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Strabo, Geography (Str.)

§ 1.1.1  If the scientific investigation of any subject be the proper avocation of the philosopher, Geography, the science of which we propose to treat, is certainly entitled to a high place; and this is evident from many considerations. They who first ventured to handle the matter were distinguished men.Homer,Anaximander theMilesian, andHecataeus, (his fellow-citizen according toEratosthenes,)Democritus,Eudoxus,Dicaearchus,Ephorus, with many others, and after theseErastosthenes,Polybius, andPosidonius, all of them philosophers. Nor is the great learning, through which alone this subject can be approached, possessed by any but a person acquainted with both human and divine things, and these attainments constitute what is called philosophy. In addition to its vast importance in regard to social life, and the art of government, Geography unfolds to us the celestial phenomena, acquaints us with the occupants of the land and ocean, and the vegetation, fruits, and peculiarities of the various quarters of the earth, a knowledge of which marks him who cultivates it as a man earnest in the great problem of life and happiness.

§ 1.1.2  Admitting this, let us examine more in detail the points we have advanced. And first, [we maintain, ] that both we and our predecessors, amongst whom isHipparchus, do justly regardHomer as the founder of geographical science, for he not only excelled all, ancient as well as modern, in the sublimity of his poetry, but also in his experience of social life. Thus it was that he not only exerted himself to become familiar with as many historic facts as possible, and transmit them to posterity, but also with the various regions of the inhabited land and sea, some intimately, others in a more general manner. For otherwise he would not have reached the utmost limits of the earth, traversing it in his imagination.

§ 1.1.3  First, he stated that the earth was entirely encompassed by the ocean, as in truth it is; afterwards he described the countries, specifying some by name, others more generally by various indications, explicitly definingLibya,Ethiopia, theSidonians, and theErembi (by which latter are probably intended theTroglodyteArabians); and alluding to those farther east and west as the lands washed by the ocean, for in ocean he believed both the sun and constellations to rise and set. "Now from the gently-swelling flood profound The sun arising, with his earliest rays, In his ascent to heaven smote on the fields." (Iliad vii. 421). "And now the radiant sun in ocean sank, Dragging night after him o'er all the earth." (Iliad viii. 485). The stars also he describes as bathed in the ocean.

§ 1.1.4  He portrays the happiness of the people of the West, and the salubrity of their climate, having no doubt heard of the abundance ofIberia, which had attracted the arms ofHercules, afterwards of thePhoenicians, who acquired there an extended rule, and finally of the Romans. There the airs ofZephyr breathe, there the poet feigned the fields ofElysium, when he tells usMenelaus was sent thither by the gods: "Thee the gods Have destined to the blestElysian isles,Earth's utmost boundaries.Rhadamanthus there For ever reigns, and there the human kind Enjoy the easiest life; no snow is there, No biting winter, and no drenching shower, ButZephyr always gently from the sea Breathes on them, to refresh the happy race." [Od. iv. 563]

§ 1.1.5  TheIsles of the Blest are on the extreme west ofMaurusia, near where its shore runs parallel to the opposite coast of Spain; and it is clear he considered these regions also Blest, from their contiguity to the Islands.

§ 1.1.6  He tells us also, that theEthiopians are far removed, and bounded by the ocean: far removed, — " TheEthiopians, utmost of mankind, These eastward situate, those toward the west." [Od. i. 23] Nor was he mistaken in calling them separated into two divisions, as we shall presently show: and next to the ocean, — " For to the banks of theOceanus, WhereEthiopia holds a feast toJove, He journey'd yesterday." Speaking of the Bear, he implies that the most northern part of the earth is bounded by the ocean: "Only star of these denied To slake his beams in Ocean's briny baths." Iliad xviii. 489; [Od. v. 275.] Now, by the "Bear" and the "Wain," he means the Arctic Circle; otherwise he would never have said, "It alone is deprived of the baths of the ocean," when such an infinity of stars is to be seen continually revolving in that part of the hemisphere. Let no one any longer blame his ignorance for being merely acquainted with one Bear, when there are two. It is probable that the second was not considered a constellation until, on thePhoenicians specially designating it, and employing it in navigation, it became known as one to the Greeks. Such is the case with theHair of Berenice, andCanopus, whose names are but of yesterday; and, asAratus remarks, there are numbers which have not yet received any designation.Crates, therefore, is mistaken when, endeavouring to amend what is correct, he reads the verse thus: "οἷος δ᾽ ἄμμορός ἐστι λοετρῶν," replacing οἴη by οἶς, with a view to make the adjective agree with the Arctic Circle, which is masculine; instead of the Arctic Constellation, which is feminine. The expression ofHeraclitus is far more preferable and Homeric, who thus figuratively describes the Arctic Circle as the Bear, — "The Bear is the limit of the dawn and of the evening, and from the region of the Bear we have fine weather." Now it is not the constellation of the Bear, but the Arctic Circle, which is the limit of the rising and the setting stars. By the Bear, then, which he elsewhere calls the Wain, and describes as pursuingOrion,Homer means us to understand the Arctic Circle; and by the ocean, that horizon into which, and out of which, the stars rise and set. When he says that the Bear turns round and is deprived of the ocean, he was aware that the Arctic Circle [always] extended to the sign opposite the most northern point of the horizon. Adapting the words of the poet to this view, by that part of the earth nearest to the ocean we must understand the horizon, and by the Arctic Circle that which extends to the signs which seem to our senses to touch in succession the most northern point of the horizon. Thus, according to him, this portion of the earth is washed by the ocean. With the nations of the North he was well acquainted, although he does not mention them by name, and indeed at the present day there is no regular title by which they are all distinguished. He informs us of their mode of life, describing them as "wanderers," "noble milkers of mares," "living on cheese," and "without wealth."

§ 1.1.7  In the following speech ofJuno, he states that the ocean surrounds the earth. " For to the green earth's utmost bounds I go, To visit there the parent of the gods,Oceanus." Iliad xiv. 200. Does he not here assert that ocean bounds all its extremities, and does it not surround these extremities? Again, in the Hoplopoeia, he places the ocean in a circle round the border ofAchilles' shield. Another proof of the extent of his knowledge, is his acquaintance with the ebb and flow of the sea, calling it "the ebbing ocean." Again, "Each day she thrice disgorges, and again Thrice drinks, insatiate, the deluge down." The assertion of thrice, instead of twice, is either an error of the author, or a blunder of the scribe, but the phenomenon is the same, and the expression soft-flowing, has reference to the flood-tide, which has a gentle swell, and does not flow with a full rush.Posidonius believes that whereHomer describes the rocks as at one time covered with the waves, and at another left bare, and when he compares the ocean to a river, he alludes to the flow of the ocean. The first supposition is correct, but for the second there is no ground; inasmuch as there can be no comparison between the flow, much less the ebb of the sea, and the current of a river. There is more probability in the explanation ofCrates, thatHomer describes the whole ocean as deep-flowing, ebbing, and also calls it a river, and that he also describes a part of the ocean as a river, and the flow of a river; and that he is speaking of a part, and not the whole, when he thus writes: — "When down the smoothOceanus impell'd By prosperous gales, my galley, once again, Cleaving the billows of the spacious deep, Had reach'd theAeaean isle." He does not, however, mean the whole, but the flow of the river in the ocean, which forms but a part of the ocean.Crates says, he speaks of an estuary or gulf, extending from the winter tropic towards the south pole. Now any one quitting this, might still be in the ocean; but for a person to leave the whole and still to be in the whole, is an impossibility. ButHomer says, that leaving the flow of the river, the ship entered on the waves of the sea, which is the same as the ocean. If you take it otherwise you make him say, that departing from the ocean he came to the ocean. But this requires further discussion.

