One of the oldest surviving foreign descriptions of India comes fromthe Greco-Roman biographer of Alexander the Great, Flavius Arrianus. Hedepended upon other Greek sources, such as Niarchus, which are now lost.His short book The Indica, dealt with the Voyage of Alexander's fleet fromIndia to the Near East. Below is his general description of India.
1. The district west of the river Indus as far as the river Cophen isinhabited by the Astacenians and the Assacenians, Indian tribes. But theyare not so tall in stature or so courageous as those who dwell east of theIndus; nor are they so swarthy as the majority of the Indians. These werein ancient times subject to the Assyrians, afterwards to the Medes and finallythey submitted to the Persians, and paid tribute to Cyrus the son of Cambysesas ruler of their land. The Nysaeans are not an Indian race, but descendedfrom the men who came into India with Dionysus--perhaps from those Greekswho were rendered unfit for service in the wars which Dionysus waged withthe Indians. Perhaps also he settled with the Greeks those of the nativeswho were willing to join his colony. Dionysus named the city itself Nysa,and the land Nysaea, in honour of his nurse Nysa. The mountain near thecity, at whose base Nysa was built, is called Meros (thigh) after the misfortunehe experienced as soon as he was born. This is the story framed by the poetsin regard to Dionysus, and let the writers of legends Grecian and foreignexpound it. Among the Assacenians is Massaca, a large city, where also isthe stronghold of the land of Assacia; and there is also another large city,Peucelaitis, not far from the Indus. These tribes have been settled westof the Indus as far as the Cophen.
2. Let me call the country east of the Indus India, and the people Indians.Towards the north of India lies Mount Taurus; but in this land it is nolonger called Taurus. This range commences from the sea near Pamphylia,Lycia, and Cilicia and extends as far as the Eastern Sea, dividing the wholeof Asia. It is called by various names in different districts; in one partit is called Parapamisus, in another Emodus, in a third Imaus, and probablyit has several other names. The Macedonians who accompanied Alexander'sexpedition called it Caucasus. But this is quite a different Caucasus fromthat in Scythia. They called it by this name that the report might becomecurrent that Alexander had marched even beyond the Caucasus. The river Indusbounds India on the west as far as the Great Sea, into which it dischargesits water by two mouths, not near each other like the five mouths of theIster, but like those of the Nile, by which the Egyptian Delta is formed.Thus also the river Indus forms the Delta of India, which is not smallerthan that of Egypt. This delta is called in the Indian tongue Pattala. Onthe south India is bounded by the Great Sea itself, and the same sea boundsit on the east. The part of the country towards the south near Pattala andthe outlets of the Indus was seen by Alexander and the Macedonians and bymany Greeks; but into the part towards the east Alexander did not penetratefurther than the river Hyphasis. A few authors have described the countryas far as the river Ganges, and where are the outlets of that river andnear it Palimbothra, the largest city of the Indians.
3. I consider Eratosthenes the Cyrenaean the most trustworthy authority,because he is careful to trace the circumference of the country. This writersays that the side of India has a length of I,529 miles to one going fromMount Taurus, in which are the sources of the Indus, along that river itselfas far as the Great Sea and the outlets of the Indus. And opposite thishe makes another side from the same mountain to the Eastern Sea scarcelyequal to this side; but he makes a peninsula stretch far into the sea tothe extent of about 353 miles. Therefore according to him the side of Indiatowards the east would extend I,882 miles. This he considers the breadthof India. The length from west to east as far as the city of Palimbothrahe says was measured in schoeni [one schoenus equalled about 5 miles],'and he made a plan of it; for it was the royal road. He says that this extendsto 1,176 miles. The districts beyond this have not been so accurately measured.But as many as have recorded rumours say that with the peninsula projectinginto the sea it amounts to about I,200 miles. So that the length of Indiaupward is about 2,353 miles. Ctesias the Cnidian says that India is equalto the rest of Asia, but he talks nonsense; and so does Onesicritus, sayingthat it is the third part of all the earth. Nearchus says that it is a journeyof four months through the plain alone of India. To Megasthenes the distancefrom the east to the west is the breadth of India, which others make itslength. He says that where it is shortest it extends 1882 miles, and thatfrom north to south, which is its length according to him, it extends 2,624miles, where it is narrowest.
