Doctor

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(Latindocere, to teach)

The title of an authorized teacher. In this general sense the term occurs in the O.T.; the "doctors" are mentioned with the "princes and ancients" (Deuteronomy 29:10;31:28), and Azarias prophesies (2 Chronicles 15:3) that "many days shall pass inIsrael, without thetrue God, and without apriest a teacher, and without thelaw" (absque sacerdote doctore, et absque lege). It was theduty of these doctors to expound thelaw, and this they performed at the time ofChrist, who was found in the Temple "in the midst of the doctors" (Luke 2:46). Another meeting ofOur Lord with the "doctors of thelaw" is recorded inLuke 5:17. The later Jewish teachers also received the title (doctor gemaricus, doctor mischnicus — see Talmud). Under the New Law the doctors are those who have received a special gift orcharisma (seeCHARISMATA) such as the "prophets and doctors" of theChurch at Antioch (Acts 13:1), and of whomSt. Paul says that "God indeed hath set some in the church; first apostles, secondlyprophets, thirdly doctors (1 Corinthians 12:28;Ephesians 4:11).St. Paul speaks of himself as a doctor of theGentiles infaith andtruth (1 Timothy 2:7), andDoctor gentium is one of the titles given him in the liturgy. In the early Church, teachers in thecatecheticalschools were known asdoctores audientium (Cyprian, Ep. xxix, ed. Hartel); and finally, in the course oftime, some of the most illustrioustheologians were designated as "Doctors of the Church".

The use ofDoctor as an academic title dates from the founding of themedievaluniversities. Before these were regularly organized, any teacher who gathered about him a number of students was a doctor,dominus, ormagister. During the first half of the twelfth century, the titleDoctor acquired a more special significance, though it still implied personal excellence rather than official position. The "Four Doctors" who succeededIrnerius at Bologna were the distinguished jurists, Martinus (died before 1166), Bulgarus (died 1166), Hugo (died 1168), and Jacobus (died 1178). But when the doctors formed acollegium they prescribed conditions on which otherpersons might become members of the teaching body, and thus laid the foundation of the system of academic degrees. The doctorate was first granted incivil law (doctores legum), later in canon law (doctores decretorum), and, during the thirteenth century, in medicine, grammar,logic, andphilosophy. The doctorate in music was conferred at Oxford and Cambridge in the fifteenth century. For graduates in arts andtheology,magister was more generally employed thandoctor, but for a long time these titles were synonymous. TheEnglishuniversities, adopting the usage ofParis, at first designated teachers of law as doctors, and professors oftheology as masters; but in the course oftime the former title was given to all the superior faculties, and the latter was reserved for grammar and arts. InGermany,doctor andmagister were interchangeable (Kaufmann, "Geschichte" etc., II, 268 sqq.), and though the mastership is no longer conferred as a separate degree, a trace of themedieval practice is still found in the diploma which styles its recipient "Doctor of Philosophy and Master of Arts".

Bologna at first conferred only the doctorate, butParis and theEnglishuniversities very soon introduced the preparatory degrees of baccalaureate and licentiate. Later, it istrue, the licentiate was granted in the Italianuniversity also at the first examination (privata); but this merely implied permission to proceed to the second, more formal, examination (publica) in which thelicentia docendi was given. AtParis, the licentiate meant a real authorization to teach, besides being a pre-requisite for admission to the final examination (inceptio) at which the doctorate was conferred. There was a corresponding difference in the length of the course for the degree. Bologna required six years of study for the doctorate in canon law, and seven or eight for the doctorate incivil law; the student might begin his course at the age of fourteen and become a doctor at twenty or twenty-one. AtParis thestatutes drawn up in 1215 by theCardinalLegate Robert de Courçon provided that no one should lecture intheology as a master unless he was thirty-five years of age, had studied for eight years, and taken a five-years' course intheology. According toDenifle (Universitäten, 100-102), the eight years meant three years in arts and five years intheology. (Cf. Rashdall, "Universities", I, 462 sqq.) At Oxford, candidates who had already taken the M. A. degree were required to studytheology seven years more for the licentiate. In medicine, M. A. candidates had a six-years' course for the doctorate. For the subjects required in these courses seeUNIVERSITY. (Cf. Rasbdall, op. cit., II, 452 sq.)

In regard to examinations there seems to have been considerable leniency: at times they were reduced to mere formalities, at other times they were dispensed with. The degree was awarded by the chancellor on the advice of the regent masters of the faculty as to the candidate's fitness. Theceremony of inception was conducted by a regent; it consisted in the tradition of the book and ring, the imposition of thebiretta, and thekiss of fellowship. AtParis, however, the degree intheology was conferred by the chancellor himself, who placed thebiretta upon the candidate's head with the words, "Incipiatis in nomine Patris et Filii et Spiritus Sancti.Amen." Then followed a disputation (aulica) in which the chancellor, the masters, and one of the bachelors took part. It was customary also to hold, on the evening before inception, an elaborate disputation known as vesperiœ (see, for details,"Chartularium", II, App., p. 693).