§ 1.1.8  Perception and experience alike inform us, that the earth we inhabit is an island: since wherever men have approached the termination of the land, the sea, which we designate ocean, has been met with: and reason assures us of the similarity of those places which our senses have not been permitted to survey. For in the east the land occupied by theIndians, and in the west by theIberians andMaurusians, is wholly encompassed [by water], and so is the greater part on the south and north. And as to what remains as yet unexplored by us, because navigators, sailing from opposite points, have not hitherto fallen in with each other, it is not much, as any one may see who will compare the distances between those places with which we are already acquainted. Nor is it likely that theAtlantic Ocean is divided into two seas by narrow isthmuses so placed as to prevent circumnavigation: how much more probable that it is confluent and uninterrupted! Those who have returned from an attempt to circumnavigate the earth, do not say they have been prevented from continuing their voyage by any opposing continent, for the sea remained perfectly open, but through want of resolution, and the scarcity of provision. This theory too accords better with the ebb and flow of the ocean, for the phenomenon, both in the increase and diminution, is everywhere identical, or at all events has but little difference, as if produced by the agitation of one sea, and resulting from one cause.

§ 1.1.9  We must not creditHipparchus, who combats this opinion, denying that the ocean is every where similarly affected; or that even if it were, it would not follow that theAtlantic flowed in a circle, and thus continually returned into itself.Seleucus, theBabylonian, is his authority for this assertion. For a further investigation of the ocean and its tides we refer toPosidonius andAthenodorus, who have fully discussed this subject: we will now only remark that this view agrees better with the uniformity of the phenomenon; and that the greater the amount of moisture surrounding the earth, the easier would the heavenly bodies be supplied with vapours from thence.

§ 1.1.10  Homer, besides the boundaries of the earth, which he fully describes, was likewise well acquainted with the Mediterranean. Starting from thePillars, this sea is encompassed byLibya,Egypt, andPhoenicia, then by the coasts oppositeCyprus, theSolymi,Lycia, andCaria, and then by the shore which stretches betweenMycale andTroas, and the adjacent islands, every one of which he mentions, as well as those of thePropontis and theEuxine, as far asColchis, and the locality ofJason's expedition. Furthermore, he was acquainted with the CimmerianBosphorus, having known theCimmerians, and that not merely by name, but as being familiar with themselves. About his time, or a little before, they had ravaged the whole country, from theBosphorus toIonia. Their climate he characterizes as dismal, in the following lines: — " With clouds and darkness veil'd, on whom the sun Deigns not to look with his beam-darting eye, But sad night canopies the woeful race." [Od. xi. 15] and 19. He must also have been acquainted with theIster, since he speaks of theMysians, a Thracian race, dwelling on the banks of theIster. He knew also the whole Thracian coast adjacent thereto, as far as thePeneus, for he mentions individually thePaeonians,Athos, theAxius, and the neighbouring islands. From hence toThesprotis is the Grecian shore, with the whole of which he was acquainted. He was besides familiar with the whole ofItaly, and speaks of Temese and theSicilians, as well as the whole of Spain and its fertility, as we have said before. If he omits various intermediate places this must be pardoned, for even the compiler of a Geography overlooks numerous details. We must forgive him too for intermingling fabulous narrative with his historical and instructive work. This should not be complained of; nevertheless, whatEratosthenes says is false, that the poets aim at amusement, not instruction, since those who have treated upon the subject most profoundly, regard poesy in the light of a primitive philosophy. But we shall refuteEratosthenes more at length, when we have occasion again to speak ofHomer.

§ 1.1.11  What we have already advanced is sufficient to prove that poet the father of geography. Those who followed in his track are also well known as great men and true philosophers. The two immediately succeedingHomer, according toEratosthenes, wereAnaximander, the disciple and fellow citizen ofThales, andHecataeus theMilesian.Anaximander was the first to publish a geographical chart.Hecataeus left a work [on the same subject], which we can identify as his by means of his other writings.

§ 1.1.12  Many have testified to the amount of knowledge which this subject requires, andHipparchus, in his Strictures onEratosthenes, well observes, "that no one can become really proficient in geography, either as a private individual or as a professor, without an acquaintance with astronomy, and a knowledge of eclipses. For instance, no one could tell whetherAlexandria inEgypt were north or south ofBabylon, nor yet the intervening distance, without observing the latitudes. Again, the only means we possess of becoming acquainted with the longitudes of different places is afforded by the eclipses of the sun and moon." Such are the very words ofHipparchus.

§ 1.1.13  Every one who undertakes to give an accurate description of a place, should be particular to add its astronomical and geometrical relations, explaining carefully its extent, distance, degrees of latitude, and "climate." Even a builder before constructing a house, or an architect before laying out a city, would take these things into consideration; much more should he who examines the whole earth: for such things in a peculiar manner belong to him. In small distances a little deviation north or south does not signify, but when it is the whole circle of the earth, the north extends to the furthest confines ofScythia, orKeltica, and the south to the extremities ofEthiopia: there is a wide difference here. The case is the same should we inhabitIndia or Spain, one in the east, the other far west, and, as we are aware, the antipodes to each other.

§ 1.1.14  The [motions] of the sun and stars, and the centripetal force meet us on the very threshold of such subjects, and compel us to the study of astronomy, and the observation of such phenomena as each of us may notice; in which too, very considerable differences appear, according to the various points of observation. How could any one undertake to write accurately and with propriety on the differences of the various parts of the earth, who was ignorant of these matters? and although, if the undertaking were of a popular character, it might not be advisable to enter thoroughly into detail, still we should endeavour to include every thing which could be comprehended by the general reader.

§ 1.1.15  He who has thus elevated his mind, will he be satisfied with any thing less than the whole world? If in his anxiety accurately to portray the inhabited earth, he has dared to survey heaven, and make use thereof for purposes of instruction, would it not seem childish were he to refrain from examining the whole earth, of which the inhabited is but a part, its size, its features, and its position in the universe; whether other portions are inhabited besides those on which we dwell, and if so, their amount? What is the extent of the regions not peopled? what their peculiarities, and the cause of their remaining as they are? Thus it appears that the knowledge of geography is connected with meteorology and geometry, that it unites the things of earth to the things of heaven, as though they were nearly allied, and not separated. " As far as heaven from earth." Iliad viii. 16