In the whole of the rest of Asia there are not so many rivers as in India.The largest are the Ganges and the Indus, from the latter of which the countrytakes its name. Both of these are larger than the Egyptian Nile and theScythian Ister, even if their waters came together into one. To me indeedit seems that even the Acesines is larger than the Ister or the Nile, whereit falls into the Indus, after having taken up into its stream the Hydaspes,the Hydraotes, and the Hyphasis, so that at this place its breadth is threeand one-half miles. Perhaps also many other larger rivers flow in India.
4. I cannot be sure of the accuracy of any statements about the countrybeyond the river Hyphasis, because Alexander did not advance further thanthat river. Of the two largest rivers themselves, the Ganges and the Indus,Megasthenes has stated that the former excels much in size; and so say allother writers who mention it. He says that it rises great from its sources,and that it receives into itself the Cainas, the Erannoboas, and the Cossoanus,all navigable rivers; then the Sonus Sittocatis, and Solomatis, which arealso navigable; and besides these the Condochates, Sambus, Magon, Agoranis,and Omalis. A great river the Comminases, and the Cacouthis and Andomatis,which flows from the land of the Madyandinians, an Indian nation, fall intoit. In addition to these the Amystis joins the Ganges, near the city ofCatadoupe, as do the Oxymagis in the land of the people called Pazalaeans,and the Errenysis in that of the Mathaeans, an Indian nation. Megasthenessays that none of these is inferior to the Maeander, where that river isnavigable. He says that the breadth of the Ganges in its narrowest partis about twelve miles; that in many places it forms lakes, so that the landopposite is not visible where it is flat and nowhere stands up in hills.The same is the case with the Indus. The Hydraotes, having received theHyphasis in the land of the Astrybaeans, the Saranges from that of the Cecians,and the Neudrus from that of the Attacenians, falls into the Acesines inthe land of the Cambistholians. The Hydaspes also falls into the Acesinesin the land of the Oxydracians, taking with itself the Sinarus in the landof the Arispians. The Acesines joins the Indus in the land of the Mallians.The Toutapus also, a large river, falls into the Acesines. That river, withits water swollen by these, and giving its name to the united stream, itselffalls into the Indus and surrenders its name to it. The Cophen falls intothe Indus in the land called Peucelaitis, taking with itself the MalantusSoastus, and Garroeas. Below these the Parenus and Saparnus, not far apart,fall into the Indus. The Soanus also falls into it, coming void of any otherriver from the mountainous land of the Abissarians. Megasthenes says thatmost of these are navigable. Therefore we ought not to disbelieve that theIster and the water of the Nile are not comparable with the Indus and theGanges. We know, indeed, that no river falls into the Nile, but that canalshave been cut from it through the land of Egypt. The Ister rises small fromits sources, and though it receives many rivers, they are not equal in numberto the Indian rivers which flow into the Indus and the Ganges. Very fewof the tributaries of the Ister are navigable. Two of these, the Enus andSaus, I know, having seen them myself. The Enus mingles with the Ister onthe confines of the country of the Noricans and Rhaetians, and the Sausin the territory of the Paeonians. The place where the Ister and Saus havetheir confluence is called Taurounus. Some one may know another navigableriver which falls into the Ister, but he does not know many I am sure.
