period starting from 600 BCE until the 1200knowledge of the development process of such CE as ‘ancient historical period’ (Baruah 1966) or morecultures in Northeast India is still limited (Hazarika recently as the ‘Pre-Ahom period’ (Lahiri 1991).2008; Sarma and Hazarika 2014; Jamir and Hazarika The problem arises due to the use of a temporal2014). Our understanding of the material cultural division that was formulated to fit the material cultural 96 ArchaeologyinNortheastIndia:RecentTrendsandFutureProspectsdevelopment in Gangetic valley. The beginning of early the process of adapting the Sanskrit language forhistorical period in the Indian heartland is 600 BCE, inscribing their official epigraphs.which is marked by the appearance of writing in Brahmi It is not that an earlier date for the state formationscript, and also the growth of independent city states process has not been proposed. In fact speculationknown as the Janapadas; consolidation of centralised regarding an earlier date for cultural developments inpolitical power in Magadha under the imperial dynasty this region has been widely discussed (Baruah 1969,of the Mauryas (Sharma 2005, Thapar 2002), birth of Choudhury 1966, Choudhury 1985). Traditionally, itthe Buddha and Mahaveer and dissemination of their has been emphasised that the state formation processteachings. In Northeast India, the earliest evidence of in the Brahmaputra valley begun in the early part ofwriting dates back to the 5th century, several centuries the Common Era under the legendary Bhauma-Narakalater than in the Gangetic valley (Lahiri 1991). Hence, dynasty. The reference to the Bhauma-Naraka dynastyrevision of the periodisation in favour of a regional is found firstly, in the Sanskrit epics, Ramayana andhistorical time frame has been suggested by Sarma Mahabharata. In both epics, Narakasur has been(2014). Sarma argues that the beginning of early referred to as the first king of Pragjyotishpur (identifiedhistorical period in the Brahmaputra river valley to be to be ancient Kamarupa). The second reference to the300 CE, as the application of the standard Indian dynasty is found in the inscriptions of all the rulinghistorical periodisation is inapplicable to the dynasties in the region (Lahiri 1991). Reference ofBrahmaputra valley due to its unique socio-political Naraka is also found in the Kalikapurana, a quasi-status compared to mainland India (Sarma 2014). Sarma historical text belonging to the 900s CE (Lahiri 1991).bases his argument on the reference of Allahabad Pillar However, there are no written records to corroborateinscription of mid fourth century of Samudra Gupta the historicity of the legendary kings of the Bhauma-where two early kingdoms of Dabaka and Kamarupa Naraka dynasty. The first recorded dynasty is knownwere mentioned. Both these places have been identified to be the Bhauma-Barman dynasty, whose earliestto be parts of modern Hojai and Kamrup districts in traceable king is Pushyabarman from the mid-300s CEAssam. Sarma argues that the preliminary stages of state (Lahiri 1991). Several land grants, seals, inscriptionsformation process had begun in the Brahmaputra valley exist from this period. In addition, the legendaryby the CE 300. alliance between the Kamrupi king Bhaskar Barman In the same note, agricultural settlements must with the then ruler in northern India, Harshavardhanahave thrived in these areas as it is unlikely that political has been well documented in Banabhatta’s Harshacharitadevelopments would be possible without having an (Cowell and Thomas 1897). A publication by theorganised system of taxation in place (Sharma 2005, Directorate of Archaeology, Assam (2010) reportedThapar 2002). If we consider other factors such as, discovery of a burnt clay sealing with early Brahmithe development of a writing system and language, by script stamped on it (Dutta 2010). Based on thethe 400 CE inscriptions were being inscribed in chaste writing’s palaeographic features, the report placed itSanskrit - the Umachal rock inscription and the within the early historical period, i.e. 200 BCE. A similarNagajari Khanikargaon inscription (Lahiri 1991) are seal was discovered in the Doiyang valley as well,the earliest examples. Lahiri maintains that influence however, it has not been studied yet (Dutta 2010). Theof another “speech system” (1991) is discernible in reliability of the report on the premier seal comesthe early inscriptions found in the Brahmaputra valley across as somewhat uncertain. A short statement within(1991). What we can take away from this is that by the the report states the condition of the seal to be poortime of the earliest inscriptions, an organised social and