§ 1.1.16  To the various subjects which it embraces let us add natural history, or the history of the animals, plants, and other different productions of the earth and sea, whether serviceable or useless, and my original statement will, I think, carry perfect conviction with it. That he who should undertake this work would be a benefactor to mankind, reason and the voice of antiquity agree. The poets feign that they were the wisest heroes who travelled and wandered most in foreign climes: and to be familiar with many countries, and the disposition of the inhabitants, is, according to them, of vast importance.Nestor prides himself on having associated with theLapithae, to whom he went, "having been invited thither from the Apian land afar." So doesMenelaus: — "Cyprus,Phoenicia,Sidon, and the shores OfEgypt, roaming without hope I reach'd; In distantEthiopia thence arrived, AndLibya, where thelambs their foreheads show With budding horns defended soon as yean'd." [Od. iv. 83.] Adding as a peculiarity of the country, "There thrice within the year the flocks produce." [Od. iv. 86.] And ofEgypt: — "Where the sustaining earth is most prolific." AndThebes, "the city with an hundred gates, Whence twenty thousand chariots rush to war." Iliad ix. 383 Such information greatly enlarges our sphere of knowledge, by informing us of the nature of the country, its botanical and zoological peculiarities. To these should be added its marine history; for we are in a certain sense amphibious, not exclusively connected with the land, but with the sea as well.Hercules, on account of his vast experience and observation, was described as "skilled in mighty works." All that we have previously stated is confirmed both by the testimony of antiquity and by reason. One consideration however appears to bear in a peculiar manner on the case in point; viz. the importance of geography in a political view. For the sea and the earth in which we dwell furnish theatres for action; limited, for limited actions; vast, for grander deeds; but that which contains them all, and is the scene of the greatest undertakings, constitutes what we term the habitable earth; and they are the greatest generals who, subduing nations and kingdoms under one sceptre, and one political administration, have acquired dominion over land and sea. It is clear then, that geography is essential to all the transactions of the statesman, informing us, as it does, of the position of the continents, seas, and oceans of the whole habitable earth. Information of especial interest to those who are concerned to know the exact truth of such particulars, and whether the places have been explored or not: for government will certainly be better administered where the size and position of the country, its own peculiarities, and those of the surrounding districts, are understood. Forasmuch as there are many sovereigns who rule in different regions, and some stretch their dominion over others' territories, and undertake the government of different nations and kingdoms, and thus enlarge the extent of their dominion, it is not possible that either themselves, nor yet writers on geography, should be equally acquainted with the whole, but to both there is a great deal more or less known. Indeed, were the whole earth under one government and one administration, it is hardly possible that we should be informed of every locality in an equal degree; for even then we should be most acquainted with the places nearest us: and after all, it is better that we should have a more perfect description of these, since, on account of their proximity, there is greater reed for it. We see there is no reason to be surprised that there should be one chorographer for theIndians, another for theEthiopians, and a third for the Greeks and Romans. What use would it be to theIndians if a geographer should thus describeBoeotia to them, in the words ofHomer: — " The dwellers on the rocks OfAulis follow'd, with the hardy clans OfHyria,Schoenus,Scolus." Iliad ii. 496. To us this is of value, while to be acquainted with the Indies and their various territorial divisions would be useless, as it could lead to no advantage, which is the only criterion of the worth of such knowledge.

§ 1.1.17  Even if we descend to the consideration of such trivial matters as hunting, the case is still the same; for he will be most successful in the chase who is acquainted with the size and nature of the wood, and one familiar with the locality will be the most competent to superintend an encampment, an ambush, or a march. But it is in great undertakings that the truth shines out in all its brilliancy, for here, while the success resulting from knowledge is grand, the consequences of ignorance are disastrous. The fleet ofAgamemnon, for instance, ravagingMysia, as if it had been theTrojan territory, was compelled to a shameful retreat. Likewise thePersians andLibyans, supposing certain straits to be impassable, were very near falling into great perils, and have left behind them memorials of their ignorance; the former a monument to Salganeus on theEuripus, nearChalcis, whom thePersians slew, for, as they thought, falsely conducting their fleet from the Gulf ofMalea to theEuripus; and the latter to the memory ofPelorus, who was executed on a like occasion. At the time of the expedition ofXerxes, the coasts of Greece were covered with wrecks, and the emigrations fromAeolia andIonia furnish numerous instances of the same calamity. On the other hand, matters have come to a prosperous termination, when judiciously directed by a knowledge of the locality. Thus it was at the pass ofThermopylae thatEphialtes is reported to have pointed out to thePersians a pathway over the mountains, and so placed the band ofLeonidas at their mercy, and opened to the Barbarians a passage intoPylae. But passing over ancient occurrences, we think that the late expeditions of the Romans against theParthians furnish an excellent example, where, as in those against the Germans andKelts, the Barbarians, taking advantage of their situation, [carried on the war] in marshes, woods, and pathless deserts, deceiving the ignorant enemy as to the position of different places, and concealing the roads, and the means of obtaining food and necessaries.

§ 1.1.18  As we have said, this science has an especial reference to the occupations and requirements of statesmen, with whom also political and ethical philosophy is mainly concerned; and here is an evidence. We distinguish the different kinds of civil government by the office of their chief men, denominating one government a monarchy, or kingdom, another an aristocracy, a third a democracy; for so many we consider are the forms of government, and we designate them by these names, because from them they derive their primary characteristic. For the laws which emanate from the sovereign, from the aristocracy, and from the people all are different. The law is in fact a type of the form of government. It is on this account that some define right to be the interest of the strongest. If, therefore, political philosophy is advantageous to the ruler, and geography in the actual government of the country, this latter seems to possess some little superiority. This superiority is most observable in real service.

§ 1.1.19  But even the theoretical portion of geography is by no means contemptible. On the one hand, it embraces the arts, mathematics, and natural science; on the other, history and fable. Not that this latter can have any distinct advantage: for instance, if any one should relate to us the wanderings ofUlysses,Menelaus, andJason, he would not seem to have added directly to our fund of practical knowledge thereby, (which is the only thing men of the world are interested in,) unless he should convey useful examples of what those wanderers were compelled to suffer, and at the same time afford matter of rational amusement to those who interest themselves in the places which gave birth to such fables. Practical men interest themselves in these pursuits, since they are at once commendable, and afford them pleasure; but yet not to any great extent. In this class, too, will be found those whose main object in life is pleasure and respectability: but these by no means constitute the majority of mankind, who naturally prefer that which holds out some direct advantage. The geographer should therefore chiefly devote himself to what is practically important. He should follow the same rule in regard to history and the mathematics, selecting always that which is most useful, most intelligible, and most authentic.

§ 1.1.20  Geometry and astronomy, as we before remarked, seem absolutely indispensable in this science. This, in fact, is evident, that without some such assistance, it would be impossible to be accurately acquainted with the configuration of the earth; its climata, dimensions, and the like information. As the size of the earth has been demonstrated by other writers, we shall here take for granted and receive as accurate what they have advanced. We shall also assume that the earth is spheroidal, that its surface is likewise spheroidal, and above all, that bodies have a tendency towards its centre, which latter point is clear to the perception of the most average understanding. However we may show summarily that the earth is spheroidal, from the consideration that all things however distant tend to its centre, and that every body is attracted towards its centre of gravity; this is more distinctly proved from observations of the sea and sky, for here the evidence of the senses, and common observation, is alone requisite. The convexity of the sea is a further proof of this to those who have sailed; for they cannot perceive lights at a distance when placed at the same level as their eyes, but if raised on high, they at once become perceptible to vision, though at the same time further removed. So, when the eye is raised, it sees what before was utterly imperceptible.Homer speaks of this when he says, "Lifted up on the vast wave he quickly beheld afar. [Od. v. 393.] Sailors, as they approach their destination, behold the shore continually raising itself to their view; and objects which had at first seemed low, begin to elevate themselves. Our gnomons, also, are, among other things, evidence of the revolution of the heavenly bodies; and common sense at once shows us, that if the depth of the earth were infinite, such a revolution could not take place. Every information respecting the climata is contained in the "Treatises on Positions."