5. Whoever wishes to consider the cause of the number and size of theIndian rivers let him consider; it is sufficient for me to have recordedthese statements as reports. For Megasthenes has recorded the names of manyother rivers, which fall into the eastern and southern external sea, apartfrom the Ganges and Indus. He says that there are in all fifty-eight Indianrivers, all navigable. But even Megasthenes does not seem to me to havetraversed much of the land of the Indians, though he visited more than thosewho went with Alexander the son of Philip. For he says that he was intimatewith Sandracottus, a very great king of the Indians, and with Porus, stillgreater than he. This Megasthenes, indeed, says that neither do the Indianswage war with any other men, nor any other men with them; and that Sesostristhe Egyptian, having subdued most part of Asia, and having marched withhis army as far as Europe, returned back home without attacking India; thatIdanthyrsus the Scythian started from Scythia, and subduing many nationsin Asia, advanced even into the land of the Egyptians in his victoriouscareer; that Semiramis the Assyrian undertook an expedition into the landthe Indians, but that she died before she could complete her plans; andthat Alexander alone led an invading army against the Indians. The taleis current that even before Alexander Dionysus led an expedition into India,and subdued the Indians. There is also a vague story about Herades to thesame effect. Of the expedition of Dionysus, indeed, the city of Nysa isno mean monument, as also are the mountain Meros, the ivy which grows onthis mountain, the Indians themselves also marching into battle to the soundof drums and cymbals, wearing speckled garments like the bacchanals of Dionysus.But of Heracles there are not many memorials. For the statement that Alexanderforcibly subdued the rock of Aornus, because Heracles was not able to captureit, seems to me a piece of Macedonian boasting; just as they called theParapamisus Caucasus, though it has no connection with it. And having observeda certain cave in the land of the Parapamisadians, they said that it wasthe famous cave of Prometheus, the son of the Titan, in which he was hungfor the theft of the fire. And besides, in the land of the Sibians, an Indianrace, because they saw the inhabitants clothed in skins, they said thatthe Sibians were those who had been left behind from the expedition of Heracles.The Sibians also carry cudgels, and the figure of a club was branded upontheir oxen; this too they explained to be a commemoration of the club ofHeracles. If anyone gives credit to these tales, this must have been anotherHeracles, neither the Theban, nor the Tyrian, nor the Egyptian; but somegreat king of a land situated in the interior not far from India
6. Let this be a digression on my part from the narrative, in order toshow that what certain authors have recorded about the Indians on the otherside of the Hyphasis does not appear credible; but those who took part inAlexander's expedition as far as the Hyphasis are not altogether unworthyof belief. For Megasthenes also says this about an Indian river, whose nameis Silas, that it flows from a spring with the same name as itself throughthe land of the Silians, who derive their name from the river and the spring;that it supplies water of such a kind that there is nothing which it resists,that nothing either swims or floats upon it, but everything sinks to thebottom; and that water is weaker and more murky than any other. India isvisited by rain in the summer, especially the mountains, Parapamisus, Emodus,and the Imaic range, and from these the rivers flow swollen and muddy. Inthe summer also the plains of India are visited by rain, so that a greatpart of them are covered with pools; and Alexander's army had to avoid theriver Acesines in the middle of the summer, because the water overflowedinto the plains. Wherefore from this it is possible to conjecture the causeof the similar condition of the Nile, because it is probable that the mountainsof Aethiopia are visited by rain in the summer, and the Nile being filledfrom them overflows its banks into the Egyptian country. Therefore the Nileat this season flows in a muddy state, as it would not flow from the meltingof snow, or if its water were driven back by the annual winds blowing inthe season of summer. Besides, the mountains of Aethiopia would not be snow-beatenon account of the heat. It is not beyond the bounds of probability thatAethiopia is visited by rain as India is-for in other respects India isnot unlike Aethiopia, and the Indian rivers produce crocodiles like theAethiopian and Egyptian Nile. Some of them also produce fish and water-monstersbesides, like those of the Nile, except the hippopotamus. Onesicritus saysthey produce even hippopotami. The looks of the people of India and Aethiopiaare not entirely dissimilar. The Indians who live towards the south aremore like the Aethiopians, they are black in their faces, and their hairis black; but they are not so flatnosed or so curly-headed as the Aethiopians.The more northern Indians would especially resemble the Egyptians in theirbodies.