illegible. Hence, reliability of this piece of evidencegroup who already practiced a type of speech was in is not state-of-the-art. ArchaeologyofBCE200–CE1200Assam(NortheastIndia) 97 In terms of architectural and artefactual evidences wells are characteristic features of early historical sitesthat suggest existence of an early period are, firstly, in the Gangetic valley (Pande 1966), however nothingthe rock-cut stupas of Sri Surya Pahar site, have been much can be stated unless more such discoveries arerelatively dated to a century or two before the Common made and the contents analysed, as these examples areEra (200 BCE –100CE). They are comparable to the few and far between, and do not provide a definitivewestern Indian rock-cut stupas of Karle and Bhaje of evidence, yet, leaves the argument for considering 300Maharashtra (Choudhury 2013). Secondly, a piece of CE to be the early historical period in Assam,roulette ware - a type of table ware, dated to the 200 inconclusive.BCE – 200 CE was recovered from the Ambari Early medieval period in the mainland Indianarchaeological site during the first excavation (IAR context begins by the seventh century and continues1969-1970). Roulettes consist of one or several lengths up to the 1200 CE. Hence, if the standard, pan-Indianof vegetal fibre, twisted, knotted, folded, wrapped or historical periodisation is applied to the Brahmaputrabraided to form a tool, typically around 5-10 cm long, river valley, the period from 700 CE - 1200 CE will fallthat can be rolled across the surface of a clay vessel within the early medieval period. In the archaeologicalprior to firing. This type of pottery is associated with studies of Assam, this period is well represented bythe trade in the Indian Ocean (Gogte 1997). Although copper plate grants, stone epigraphs, and seals, brickpreviously thought to be of Roman in origin, the and stone architectural structures, pottery, terracottaroulette ware samples from some of the ports in India and stone sculptures, planned water reservoirs or tanks.were found to have been manufactured in the area The architecture of this period can be identified byaround Tamluk region of the modern Republic of the type of building material used for construction.Bangladesh (Gogte 1997). Unless the authenticity of The early part of this period is marked by large numberthe roulette ware found in Ambari is proven otherwise of brick temples decorated with terracotta plaques.through chemical analyses, this could suggest inter- These remains are spread across the districts ofregional communication in the form of trade between Nagaon, Hojai, Sonitpur, Golaghat in central Assamthe Bay of Bengal and Brahmaputra valley (Sankalia and Kamrup, Dhubri and Goaplara, in western Assam.1971, Ansari and Dhavalikar 1970). Thirdly, a broken Many of such temples are intact till today, such as thepiece of a pottery vessel, with lustrous red slip was Na Nath group of temples in Hojai district. Stone as afound during the same excavation. This piece of material for building large structures debuts from thepottery is exhibited as a specimen of the Roman 9th to 10th century. These structures too are foundArretine ware in the Assam State Museum in Guwahati across the central and western parts of modern Assam.(personal visit). A similar type of pottery was also However, not a single stone structure in its entiretyrecovered during the latest excavation at Ambari (IAR exists to date (Choudhury 2013). The sole exception2008-2009). Fourth, part of a miniature, terracotta being the Kamakhya temple which has been repairedornate female figure was also unearthed during the and rebuilt at various stages in history and carries artexcavation in Ambari and is relatively dated to the historical features from different periods ofSunga period 187 BCE - 78 CE (IAR 2008-2009). In construction.addition, during two recent archaeological explorations The beginning of the early medieval period in thecarried out in the northern and north-eastern sides of mainland Indian context is also marked by a shift inthe Sri Surya Pahar archaeological site, existence of a political power from the imperial seat of power in northfortified settlement site has been reported (Barman India into the hands of regional dynasties (Chakrabarti2017). Large flat bricks up to the size of 35 × 20 × 6 2006); and, also by the arrival of the Arab invaders. Incm, and several ring wells were located at the site. Ring case of the Brahmaputra valley, political power is 98 ArchaeologyinNortheastIndia:RecentTrendsandFutureProspectsretained by the same regional dynasty of the Varmans inscriptional evidence has been discovered, and hence,from the mid 300 CE