§ 1.1.21  Now there are some facts which we take to be established, viz. those with which every politician and general should be familiar. For on no account should they be so uninformed as to the heavens and the position of the earth, that when they are in strange countries, where some of the heavenly phenomena wear a different aspect to what they have been accustomed, they should be in a consternation, and exclaim, "Neither west Know we, nor east, where rises or where sets The all-enlightening sun." [Od. x. 190.] Still, we do not expect that they should be such thorough masters of the subject as to know what stars rise and set together for the different quarters of the earth; those which have the same meridian line, the elevation of the poles, the signs which are in the zenith, with all the various phenomena which differ as well in appearance as reality with the variations of the horizon and arctic circle. With some of these matters, unless as philosophical pursuits, they should not burden themselves at all; others they must take for granted without searching into their causes. This must be left to the care of the philosopher; the statesman can have no leisure, or very little, for such pursuits. Those who, through carelessness and ignorance, are not familiar with the globe and the circles traced upon it, some parallel to each other, some at right angles to the former, others, again, in an oblique direction; nor yet with the position of the tropics, equator, and zodiac, (that circle through which the sun travels in his course, and by which we reckon the changes of season and the winds,) such persons we caution against the perusal of our work. For if a man is neither properly acquainted with these things, nor with the variations of the horizon and arctic circle, and such similar elements of mathematics, how can he comprehend the matters treated of here? So for one who does not know a right line from a curve, nor yet a circle, nor a plane or spherical surface, nor the seven stars in the firmament composing the Great Bear, and such like, our work is entirely useless, at least for the present. Unless he first acquires such information, he is utterly incompetent to the study of geography. So those who have written the works entitled "On Ports," and "Voyages Round the World," have performed their task imperfectly, since they have omitted to supply the requisite information from mathematics and astronomy.

§ 1.1.22  The present undertaking is composed in a lucid style, suitable alike to the statesman and the general reader, after the fashion of my History. By a statesman we do not intend an illiterate person, but one who has gone through the course of a liberal and philosophical education. For a man who has bestowed no attention on virtue or intelligence, nor what constitutes them, must be incompetent either to blame or praise, still less to decide what actions are worthy to be placed on record.

§ 1.1.23  Having already compiled our Historical Memoirs, which, as we conceive, are a valuable addition both to political and moral philosophy, we have now determined to follow it up with the present work, which has been prepared on the same system as the former, and for the same class of readers, but more particularly for those who are in high stations of life. And as our former production contains only the most striking events in the lives of distinguished men, omitting trifling and unimportant incidents; so here it will be proper to dismiss small and doubtful particulars, and merely call attention to great and remarkable transactions, such in fact as are useful, memorable, and entertaining. In the colossal works of the sculptor we do not descend into a minute examination of particulars, but look principally for perfection in the general ensemble. This is the only method of criticism applicable to the present work. Its proportions, so to speak, are colossal; it deals in the generalities and main outlines of things, except now and then, when some minor detail can be selected, calculated to be serviceable to the seeker after knowledge, or the man of business. We now think we have demonstrated that our present undertaking is one that requires great care, and is well worthy of a philosopher.

§ 1.2.1  No one can [justly] blame us for having undertaken to write on a subject already often treated of, unless it appears that we have done nothing more than copy the works of former writers. In our opinion, though they may have perfectly treated some subjects, in others they have still left much to be completed; and we shall be justified in our performance, if we can add to their information even in a trifling degree. At the present moment the conquests of the Romans andParthians have added much to our knowledge, which (as was well observed byEratosthenes) had been considerably increased by the expedition ofAlexander. This prince laid open to our view the greater part ofAsia, and the whole north of Europe as far as theDanube. And the Romans [have discovered to us] the entire west of Europe as far as the riverElbe, which dividesGermania, and the country beyond theIster to the riverTyras [Dniester]. The country beyond this to theMaeotis, and the coasts extending alongColchis, was brought to light byMithridates surnamed Eupator, and his generals. To theParthians we are indebted for a better acquaintance withHyrcania,Bactriana, and the land of theScythians lying beyond, of which before we knew but little. Thus we can add much information not supplied by former writers, but this will best be seen when we come to treat on the writers who have preceded us; and this method we shall pursue, not so much in regard to the primitive geographers, as toEratosthenes and those subsequent to him. As these writers far surpassed the generality in the amount of their knowledge, so naturally it is more difficult to detect their errors when such occur. If I seem to contradict those most whom I take chiefly for my guides, I must claim indulgence on the plea, that it was never intended to criticise the whole body of geographers, the larger number of whom are not worthy of consideration, but to give an opinion of those only who are generally found correct. Still, while many are beneath discussion, such men asEratosthenes,Posidonius,Hipparchus,Polybius, and others of their stamp, deserve our highest consideration.

§ 1.2.2  Let us first examineEratosthenes, reviewing at the same time whatHipparchus has advanced against him.Eratosthenes is much too creditable an historian for us to believe whatPolemon endeavours to charge against him, that he had not even seenAthens. At the same time he does not merit that unbounded confidence which some seem to repose in him, although, as he himself tells us, he passed much of his time with first-rate [characters]. Never, says he, at one period, and in one city, were there so many philosophers flourishing together as in my time. In their number wasAriston andArcesilaus. This, however, it seems is not sufficient, but you must also be able to choose who are the real guides whom it is your interest to follow. He considersArcesilaus andAriston to be the coryphaei of the philosophers who flourished in his time, and is ceaseless in his eulogies ofApelles andBion, the latter of whom, says he, was the first to deck himself in the flowers of philosophy, but concerning whom one is often likewise tempted to exclaim, "How great isBion in spite of his rags!" It is in such instances as the following that the mediocrity of his genius shows itself. Although atAthens he became a disciple ofZeno ofCitium, he makes no mention of his followers; while those who opposed that philosopher, and of whose sect not a trace remains, he thinks fit to set down amongst the [great characters] who flourished in his time. His real character appears in his Treatise on Moral Philosophy, his Meditations, and some similar productions. He seems to have held a middle course between the man who devotes himself to philosophy, and the man who cannot make up his mind to dedicate himself to it: and to have studied the science merely as a relief from his other pursuits, or as a pleasing and instructive recreation. In his other writings he is just the same; but let these things pass. We will now proceed as well as we can to the task of rectifying his geography. First, then, let us return to the point which we lately deferred.