7. Megasthenes says that there are in all 118 Indian nations. I myselfagree with him that there are many Indian nations; but I am not able toconjecture how he learned the exact number and recorded it, for he onlyvisited a mere fraction of India, nor do many of the races have any intercoursewith each other. He says that in ancient times the Indians were nomads,like that section of the Scythians who are not agriculturists, but wanderingabout on waggons, live at one time in one part of Scythia and at anothertime in another part, neither inhabiting cities nor consecrating templesto the gods. So the Indians had no cities or temples built for the gods.They clothed themselves in the skins of the wild beasts which they killed,and ate the inner bark of certain trees, which are called tala in the Indianlanguage, and, as upon the tops of palm-trees, there grow upon them thingslike clews of wool. They also fed upon the flesh of the wild beasts whichthey caught, eating it raw, until Dionysus came into their country. Butwhen Dionysus came and conquered them, he founded cities and made laws forthem, and gave the Indians wine as he had given it to the Greeks. He alsogave them seeds and taught them how to sow them in the earth; so that eitherTriptolemus did not come to this part when he was sent by Demeter to sowcorn through the whole earth, or this Dionysus came to India before Triptolemusand gave to the inhabitants the seeds of cultivated crops. Dionysus firsttaught them to yoke oxen to the plough, and made most of them become husbandmeninstead of being nomads, and armed them with martial weapons. He also taughtthem to worship the gods, and especially himself with the beating of drumsand the clashing of cymbals. He taught the Indians the Satyr-dance whichamong the Greeks is called the cordax, and to let their hair grow long inhonour of the god. He also showed them how to wear the turban, and taughtthem how to anoint themselves with unguents. Wherefore even to the timeof Alexander the Indians still advanced into battle with the sound of cymbalsand drums.
8. When Dionysus had arranged these affairs and was about to leave India,he appointed as king of the land Spatembas, one of his companions, the manmost versed in the mysteries of Bacchus. When this man died his son Boudyassucceeded to his kingdom. The father reigned fifty-two years, and the sontwenty years. Cradeuas, the son of Boudyas, succeeded to the throne. Fromthis time for the most part the kingdom passed in regular succession fromfather to son. If at any time direct heirs were wanting, then the Indiansappointed kings according to merit. The Heracles, who according to the currentreport came to India is said, among the Indians themselves, to have sprungfrom the earth. This Heracles is especially worshipped by the Sourasenians,an Indian nation, in whose land are two great cities, Methora and Cleisobora,and through it flows the navigable river Jobares. Megasthenes says, as theIndians themselves assert, that this Heracles wore a similar dress to thatof the Theban Heracles. Very many male children, but only one daughter wereborn to him in India, for he married many women. The daughter's name wasPandaea, and the land where she was born, and over which Heracles placedher as ruler, was named Pandaea after her. From her father she received500 elephants, 4,000 cavalry, and 130,000 infantry. Certain of the Indianstell the following story about Heracles, that when he had passed over everyland and sea and had rid them of every evil beast, he found in the sea awoman's ornament, such as up to the present day those who bring wares fromIndia to us still buy with zeal and carry away. In former times the Greeksand now the Romans who are fortunate and wealthy with still greater zealbuy what is called in the Indian tongue the marine pearl. The ornament seemedso fine to Heracles that he collected pearls like this from all the seaand brought them to India to be an adornment for his daughter. Megasthenessays that the mussel of it is caught in nets, and that many of them livein the sea at the same place, like bees, and that the pearl-mussels havea king or queen as bees have. Whoever has the good fortune to capture theking, easily throws the net around the rest of the swarm of pearlmussels,but if the king escapes the fishermen, the others are no longer to be caughtby them. The men allow the flesh of those which are caught to rot, but theyuse the shell for ornament; for among the Indians the pearl is worth thriceits weight in refined gold. This metal is also dug up in India.