onward (Lahiri 1991). The reign those sites lack a context in the early medieval historyof power continues to be in the hands of succeeding of Assam. As archaeology has been playing the secondregional dynasties of the Salastambha and the Palas fiddle to history, the major focus of the research hasand the Senas. The appearance of the Arabs, which been on fitting in the archaeological details andplayed a crucial role in the political power structure in information to the historical framework. These sitesnorth India, did not affect the Brahmaputra valley until have been merely speculated to be the production ofthe first attack by Muhammad Bin Bakhtiyar in 1206 the political rulers belonging to different dynastiesCE (Lahiri 1991). The 1200 CE is considered as the based on their art historical context. In terms of studyend of the early medieval period in Assam because of of pottery or ceramics studies, which can providethe definitive changes in the political events in the relevant context to the excavated sites and theirvalley. The changes appear in the later part of the 1100 materials, there is a need for more specialised research.CE when political power of the Palas and Senas shrink, A basic classification of the pottery from Ambari doestwo newer kingdoms emerge - Kamata and Chutia exist (Dutta 2006), however, regional sequence of thekingdoms towards the last three decades of 1100s. pottery is yet to be constructed. The same is applicableFurther changes occur due to the establishment of to the pottery of Sri Surya Pahar site.political power in eastern Assam by the Ahoms by 1226 The Sanskrit epics – the Ramayana and theCE. Mahabharata, the Arthshastra of Kautilya, travelogue Reverting back to the trends and problems in the of the Chinese monk Huen Tsang and Banabhatta’sarchaeology of Northeast India, it is clear that a well- Harsha-charita (Beal 1973), and the Kalika Purana (900-defined clear culture sequence is missing. Moreover, 100 CE) have heavily influenced the history of thethere is no defined stratigraphical division that is pre - 1200 CE. This framework of history is primarilysupported by numerical dating and regional pottery followed, while archaeological discoveries are merelysequencing which makes understanding of the used to filling in the gaps. Historically, the reasons couldtransitional periods in history - the periods when the be traced back to the colonial period Assam. Thesociety underwent socio-cultural and political changes British government records mention that thedue to changing power structures - is also poor (Sarma “Brahmaputra River valley is devoid of any2014). Similarly, the transition from a pre-literate society archaeological remains of importance” (Allen 1905).to one which is conversant in Sanskrit and the Brahmi In fact, the eventual discovery of remains post 1905script by the 400 CE, transition from hunting gathering also failed to attract attention from the Governmentto farming, and changing use of stone tools to metal in documentation and protection of the archaeologicaltools, and animal and crop domestication (Sarma and sites (Barua 1933). Two major archaeological sites inHazarika 2014) is yet to be understood. Assam - Tezpur and Ambari, were decimated to build Moreover, the text focused research - trying to fit housing for the British officials and construct thethe archaeological discoveries to the existing historical railway station in Guwahati (Shakespeare 1914)framework - has proved to be restrictive in nature and respectively. In contrast, in mainland India large scalehas diverted the focus of research from the archaeological explorations and, excavations werearchaeological sites and their surroundings, instead to carried out under the leadership of Sir Alexanderfinding relevance of these sites in the already existing Cunningham, a British official. Such initiatives towardsdynastical chronology. While an inscription found at the archaeological sites in Assam were lessAmbari has assigned it to the period of Kumar Bhaskar forthcoming. One of the early mentions of a large-Varman’s rule, there are several sites where no scale site in the valley can be found in the History of ArchaeologyofBCE200–CE1200Assam(NortheastIndia) 99Upper Assam, Upper Burma and Northeast Frontier by W.L. The earliest inscriptions and epigraphs discovered inShakespeare (1914), a colonial explorer. He mentions the valley were written in pure Sanskrit (Lahiri 1991).one of the most important archaeological sites Moreover, the bank of the Brahmaputra river and itsbelonging to the historical period, at present known tributaries are dotted with Nagara or, northern styleas Ambari. He records the area being cleared away of