§ 1.2.3  Eratosthenes says that the poet directs his whole attention to the amusement of the mind, and not at all to its instruction. In opposition to his idea, the ancients define poesy as a primitive philosophy, guiding our life from infancy, and pleasantly regulating our morals, our tastes, and our actions. The [Stoics] of our day affirm that the only wise man is the poet. On this account the earliest lessons which the citizens of Greece convey to their children are from the poets; certainly not alone for the purpose of amusing their minds, but for their instruction. Nay, even the professors of music, who give lessons on the harp, lyre, and pipe, lay claim to our consideration on the same account, since they say that [the accomplishments which they teach] are calculated to form and improve the character. It is not only among thePythagoreans that one hears this claim supported, forAristoxenus is of that opinion, andHomer too regarded the bards as amongst the wisest of mankind. Of this number was the guardian ofClytemnestra, "to whom the son ofAtreus, when he set out forTroy, gave earnest charge to preserve his wife," whomAegisthus was unable to seduce, until "leading the bard to a desert island, he left him," and then "The queen he led, not willing less than he, To his own mansion." Il. iii. 272. But apart from all such considerations,Eratosthenes contradicts himself; for a little previously to the sentence which we have quoted, at the commencement of his Essay on Geography, he says, that "all the ancient poets took delight in showing their knowledge of such matters.Homer inserted into his poetry all that he knew about theEthiopians,Egypt, andLibya. Of all that related to Greece and the neighbouring places he entered even too minutely into the details, describingThisbe as "abounding in doves,"Haliartus, "grassy,"Anthedon, the "far distant,"Lilaea, "situated on the sources of theCephissus," and none of his epithets are without their meaning." But in pursuing this method, what object has he in view, to amuse [merely], or to instruct? The latter, doubtless. Well, perhaps he has told the truth in these instances, but in what was beyond his observation both he and the other writers have indulged in all the marvels of fable. If such be the case the statement should have been, that the poets relate some things for mere amusement, others for instruction; but he affirms that they do it altogether for amusement, without any view to information; and by way of climax, inquires, What can it add toHomer's worth to be familiar with many lands, and skilled in strategy, agriculture, rhetoric, and similar information, which some persons seem desirous to make him possessed of. To seek to invest him with all this knowledge is most likely the effect of too great a zeal for his honour.Hipparchus observes, that to assert he was acquainted with every art and science, is like saying that anAttic eiresione bears pears and apples. As far as this goes,Eratosthenes, you are right enough; not so, however, when you not only deny thatHomer was possessed of these vast acquirements, but represent poetry in general as a tissue of old wives' fables, where, to use your own expression, every thing thought likely to amuse is cooked up. I ask, is it of no value to the auditors of the poets to be made acquainted with [the history of] different countries, with strategy, agriculture, and rhetoric, and suchlike things, which the lecture generally contains.

§ 1.2.4  One thing is certain, that the poet has bestowed all these gifts uponUlysses, whom beyond any of his other [heroes] he loves to adorn with every virtue. He says of him, that he "Discover'd various cities, and the mind And manners learn'd of men in lands remote." [Od. i 3.] That he was "Of a piercing wit and deeply wise." Iliad iii. 202. He is continually described as "the destroyer of cities," and as having vanquishedTroy, by his counsels, his advice, and his deceptive art.Diomedes says of him, "Let him attend me, and through fire itself We shall return; for none is wise as he." Ib. x. 246. He prides himself on his skill in husbandry, for at the harvest [he says], "I with my well-bent sickle in my hand, Thou arm'd with one as keen." [Od. xviii. 367.] And also in tillage, "Then shouldst thou see How straight my furrow should be cut and true." Ib. xviii. 374. AndHomer was not singular in his opinion regarding these matters, for all educated people appeal to him in favour of the idea that such practical knowledge is one of the chief means of acquiring understanding.

§ 1.2.5  That eloquence is regarded as the wisdom of speech,Ulysses manifests throughout the whole poem, both in the Trial, the Petitions, and the Embassy. Of him it is said byAntenor, "But when he spake, forth from his breast did flow A torrent swift as winter's feather'd snow." Iliad iii. 221. Who can suppose that a poet capable of effectively introducing into his scenes rhetoricians, generals, and various other characters, each displaying some peculiar excellence, was nothing more than a droll or juggler, capable only of cheating or flattering his hearer, and not of instructing him. Are we not all agreed that the chief merit of a poet consists in his accurate representation of the affairs of life? Can this be done by a mere driveller, unacquainted with the world? The excellence of a poet is not to be measured by the same standard as that of a mechanic or a blacksmith, where honour and virtue have nothing to do with our estimate. But the poet and the individual are connected, and he only can become a good poet, who is in the first instance a worthy man.

§ 1.2.6  To deny that our poet possesses theGraces of oratory is using us hardly indeed. What is so befitting an orator, what so poetical as eloquence, and who so sweetly eloquent asHomer? But, by heaven! you'll say, there are other styles of eloquence than those peculiar to poetry. Of course [I admit this]; in poetry itself there is the tragic and the comic style; in prose, the historic and the forensic. But is not language a generality, of which poetry and prose are forms? Yes, language is; but are not the rhetorical, the eloquent, and the florid styles also? I answer, that flowery prose is nothing but an imitation of poetry. Ornate poetry was the first to make its appearance, and was well received. Afterwards it was closely imitated by writers in the time ofCadmus,Pherecydes, andHecataeus. The metre was the only thing dispensed with, every other poetic grace being carefully preserved. As time advanced, one after another of its beauties was discarded, till at last it came down from its glory into our common prose. In the same way we may say that comedy took its rise from tragedy, but descended from its lofty grandeur into what we now call the common parlance of daily life. And when [we find] the ancient writers making use of the expression "to sing," to designate eloquence of style, this in itself is an evidence that poetry is the source and origin of all ornamented and rhetorical language. Poetry in ancient days was on every occasion accompanied by melody. The song or ode was but a modulated speech, from whence the words rhapsody, tragedy, comedy, are derived; and since originally eloquence was the term made use of for the poetical effusions which were always of the nature of a song, it soon happened [that in speaking of poetry] some said, to sing, others, to be eloquent; and as the one term was early misapplied to prose compositions, the other also was soon applied in the same way. Lastly, the very term prose, which is applied to language not clothed in metre, seems to indicate, as it were, its descent from an elevation or chariot to the ground.

§ 1.2.7  Homer accurately describes many distant countries, and not only Greece and the neighbouring places, asEratosthenes asserts. His romance, too, is in better style than that of his successors. He does not make up wondrous tales on every occasion, but to instruct us the better often, and especially in theOdyssey, adds to the circumstances which have come under his actual observation, allegories, wise harangues, and enticing narrations. Concerning which,Eratosthenes is much mistaken when he says that bothHomer and his commentators are a pack of fools. But this subject demands a little more of our attention.

§ 1.2.8  To begin. The poets were by no means the first to avail themselves of myths. States and lawgivers had taken advantage of them long before, having observed the constitutional bias of mankind. Man is eager after knowledge, and the love of legend is but the prelude thereto. This is why children begin to listen [to fables], and are acquainted with them before any other kind of knowledge; the cause of this is that the myth introduces them to a new train of ideas, relating not to every-day occurrences, but something in addition to these. A charm hangs round whatever is new and hitherto unknown, inspiring us with a desire to become acquainted with it, but when the wonderful and the marvellous are likewise present, our delight is increased until at last it becomes a philtre of study. To children we are obliged to hold out such enticements, in order that in riper years, when the mind is powerful, and no longer needs such stimulants, it may be prepared to enter on the study of actual realities. Every illiterate and uninstructed man is yet a child, and takes delight in fable. With the partially informed it is much the same; reason is not all-powerful within him, and he still possesses the tastes of a child. But the marvellous, which is capable of exciting fear as well as pleasure, influences not childhood only, but age as well. As we relate to children pleasing tales to incite them [to any course] of action, and frightful ones to deter them, such as those ofLamia,Gorgo,Ephialtes, andMormolyca. So numbers of our citizens are incited to deeds of virtue by the beauties of fable, when they hear the poets in a strain of enthusiasm recording noble actions, such as the labours ofHercules orTheseus, and the honours bestowed on them by the gods, or even when they see paintings, sculptures, or figures bearing their romantic evidence to such events. In the same way they are restrained from vicious courses, when they think they have received from the gods by oracles or some other invisible intimations, threats, menaces, or chastisements, or even if they only believe they have befallen others. The great mass of women and common people, cannot be induced by mere force of reason to devote themselves to piety, virtue, and honesty; superstition must therefore be employed, and even this is insufficient without the aid of the marvellous and the terrible. For what are the thunderbolts, the aegis, the trident, the torches, the dragons, the barbed thyrses, the arms of the gods, and all the paraphernalia of antique theology, but fables employed by the founders of states, as bugbears to frighten timorous minds. Such was mythology; and when our ancestors found it capable of subserving the purposes of social and political life, and even contributing to the knowledge of truth, they continued the education of childhood to maturer years, and maintained that poetry was sufficient to form the understanding of every age. In course of time history and our present philosophy were introduced; these, however, suffice but for the chosen few, and to the present day poetry is the main agent which instructs our people and crowds our theatres.Homer here stands pre-eminent, but in truth all the early historians and natural philosophers were mythologists as well.