9. In this country, where the daughter of Heracles reigned, the womenat seven years of age become marriageable, and the men live forty yearsat most. In regard to this the following story is told among the Indians.This girl was born to Heracles in his old age, when he perceived that hisend was near. He could not find a man worthy to receive his daughter inmarriage, and therefore he married her himself when she was seven yearsold, so that the family born from him and her might supply kings to theIndians. Heracles therefore made her marriageable at that age; and fromthat time all this race over which Pandaea ruled have this same gift fromHeracles. To me it seems that if Heracles was able to accomplish such marvellousthings, he would also have been able to make himself longer lived, so thathe might marry his daughter at a mature age. But if these statements aboutthe maturity of the girls of this country are correct, to me at any ratethey seem to have some analogy with what is said about the age of the men,that the oldest of them do not live beyond forty years. For no doubt theflower of perfect manhood blooms sooner in proportion in those upon whomold age advances quicker, and death with old age; so that among them menof thirty years of age would be, I suppose, fresh, active old men, striplingsof twenty years old would be past their early manhood, and the prime ofearly manhood would be about fifteen years of age. Reasoning from analogythe women would thus become marriageable at seven years of age. For thissame Megasthenes has recorded that in this country the fruits ripen quickerthan those elsewhere, and sooner waste away.
From Dionysus to Sandracottus the Indians reckoned 153 kings, and 6,042years. During all these years they only twice asserted their freedom; thefirst time they enjoyed it for 300 years, and the second for 120. They saythat Dionysus was earlier than Heracles by fifteen generations, and thatno other ever invaded India for war, not even Cyrus, the son of Cambyses,though he marched against the Scythians, and in other matters was the mostmeddlesome of the kings of Asia. However they admit that Alexander cameand overcame in battle all the nations whom he visited, and that he wouldhave conquered them all if his army had been willing. But none of the Indiansever marched out of their own country for war, being actuated by a respectfor justice.
10. This also is said, that the Indians do not construct monuments forthe dead, for they think that the virtues of men are sufficient to perpetuatetheir memory after their death, as well as the songs which they sing intheir honour. It would not be possible to record with accuracy the numberof their cities on account of their multiplicity. Those which are situatednear the rivers or the sea are built of wood; for if they were built ofbrick they could not long endure on account of the rain and because therivers overflowing their banks fill the plains with water. But those whichhave been founded in commanding places, lofty and raised above the adjacentcountry, are built of brick and mortar. The largest city in India, namedPalimbothra, is in the land of the Prasians, where is the confluence ofthe river Erannoboas and the Ganges, which is the greatest of rivers. TheErannoboas would be third of the Indian rivers, being also larger than thoseelsewhere. But it yields itself up to the Ganges when it has dischargedits water into it. Megasthenes says that on one side where it is longestthis city extends ten miles in length, and that its breadth is one and threequartersmiles; that the city has been surrounded with a ditch in breadth 600 feet,and in depth 45 feet; and that its wall has 570 towers and 64 gates. Thisis a great thing in India, that all the inhabitants are free, not a singleIndian being a slave. In this the Lacedaemonians and the Indians are alike.However the Helots are slaves to the Lacedaemonians and perform servileoffices; but among the Indians no other Indian at any rate is a slave.
11. All the Indians have been divided into seven castes. Among them arethe wise men, fewer in number than the others, but most esteemed in reputationand dignity. For no necessity is incumbent upon them to do any bodily labour;nor do they contribute anything to the commonwealth from the effects oftheir labour; nor in a word have they any compulsory duty except to offersacrifices to the gods on behalf of the commonwealth of India. Whoever sacrificesin his private capacity has one of these wise men as a director of the sacrifice,since otherwise he does not offer acceptable sacrifice to the gods. Thesealso are the only Indians skilled in divination; and it is not lawful foranyone to practise the art except for a man who is a wise man. They practisedivination in regard to the seasons of the year, and if any calamity befallsthe commonwealth. It is not their business to practise their art in regardto the private affairs of individuals, either because the art of divinationdoes not extend to smaller matters, or because it is not worthy of themto labour about such things. Whoever has made three errors in his practiseof divination receives no other punishment except that for the future heis compelled to be silent; and there is no one who can compel that man tospeak, upon whom the judgment of silence has been passed. These wise menpass their lives naked; in the winter in the sun under the open sky, butin the summer, when the sun holds sway, they live in the meadows and inthe marshes under great trees, the shadow of which Nearchus says extends500 feet all round, and I0,000 men could be shaded under one tree. So largeare these trees. They feed on the fruits of the seasons and the inner barkof trees, which is both pleasant and nutritious; not less so than dates.