Among the various doctorates, that intheology ranked first. It was no uncommon thing for those who had received the degree in the other faculties to take additional courses for the S. T. D. In the Germanuniversities, for instance, licentiates in law or medicine might become bachelors intheology after five years oftheological study; they would then beobliged to pursue the course prescribed for the other candidates. Conversely,theologians were sometimes permitted to follow courses incivil law and medicine. This privilege was granted to Bologna byClement V (10 March, 1310) for a period of ten years but it applied only toecclesiastical persons other thanpriests, religious, andbishops elect. It was renewed twice byJohn XXII (1317 and 1330); but when theuniversity (1343-44) petitioned for an indefinite extension of the privilege,Clement VI refused.Innocent VI, however, renewed it (30 June, 1360) for ten years (Denifle, op. cit., 209).

The chief significance of the doctorate lay in the fact that it authorized the recipient to teach everywhere without undergoing further examination —jus ubique docendi. This prerogative developed gradually out of thelicentia docendi which the degree itself implied, i.e. theright to teach in theuniversity which conferred the doctorate. But as the olderuniversities, Bologna, Paris, and Oxford, grew in importance and attracted students from all parts, theidea naturally spread that their graduates had theright to teach everywhere. Subsequently, this authorization was expressly granted to newly foundeduniversities: byGregory IX toToulouse (1233), and byAlexander IV to Salamanca (1255). It was long, however, before theuniversities came to a mutual recognition of their degrees.Paris held tenaciously to itsrights; Oxford was more liberal, but would not permit aParisian doctor to teach merely on the strength of his degree. The doctors themselves were not always anxious to exercise their prerogative; the teaching devolved in large measure upon the bachelors, and the masters were classified as regents (those who taught) and as nonregents, who were content with the prestige implied by their degree or were eager for other occupations.

The essential meaning of the doctorate as fixed by themedievaluniversities is preserved in modern academic usage; the degree implies a qualification to teach. It has, however, undergone various modifications which are due partly to the development of thesciences and partly to changes ineducational theory and practice. The degree, Doctor of Laws, is often conferred as an honorary title. The doctorate intheology, or divinity, has been retained byCatholic institutions as a degree to be given either after a course of study and an examination or as a distinction (honoris causa); while the tendency among non-Catholicuniversities is to confer it only as an honorary degree. Of late the doctorate inphilosophy has attained great importance, and its value has been enhanced as the result of stricter requirements. For this and for the other doctorates, research is now generally considered the principal qualification, and in consequence the candidate's work is becoming more specialized.

The influence of theHoly See, in regard to the doctorate, especially intheology, has been exerted in various ways, e.g. by authorizinguniversities to confer the degree, by prescribing throughpapal legates the conditions for obtaining it, and by correcting abuses, notably laxity of requirements, which crept in from time to time. The historical details will be found in the articleUNIVERSITY. Legislation concerning theecclesiastical side of the subject may be summarized as follows: —

1. The power of creating doctors belongs to thepope; but he may, and often does, delegate it touniversities,seminaries, and other institutions of learning. Charters granted bycivil authority are valid; but to obtain canonical recognition, doctorates intheology and canon law must be conferred in virtue of pontifical authorization.
2. The candidate for the degree must be abaptizedChristian and must subscribe to the profession offaith formulated byPius IV. As a rule, onlypriests receive the doctorate intheology and canon law. It is not, however,necessary that the recipient should be in Sacred orders. Laymen as well aspriests are allowed to appear as advocates before the Roman tribunals (Rota, Signatura) and they are required to have the doctorate at least in Canon law (Const. "Sapienti consilio", 29 June, 1908).
3. The doctoralbiretta, or four-cornered cap, may be worn on academic occasions, but not in choir (Cong. of Rites, "In Venusina", 1844, and reply to theArchbishop of Santiago de Chile, 6 Sept., 1895); the ring may be worn at all times except at Mass and otherecclesiastical functions (Cong. of Rites, 12 Feb., 1892).
4. TheCouncil of Trent (Sess. XXII, c. ii, "de Ref.") decreed that abishop must be either doctor or licentiate intheology or in canon law; if a religious, he should have proper testimonials from his superiors. It enacted the same requirement for thearchdeacon (Sess. XXIV, c. xii, "de Ref."). Regarding thevicar capitular and, thepœnitentiarius, it prescribed that they should either have the degree or be otherwise well qualified. The Congregation of Studies recently decided (7 March, 1908) that the penitentiary andtheologian of thecathedral chapter, if not already doctors, must receive the degree within a year. The Const. "Sapienti consilia" (29 June, 1908) prescribes the doctorate intheology and Canon law for the officials of theRota and Signatura. It has been a matter of controversy whether thevicar-general isobliged to be a doctor and whether theTridentinedecree concerning thearchdeacon is still in force. For the divergent opinions, see Card. Gennari, "Questioni Canoniche" (Rome, 1908), pp. 372, 292. The whole tenor ofecclesiastical legislation has been in favour of requirements which secure scientific qualifications in those who are appointed to official positions in theChurch.

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