§ 1.2.9  Thus it is that our poet, though he sometimes employs fiction for the purposes of instruction, always gives the preference to truth; he makes use of what is false, merely tolerating it in order the more easily to lead and govern the multitude. As a man "Binds with a golden verge Bright silver," soHomer, heightening by fiction actual occurrences, adorns and embellishes his subject; but his end is always the same as that of the historian, who relates nothing but facts. In this manner he undertook the narration of theTrojan War, gilding it with the beauties of fancy and the wanderings ofUlysses; but we shall never findHomer inventing an empty fable apart from the inculcation of truth. It is ever the case that a person lies most successfully, when he intermingles [into the falsehood] a sprinkling of truth. Such is the remark ofPolybius in treating of the wanderings ofUlysses; such is also the meaning of the verse, "He fabricated many falsehoods, relating them like truths: "[Od. xix. 203.] not all, but many falsehoods, otherwise it would not have looked like the truth.Homer's narrative is founded on history. He tells us that kingAeolus governed theLipari Islands, that around MountAetna andLeontini dwelt theCyclopae, and certainLaestrygonians inhospitable to strangers. That at that time the districts surrounding thestrait were unapproachable; andScylla andCharybdis were infested by banditti. In like manner in the writings ofHomer we are informed of other freebooters, who dwelt in divers regions. Being aware that theCimmerians dwelt on theCimmerian Bosphorus, a dark northern country, he felicitously locates them in a gloomy region close byHades, a fit theatre for the scene in the wanderings ofUlysses. That he was acquainted with these people we may satisfy ourselves from the chroniclers, who report an incursion made by theCimmerians' either during his life-time or just before.

§ 1.2.10  Being acquainted withColchis, and the voyage ofJason toAea, and also with the historical and fabulous relations concerningCirce andMedea, their enchantments and their various other points of resemblance, he feigns there was a relationship between them, notwithstanding the vast distance by which they were separated, the one dwelling in an inland creek of theEuxine, and the other inItaly, and both of them beyond the ocean. It is possible thatJason himself wandered as far asItaly, for traces of the Argonautic expedition are pointed out near theCeraunian mountains, by theAdriatic, at thePosidonian Gulf, and the isles adjacent toTyrrhenia. TheCyaneae, called by some theSymplegades, or Jostling Rocks, which render the passage through the Strait ofConstantinople so difficult, also afforded matter to our poet. The actual existence of a place namedAea, stamped credibility upon hisAeaea; so did theSymplegades upon thePlanctae, (the Jostling Rocks upon the Wandering Rocks) and the passage ofJason through the midst of them; in the same wayScylla andCharybdis accredited the passage [ofUlysses] past those rocks. In his time people absolutely regarded theEuxine as a kind of second ocean, and placed those who had crossed it in the same list with navigators who had passed thePillars. It was looked upon as the largest of our seas, and was therefore par excellence styled the Sea, in the same way asHomer [is called] the Poet. In order therefore to be well received, it is probable he transferred the scenes from theEuxine to the ocean, so as not to stagger the general belief. And in my opinion thoseSolymi who possess the highest ridges ofTaurus, lying betweenLycia andPisidia, and those who in their southern heights stand out most conspicuously to the dwellers on this sideTaurus, and the inhabitants of theEuxine by a figure of speech, he describes as being beyond the ocean. For narrating the voyage ofUlysses in his ship, he says, "ButNeptune, traversing in his return FromEthiopia's sons, the mountain heights Of theSolymi, descried him from afar." [Od. v. 282.] It is probable he took his account of the one-eyedCyclopae fromScythian history, for theArimaspi, whomAristaeus ofProconnesus describes in his Tales of theArimaspi, are said to be distinguished by this peculiarity.

§ 1.2.11  Having premised thus much, we must now take into consideration the reasons of those who assert thatHomer makesUlysses wander toSicily orItaly, and also of those who denied this. The truth is, he may be equally interpreted on this subject either way, according as we take a correct or incorrect view of the case. Correct, if we understand that he was convinced of the reality ofUlysses' wanderings there, and taking this truth as a foundation, raised thereon a poetical superstructure. And so far this description of him is right; for not aboutItaly only, but to the farthest extremities of Spain, traces of his wanderings and those of similar adventurers may still be found. Incorrect, if the scene-painting is received as fact, his Ocean, andHades, theoxen of the sun, his hospitable reception by the goddesses, the metamorphoses, the gigantic size of theCyclopae andLaestrygonians, the monstrous appearance ofScylla, the distance of the voyage, and other similar particulars, all alike manifestly fabulous. It is as idle to waste words with a person who thus openly maligns our poet, as it would be with one who should assert as true all the particulars ofUlysses' return toIthaca, the slaughter of the suitors, and the pitched battle between him and theIthacans in the field. But nothing can be said against the man who understands the words of the poet in a rational way.

§ 1.2.12  Eratosthenes, though on no sufficient grounds for so doing, rejects both these opinions, endeavouring in his attack on the latter, to refute by lengthened arguments what is manifestly absurd and unworthy of consideration, and in regard to the former, maintaining a poet to be a mere gossip, to whose worth an acquaintance with science or geography could not add in the least degree: since the scenes of certain ofHomer's fables are cast in actual localities, asIlium,Pelion, andIda; others in purely imaginary regions, such as those of theGorgons andGeryon. "Of this latter class," he says, "are the places mentioned in the wanderings ofUlysses, and those who pretend that they are not mere fabrications of the poet, but have an actual existence, are proved to be mistaken by the differences of opinion existing among themselves: for some of them assert that theSirenes ofHomer are situated close toPelorus, and others that they are more than two thousand stadia distant, near theSirenussae, a three-peaked rock which separates the Gulfs of Cumaea andPosidonium." Now, in the first place, this rock is not three-peaked, nor does it form a crest at the summit at all, but a long and narrow angle reaching from the territory ofSurrentum to the Strait ofCapria, having on one side of the mountain the sanctuary of theSirens, and on the other side, next the Gulf ofPosidonium, three little rocky and uninhabited islands, named theSirenes; upon the strait, is situated theAthenaion, from which the rocky angle itself takes its name.