After these the second caste are the agriculturalists, who are the mostnumerous class of Indians. These have no martial weapons, nor do they carefor deeds of war, but till the soil. They pay dues to the kings or to thosecities which are independent. If any war happens to break out among theIndians with each other it is not lawful for them to touch the tillers ofthe soil, or to lay waste the country itself by destroying the crops. Butwhile others are waging war against each other and slaying each other asthey find the chance, they are ploughing in peace and quietness near them,or are gathering in the vintage, or are pruning their vines, or are reapingtheir crops.
The third caste of Indians are the shepherds and the cowherds, who dwellneither in cities nor in villages; but are nomads and live up and down themountains. They pay a tax from their flocks and herds. These men also catchbirds and hunt wild beasts throughout the land.
12. The fourth caste is that of the artisans and retail tradesmen. Thesemen perform public duties at their own cost, and pay a tax upon their work,except those who make weapons of war. These receive pay from the commonwealth.In this caste are the shipwrights and sailors who sail up and down the rivers.
The fifth caste of the Indians consists of the warriors, who in numbercome next to the husbandmen and enjoy very great freedom and good cheer.These men practise nothing but warlike exercises. Others make the weaponsfor them, others provide them with horses; and others serve them in thecamp, who groom the horses for them, keep their weapons bright, manage theelephants, keep the chariots in order, and drive the horses. They themselvesfight, as long as it is necessary to wage war; but when there is peace,they live with good cheer; and they receive such high pay from the statethat they can easily support others from it.
The sixth caste of Indians consists of men who are called overseers.These supervise what is done throughout the country and in the cities, andmake reports to the king, where the Indians are ruled by a king, or to themagistrates where the people have a democratic government. It is unlawfulfor these men to make false reports; but no Indian has incurred the chargeof falsehood.
The seventh caste consists of those who assist the king in deliberatingon public affairs, or assist the officials in the cities which enjoy a democraticgovernment. This class is small in number, but in wisdom and justice excelsall the others. From them are chosen their rulers, governors of provinces,deputies, treasurers, generals, admirals, controllers of expenditure, andsuperintendents of agriculture.
It is not lawful for anyone to marry a woman from another caste; forexample, for husbandmen to marry from the class of artisans or the reverse.It is not lawful for the same man to exercise two trades, or to exchangefrom one caste into another; for instance, he may not cease to be a shepherdand become a husbandman, or cease to be an artisan and become a shepherd.Only a man from any caste is allowed by them to become a wise man, becausethe duties of the wise men are not easy, but the most severely laboriousof all.
13. The Indians hunt other wild animals like the Greeks; but the waythey hunt elephants is quite different from any other kind of hunting, becausethese animals are like no other beasts. They choose a place that is leveland exposed to the sun's heat, large enough for a great army to encamp in.They then dig a trench all round it. They make the breadth of this trenchabout thirty feet, and the depth about twenty-four feet. The earth whichthey cast up from the ditch they heap up on each bank of the trench anduse it in place of a wall. In the mound upon the outer bank of the trenchthey dig hiding-places for themselves, leaving holes in them, through whichthe light may enter for them, and to enable them to observe the beasts approachingand charging into the inclosure. There, within the inclosure, they placesome three or four female elephants, who are especially tame in spirit,and leave only one entrance, made by bridging over the trench. They coverthis with earth and thick turf, in order that the beasts may not noticethe bridge and think some trick is being played them. The men, therefore,keep themselves out of the way, lurking in the hiding-places near the trench.The wild elephants by day do not approach inhabited places, but in the nightthey wander in all directions and graze in droves, following the largestand bravest of their number, just as cows follow the bulls. When they approachthe inclosure they hear the noise of the females and discerning them bythe scent, they run at full speed towards the inclosed place. Going quiteround the bank of the trench, as soon as they light upon the bridge, theyrush forward into the inclosure over this. When the men perceive the entranceof the wild elephants, some of them quickly remove the bridge, others runto the neighbouring villages and tell the people that the elephants areshut up in the inclosure. When they hear this they mount the bravest andmost tractable of their elephants and drive them towards the inclosure.When they arrive they do not immediately join battle, but allow the wildelephants to be severely distressed with hunger and to be cowed by thirstAs soon as they think they are in a weak state, they then place the bridgeover again and advance into the inclosure. At first an obstinate battleis fought between the tame elephants and those that have been caught Soon,as might be expected, the wild ones are overcome, being severely depressedby loss of spirit and want of food. The men, dismounting from the elephants,tie together the feet of the wild ones, which are now exhausted. Then theyorder the tame ones to chastise them with many blows until they fall tothe ground in their severe distress. Standing near them they throw noosesround their necks and mount upon them as they lie on the ground. And inorder that they may not shake off their riders or do any other recklessthing, they cut their necks all round with a sharp knife and tie the nooseround along the cut; so that on account of the wound they must keep theirhead and neck quiet; for if they should turn their head round through recklessness,their wound is chafed under the rope. Then at length they keep quiet, andchanging their minds of their own accord, they are now led by the tame onesinto imprisonment.