temple remains dating back to the early medievalstructural ruins for the construction of the Guwahati period. Such remains are also present in Vedagokugurirailway station. In all probability, a part of the same in Meghalaya (Sharma 1994), and Malinithan inarchaeological site that Shakespeare mentions in his Arunachal Pradesh. Moreover, many of the land grantstravelogue was later discovered to the northwest side refer to a tradition of donating land to Brahmins whoof the Guwahati station, while building a structure for had migrated from north and central India (Lahirithe Reserve Bank of India in 1969. Ambari was the 1991). According to one school of thought, thefirst multicultural site discovered in Assam (IAR 1969). “Aryan” migration began from 300 CE onward Ambari was excavated over nine seasons, since (Choudhury 2013). The period before the migrations1969 till 2010. Based on the discovery of an inscription began the political power rested with the Asuras orof Kumar Bhaskar Varman dating back to the 600 CE, people belonging to groups other than the Indo-and study of the sculptural and architectural remains Aryans.found during the excavations, the earliest period of The premise of this theory is based on the 19th -the site was assigned to the 600-700 CE (Dutta 2006). 20 century theories of “Aryan invasion” propounded thNumerical dating or radio carbon dating of the middle by Mortimer Wheeler (1944-1948) and Aryanupper layer had placed the layer of the site from 1000- migration theory propagated by the Ger man1100 CE. Another multicultural site excavated in philologist and orientalist Max Muller (1868-1884). TheAssam is the Sri Surya Pahar in Goalpara district. The term Aryan rather than being used in the linguisticimportance of the site lies in the remains that belong sense, Muller used it to refer to a certain racialto three major, ancient Indian religions, namely, characteristic (Thapar 1996) which was a commonBuddhism, Jainism and Hinduism. Moreover, the rock trend among the European colonists of this periodcut carvings of the Hindu pantheon belong to two (Trigger 1989). Due to interchangeably using the termHindu sects - Saivite and Vaishnavite. Based on art “Aryan” as a race rather than a linguistic group inspiredhistorical analysis, the earliest relative date of the site the Nazis and fascists groups of Europe to introducingis 200 BCE – 100 BCE (Choudhury 2013); the second the term “Aryanisation” which meant getting rid ofphase was dated to 500 – 600 CE (IAR 1992-93, 1993- people from other “inferior” races forcefully, from94); third phase is early medieval period 700 – 1000 Europe. The term “Aryanisation” in Indian historicalCE to 1100 CE (IAR 2000-2001). context is accepted as a reference to adoption of It would not be wrong to suggest that the basic Sanskrit language. This concept was adopted by theculture historical research in this region is still in its Indian nationalist historians (Thapar 1996). It wasearly stage. However, the paradox is that the theories intended to raise the status of the higher caste Indianassociated with culture history - such as Aryanisation population from the status of mere dominated colonialand association of race to archaeological cultures population (Thapar 1996). In Assam too, historiansremains prominent (Choudhury 2013; Sharma 1993, adopted the theory and the trend continued until the1994; Hazarika 2008). One of the subjects that have present. The reason could be that this theory fills inbeen affected by this trend is the peopling of this an important void that exists in the early history ofregion, especially the Brahmaputra valley by the Indo- this area due to lack of historical records and detailedEuropean linguistic group or Sanskrit speaking groups. archaeological research. 100 ArchaeologyinNortheastIndia:RecentTrendsandFutureProspects The concept of “Aryan” in the racial context has or surveys such as extensive and intensive surveyslong been discarded by historians and archaeologists around the existing monumental structures foralike in India and outside (Thapar 1996). The use of identification of habitation sites; systematicthis ter m in the context of peopling of the documentation of archaeological features includingBrahmaputra valley must be discouraged. One of the water reservoirs, earth works such as dykes, ditches,trends that can be associated with the still used racial artificial elevations; artefacts; eco-facts in the form oftheory of the “Aryans” is association of ethnicity with soil and sediment samples, bone samples, and potteryarchaeological cultures (Sharma 1993, 1994). Northeast for extraction of traces of food cooked/stored in them.India has many Tibeto-Burman