§ 1.2.13  Further, if those who describe the geography of certain places do not agree in every particular, are we justified in at once rejecting their whole narration? Frequently this is a reason why it should receive the greater credit. For example, in the investigation whether the scene ofUlysses' wanderings wereSicily orItaly, and the proper position of theSirenes, they differ in so far that one places them atPelorus, and the other atSirenussae, but neither of them dissents from the idea that it was some where nearSicily orItaly. They add thereby strength to this view, inasmuch as though they are not agreed as to the exact locality, neither of them makes any question but that it was some where contiguous toItaly orSicily. If a third party should add, that the monument ofParthenope, who was one of theSirens, is shown atNaples, this only confirms us the more in our belief, for though a third place is introduced to our notice, still asNaples is situated in the gulf called byEratosthenes theCumaean, and which is formed by theSirenussae, we are more confident still that the position of theSirenes was some where close by. That the poet did not search for accuracy in every minor detail we admit, but neither ought we to expect this of him; at the same time we are not to believe that he composed his poem without inquiring into the history of the Wandering, nor where and how it occurred.

§ 1.2.14  Eratosthenes "thinks it probable thatHesiod, having heard of the wanderings ofUlysses, and of their having taken place near toSicily andItaly, embraced this view of the case, and not only describes the places spoken of byHomer, but alsoAetna, the Isle ofOrtygia, near toSyracuse, andTyrrhenia. As forHomer, he was altogether unacquainted with these places, and further, had no wish to lay the scene of the wanderings in any well-known locality." What! are thenAetna andTyrrhenia such well-known places, andScyllaion,Charybdis,Circaion, and theSirenussae, so obscure? Or isHesiod so correct as never to write nonsense, but always follow in the wake of received opinions, whileHomer blurts out whatever comes uppermost? Without taking into consideration our remarks on the character and aptitude ofHomer's myths, a large array of writers who bear evidence to his statements, and the additional testimony of local tradition, are sufficient proof that his are not the inventions of poets or contemporary scribblers, but the record of real actors and real scenes.

§ 1.2.15  The conjecture ofPolybius in regard to the particulars of the wandering ofUlysses is excellent. He says thatAeolus instructed sailors how to navigate thestrait, a difficult matter on account of the currents occasioned by the ebb and flow. and was therefore called the dispenser of the winds, and reputed their king. In like mannerDanaus for pointing out the springs of water that were inArgos, andAtreus for showing the retrograde movement of the sun in the heavens, from being mere soothsayers and diviners, were raised to the dignity of kings. And the priests of theEgyptians, theChaldeans, andMagi, distinguished for their wisdom above those around them, obtained from our predecessors honour and authority; and so it is that in each of the gods, we worship the discoverer of some useful art. Having thus introduced his subject, he does not allow us to consider the account ofAeolus, nor yet the rest of theOdyssey, as altogether mythical. There is a spice of the fabulous here, as well as in theTrojan War, but as respectsSicily, the poet accords entirely with the other historians who have written on the local traditions ofSicily andItaly. He altogether denies the justness ofEratosthenes' dictum, "that we may hope to discover the whereabout ofUlysses' wanderings, when we can find the cobbler who sewed up the winds in the leathern sack." "And [addsPolybius] his description of the hunt of the galeotes atScylla, "'Plunged to her middle in the horrid den She lurks, protruding from the black abyss Her heads, with which the ravening monster dives In quest ofdolphins, Dogfish, or of prey More bulky," [Od. xii. 95.] accords well with what takes place aroundScyllaion: for thetunny-fish, carried in shoals byItaly, and not being able to reachSicily, fall into [theStrait], where they become the prey of larger fish, such asdolphins, Dogfish, and other cetacea, and it is by this means that the galeotes (which are also called sword-fish) anddogs fatten themselves. For the same thing occurs here, and at the rising of theNile and other rivers, as takes place when a forest is on fire. Vast crowds of animals, in flying from the fire or the water, become the prey of beasts more powerful than themselves."

§ 1.2.16  He then goes on to describe the manner in which they catch the sword-fish atScyllaion. One look-out directs the whole body of fishers, who are in a vast number of small boats, each furnished with two oars, and two men to each boat. One man rows, the other stands on the prow, spear in hand, while the look-out has to signal the appearance of a sword-fish. (This fish, when swimming, has about a third of its body above water.) As it passes the boat, the fisher darts the spear from his hand, and when this is withdrawn, it leaves the sharp point with which it is furnished sticking in the flesh of the fish: this point is barbed, and loosely fixed to the spear for the purpose; it has a long end fastened to it; this they pay out to the wounded fish, till it is exhausted with its struggling and endeavours at escape. Afterwards they trail it to the shore, or, unless it is too large and full-grown, haul it into the boat. If the spear should fall into the sea, it is not lost, for it is jointed of oak and pine, so that when the oak sinks on account of its weight, it causes the other end to rise, and thus is easily recovered. It sometimes happens that the rower is wounded, even through the boat, and such is the size of the sword with which the galeote is armed, such the strength of the fish, and the method of the capture, that [in danger] it is not surpassed by the chase of the wildboar. From these facts (he says) we may conclude thatUlysses' wanderings were close toSicily, sinceHomer describesScylla as engaging in a pursuit exactly similar to that which is carried on atScyllaion. As toCharybdis, he describes just what takes place at theStrait of Messina: "Each day she thrice disgorges," [Od. xii. 105.] instead of twice, being only a mistake, either of the scribe or the historian.

§ 1.2.17  The customs of the inhabitants ofMeninx closely correspond to the description of theLotophagi. If any thing does not correspond, it should be attributed to change, or to misconception, or to poetical licence, which is made up of history, rhetoric, and fiction. Truth is the aim of the historical portion, as for instance in theCatalogue of Ships, where the poet informs us of the peculiarities of each place, that one is rocky, another the furthest city, that this abounds in doves. and that is maritime. A lively interest is the end of the rhetorical, as when he points to us the combat; and of the fiction, pleasure and astonishment. A mere fabrication would neither be persuasive nor Homeric; and we know that his poem is generally considered a scientific treatise, notwithstanding whatEratosthenes may say, when he bids us not to judge poems by the standard of intellect, nor yet look to them for history. It is most probable that the line "Nine days by cruel storms thence was I borne Athwart the fishy deep," [Od. ix. 82.] should be understood of merely a short distance, (for cruel storms do not blow in a right course,) and not of being carried beyond the ocean, as if impelled by favourable winds. "And," saysPolybius, "allowing the distance fromMalea to thePillars to be 22,500 stadia, and supposing the rate of passage was the same throughout the nine days, the voyage must have been accomplished at the speed of 2500 stadia per diem: now who has ever recorded that the passage fromLycia orRhodes toAlexandria, a distance of 4000 stadia, has been made in two days? To those who demand how it was thatUlysses, though he journeyed thrice toSicily, never once navigated theStrait, we reply that, long after his time, voyagers always sedulously avoided that route."