14. Those of them which are quite young, or through badness not worthpossessing, are allowed to take themselves off to their own haunts The captivesare led into the villages and at first some green reeds and grass are giventhem to eat. They refuse to eat anything from loss of spirit; and the Indiansstand round them and lull them to sleep by singing songs, beating drumsand clashing cymbals. For, of all animals, the elephant is most naturallyintelligent. Some of them have of their own accord picked up their riderswho have been killed in battle and carried them away for burial; othershave held the shield over them when lying on the ground; and others haveincurred danger on their behalf when they have fallen wounded. One, havingkilled his rider in a fit of passion died from remorse and dejection ofspirit. I myself have seen an elephant playing the cymbals, while othersdanced. Two cymbals were fastened to the forelegs of the playing elephant,and another to the trunk. With his trunk he struck the cymbal alternatelyagainst each of his legs in regular time, and the others moved round himas in a dance. These also walked, raising and bending their front legs alternatelyin regular time, just as the one who played the cymbals directed them. Thefemale elephant copulates in the season of spring, like the cow or mare,when the air-vents near the temples of the females being opened exhale anodour. She carries her young sixteen months at the least, and eighteen atthe most, and brings forth one, like the mare. This she suckles till theeighth year. Those which live longest live for 200 years; but many of themdie before that age from disease. If they die from old age they reach thatage. When their eyes are sore they are cured by pouring into them cow'smilk, and their other diseases by giving them dark-coloured wine to drink.Pork is roasted and the fat is sprinkled upon wounds to effect a cure. TheIndians adopt these cures for them.
15. The Indians think the tiger much mightier than the elephant. Nearchussays he saw a tiger's skin, but not the tiger itself; but that the Indiansassured him that it is as large as the largest horse, and that no otheranimal can compare with it in swiftness and strength. When the tiger comesinto conflict with an elephant he leaps upon his head and easily strangleshim. Those which we see and call tigers are only speckled jackals, but largerthan the ordinary jackals. In regard to the ants, Nearchus says that hehimself did not see one like those which some other authors have describedas existing in India; but that he saw many skins of these animals whichhad been brought into the Macedonian camp. But Megasthenes asserts thatthe story of these ants is correct; that these were the animals who digup gold, not for the sake of the metal itself; but they burrow under theground from instinct, in order that they may lie hidden in their holes,just as our small ants burrow a little under the ground. These ants arelarger than foxes and therefore they burrow a distance proportionate totheir size, and throw up the soil. As this contains gold ore the Indiansobtain their gold from it. Megasthenes only relates hearsay, and as I myselfam unable to say anything more certain than this, I willingly dismiss thestory of the ants. Nearchus relates as a wonder that parrots are bred inIndia, and describes what kind of a bird it is and how it utters human speech;but as I myself have seen many and I know others are acquainted with thebird I shall give no description of it as of a marvel. Nor shall I speakof the size of the monkeys, or how beautiful those of India are, nor howthey are caught. For these things are well known, except that monkeys arebeautiful anywhere. Nearchus also says speckled serpents are caught, thoughthey are quick in movement; and that Peithon, son of Antigenes, caught onetwenty-four feet long. The Indians themselves said that the largest serpentsare much larger than this. None of the Greek physicians found any cure forany one who was bitten by an Indian serpent; but the Indians themselveshealed those who had been smitten. Nearchus says, besides, that Alexanderhad collected around him all the Indians who were cleverest in the medicalart, and had it proclaimed through the camp that whoever was bitten shouldcome to the king's tent. These men were also curers of other diseases andinfirmities. But among the Indians there are not many infirmities, becausethe seasons there are temperate. If anything worse than usual seized themthey communicated with the wise men; who seemed to cure whatever was curable,not without the help of god.