language speaking The importance of the systematic exploration andgroups inhabiting in parts of Assam and the documentation cannot be emphasised enough as thisneighbouring hill states of Arunachal Pradesh, forms the back bone for the accuracy of the analysisManipur, Nagaland, Mizoram, Tripura and Meghalaya. later. Scientifically documented samples will help inGiven its geophysical position, this region is like a numerically dating a site or, multicultural sites such asbridge between the western Asian countries, and Surya Pahar and Ambari.mainland India on eastern side and Myanmar and other Northeast India was termed as archaeological terraSoutheast Asian countries on the eastern side. incognita in 1970 (Dhavalikar 1970). Since then severalMigrations from both sides have taken place since the explorations and excavations (Sharma 1993, 1994;prehistoric periods which has shaped the present Choudhury 2013, IAR 1991; IAR 1996-97), haveculture and demographics (Jamir and Hazarika 2014, revealed much about the distribution of sites acrossSarma and Hazarika 2014). Connecting ethnicity to the region and a basic temporal framework of thearchaeological cultures was a common practice in the period from 600 CE – 1200 CE. The materials19th century Europe (Trigger 2007). The cause lay in excavated from the various sites are housed in thethe search for proving racial superiority by the district museums, state archaeology department andnationalistic groups (Thapar 1996). This aspect also Archaeological Survey of India and different localmust come to a close in archaeological and historical universities and colleges which can be systematicallyresearch here, because unless human remains have been analysed. To increase the collective knowledge of agenetically tested, it is impossible to really infer more refined cultural sequence, ceramic seriation, oneconnection of one set of people to an archaeological of the most widely used methods of the Culturesite which is over a few centuries old. History model in archaeology, that creates a relative chronology based on the measurement of frequencyWay Forward of a design and its appearance and disappearance inTo create a better understanding of the pre-literate an assemblage -this can inform on the changing socialand historical past of the Brahmaputra valley, what we preferences, social stratification of the ancient societies;urgently need is the systematic use of archaeological provenance studies of pottery can provide informationtheory and methods, tailored specifically for a region about the origin of the pottery, trade andlike the Northeast India, which is still missing a skeletal communication of the people; examination of organicframework for archaeological research. The places remains extracted from cooking vessels can providewhere there is lack of a basic framework of us with not only the knowledge of the kind of mealarchaeological research, culture historical methods aid the pot cooked but also provide information ofin creating a strong foundation for future research in domesticated species of grains, vegetables and animals.processual and post processual research (Paddayya Moreover, the artefact studies that has been widely used2002). Hence, starting off with systematic explorations by archaeologists in order to study the objects life cycle, ArchaeologyofBCE200–CE1200Assam(NortheastIndia) 101can provide a large amount of information too Barua, K.L. 1933. The Early History of Kamrupa: From the Earliestregarding the site it was found in, trade and economic Times to the End of the Sixteenth Century. Guwahati: Bani Mandir.relations, social stratification etc. Another aspect of the archaeological research is Beal, S.T. 1973 (original 1911). The Life of Huen-Tsiangthe single site focus (Barman 2017). The majority of (translated from the Chinese of Shaman Hwui Li by Samuel Beal). New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal.the archaeological sites in Assam are structural remainsof temples and Buddhist stupas. Studying these sites Chakrabarti, D.K. 2006. The Oxford Companion to Indian Archaeology: The Archaeological Foundations of Ancient India.in context to their surrounding environment, for Oxford: Oxford University Press.instance, investigating settlements and habitation sites Choudhury, N.D. 1985. Historical Archaeology of Central Assam.that are usually found near such monuments will greatly New Delhi: B.R. Publications.add to a better understanding of the historical period.In order to understand the past processes we need to Choudhury, P.C. 1966. The History of Civilization of the People of Assam to the Twelfth Century A.D. 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