16. The Indians use linen clothing, as says Nearchus, made from the flaxtaken from the trees, about which I have already spoken. And this flax iseither whiter in colour than any other flax, or the people being black makethe flax appear whiter. They have a linen frock reaching down halfway betweenthe knee and the ankle, and a garment which is partly thrown round the shouldersand partly rolled round the head The Indians who are very well-off wearearrings of ivory; for they do not all wear them. Nearchus says that theIndians dye their beards various colours; some that they may appear whiteas the whitest, others dark blue; others have them red, others purple, andothers green. Those who are of any rank have umbrellas held over them inthe summer. They wear shoes of white leather, elaborately worked, and thesoles of their shoes are many-coloured and raised high, in order that theymay appear taller.
The Indians are not all armed in the same way; but their infantry havea bow equal in length to the man who carries it. Placing this downward tothe ground and stepping against it with the left foot, they discharge thearrow, drawing the string far back. Their arrows are little less than fourand one-half feet long; and nothing can withstand one shot by an Indianarcher, neither shield nor breast-plate nor anything else that is strong.They carry on their left arms targets of raw ox-hide, narrower than themen who carry them, but not much inferior in length. Others have Javelinsinstead of arrows. All wear a sword which is broad, and not less than fourand onehalf feet in length. When the battle is at close quarters, a thingwhich very rarely happens to be the case between Indians, they bring thissword down upon the antagonist with both hands, in order that the blow maybe a mighty one. The cavalry have two darts like the darts called saunia,and a shield smaller than that of the infantry. Their horses are not saddledor bridled like those of the Greeks or Gauls; but a piece of raw ox-hidestitched is fastened right round the front of the horse's mouth, and inthis there are brass or iron spikes not very sharp, turned inwards. Therich men have ivory spikes. In the mouth their horses have a piece of iron,like a spit, to which the reins are attached. When therefore they draw therein, the spit curbs the horse and the spikes which are fastened to it prickhim and do not allow him to do anything else than obey the rein.
17. The Indians are spare in body and tall and much lighter than othermen. Most of the Indians ride camels, horses, and asses, and those who arewell off, elephants. For among the Indians royal personages ride on elephants.Next to this in honour is the four-horsed chariot, third camels. It is nohonour to ride on horseback. Their women who are very chaste and would notgo astray for any other reward, on the receipt of an elephant have intercoursewith the donor. The Indians do not think it disgraceful for them to prostitutethemselves for an elephant, and to the women it even seems an honour thattheir beauty should appear equal in value to an elephant. They marry, neithergiving or receiving any dowry, but the fathers bring forward the girls whoare of marriageable age and station them in a public place for the man whowins the prize for wrestling, boxing or running, or who has been adjudgedwinner in any manly contest, to make his choice. The Indians are bread-eatersand agriculturalists, except those who live in the mountains. These liveupon the flesh of wild animals.
18. I think I have given sufficient information about the Indians. Ihave copied the very well-known statements made by Nearchus and Megasthenes,two esteemed authors. As my design in compiling this book was not to describethe customs of the Indians, but to relate how Alexander's fleet was conveyedfrom India into Persia, let the preceding portion of it be considered adigression from my narrative.