§ 1.2.18  Such are the sentiments ofPolybius; and in many respects they are correct enough; but when he discusses the voyage beyond the ocean, and enters on minute calculations of the proportion borne by the distance to the number of days, he is greatly mistaken. He alleges perpetually the words of the poet, "Nine days by cruel storms thence was I borne; " but at the same time he takes no notice of this expression, which is his as well, "And now borne sea-ward from the river stream Of theOceanus;" and this, "In the island ofOgygia, the centre of the sea," and that the daughter ofAtlas dwells there. And the following concerning thePhaeacians, "Remote amid the billowy deep, we hold Our dwelling, utmost of all human kind, And free from mixture with a foreign race." These passages clearly refer to theAtlantic Ocean, but though so plainly expressed,Polybius slily manages to overlook them. Here he is altogether wrong, though quite correct about the wandering ofUlysses having taken place roundSicily andItaly, a fact whichHomer establishes himself. Otherwise, what poet or writer could have persuaded theNeapolitans to assert that they possessed the tomb ofParthenope theSiren, or the inhabitants ofCumae,Dicaearchia, andVesuvius [to bear their testimony] toPyriphlegethon, the Marsh ofAcherusia, to the oracle of the dead which was nearAornus, and toBaius andMisenus, the companions ofUlysses. The same is the case with theSirenussae, and theStrait of Messina, andScylla, andCharybdis, andAeolus, all which things should neither be examined into too rigorously, nor yet [despised] as groundless and without foundation, alike remote from truth and historic value.

§ 1.2.19  Eratosthenes seems to have had something like this view of the case himself, when he says, "Any one would believe that the poet intended the western regions as the scene ofUlysses' wanderings, but that he has departed from fact, sometimes through want of perfect information, at other times because he wished to give to scenes a more terrific and marvellous appearance than they actually possessed." So far this is true, but his idea of the object which the poet had in view while composing, is false; real advantage, not trifling, being his aim. We may justly reprehend his assertion on this point, as also where he says, thatHomer places the scene of his marvels in distant lands that he may lie the more easily. Remote localities have not furnished him with near so many wonderful narrations as Greece, and the countries thereto adjacent; witness the labours ofHercules, andTheseus, the fables concerningCrete,Sicily, and the other islands; besides those connected withCithaerum,Helicon,Parnassus,Pelion, and the whole ofAttica and thePeloponnesus. Let us not therefore tax the poets with ignorance on account of the myths which they employ, and since, so far from myth being the staple, they for the most part avail themselves of actual occurrences, (andHomer does this in a remarkable degree,) the inquirer who will seek how far these ancient writers have wandered into fiction, ought not to scrutinize to what extent the fiction was carried, but rather what is the truth concerning those places and persons to which the fictions have been applied; for instance, whether the wanderings ofUlysses did actually occur, and where.

§ 1.2.20  On the whole, however, it is not proper to place the works ofHomer in the common catalogue of other poets, without challenging for him a superiority both in respect of his other [excellences] and also for the geography on which our attention is now engaged. If any one were to do no more than merely read through theTriptolemus ofSophocles, or the prologue to the Bacchae ofEuripides, and then compare them with the care taken byHomer in his geographical descriptions, he would at once perceive both the difference and superiority of the latter, for wherever there is necessity for arrangement in the localities he has immortalized, he is careful to preserve it as well in regard to Greece, as to foreign countries. " They On theOlympian summit thought to fix HugeOssa, and onOssa's towering headPelion with all his forests. " " AndJuno starting from theOlympian height O'erflewPieria and the lovely plains Of broadEmathia; soaring thence she swept The snow-clad summit of the Thracian hills Steed-famed, nor printed, as she pass'd, the soil, FromAthos the foaming billows borne. " In theCatalogue he does not describe his cities in regular order, because here there was no necessity, but both the people and foreign countries he arranges correctly. "Having wandered toCyprus, andPhoenice, and theEgyptians, I came to theEthiopians, andSidonians, andErembi, andLibya."Hipparchus has drawn attention to this. But the two tragedians where there was great necessity for proper arrangement, one where he introducesBacchus visiting the nations, the otherTriptolemus sowing the earth, have brought in juxta-position places far remote, and separated those which were near. "And having left the wealthy lands of theLydians andPhrygians, and the sunny plains of thePersians and theBactrian walls, and having come over the stormy land of theMedes, and the HappyArabia." And theTriptolemus is just as inaccurate. Further, in respect to the winds and climates,Homer shows the wide extent of his geographical knowledge, for in his topographical descriptions he not unfrequently informs us of both these matters. Thus, "My abode Is sun-burntIthaca. Flat on the deep she lies, farthest removed Toward the west, while situate apart, Her sister islands face the rising day." [Od. ix. 25.] And, "It has a two-fold entrance, One towards the north, the other south." [Od. xiii.] 109, 111. And again, "Which I alike despise, speed they their course With right-hand flight towards the ruddy east, Or leftward down into the shades of eve." Iliad xii. 239. Ignorance of such matters he reckons no less than confusion. " Alas! my friends, for neither west Know we, nor east; where rises or where sets The all-enlightening sun." [Od. x. 190.] Where the poet has said properly enough, "As when two adverse winds, blowing fromThrace,Boreas andZephyrus," Iliad ix.5.Eratosthenes ill-naturedly misrepresents him as saying in an absolute sense, that the west wind blows fromThrace; whereas he is not speaking in an absolute sense at all, but merely of the meeting of contrary winds near the bay ofMelas, on the Thracian sea, itself a part of theAegean. For whereThrace forms a kind of promontory, where it borders onMacedonia, it takes a turn to the south-west, and projects into the ocean, and from this point it seems to the inhabitants ofThasos,Lemnos,Imbros,Samothrace, and the surrounding sea, that the west winds blow. So in regard toAttica, they seem to come from therocks of Sciros, and this is the reason why all the westerly winds, the north-west more particularly, are called the Scirones. Of thisEratosthenes was not aware, though he suspected as much, for it was he who described this bending of the land [towards the south-west] which we have mentioned. But he interprets our poet in an absolute sense, and then taxes him with ignorance, because, says he, "Zephyr blows from the west, and off Spain, andThrace does not extend so far." Does he then think thatHomer was not aware thatZephyr came from the west, notwithstanding the careful manner in which he distinguishes its position when he writes as follows: "The east, the south, the heavy-blowingZephyr, And the cold north-wind clear." (Odyssey v. 295). Or was he ignorant thatThrace did not extend beyond thePaeonian andThessalian mountains. To be sure he was well acquainted with the position of the countries adjoiningThrace in that direction, and does he not mention by name both the maritime and inland districts, and tells us of theMagnetae, theMalians, and other Grecian [territories], all in order, as far asThesprotis; also of theDolopes bordering onPaeonia, and theSellae who inhabit the territory aroundDodona as far as the [river]Achelous, but he never mentionsThrace, as being beyond these. He has evidently a predilection for the sea which is nearest to him, and with which he is most familiar, as where he says, "Commotion shook The whole assembly, such as heaves the flood Of theIcarian deep." Iliad ii. 144.

§ 1.2.21  Some writers tell us there are but two principal winds, the north and south, and that the other winds are only a slight difference in the direction of these two. That is, (supposing only two winds, the north and south,) the south wind from the commencement of the summer quarter blows in a south-easterly direction; and from the commencement of the winter quarter from the east. The north wind from the decline of the summer, blows in a westerly direction, and from the decline of the winter, in a north-westerly direction. In support of this opinion of the two winds they adduceThrasyalces and our poet himself, forasmuch as he mentions the north-west with the south, "From the north-west south," Iliad xi. 306, xxi. 334. and the west with the north, "As when two adverse winds, blowing fromThrace,Boreas andZephyrus." Iliad ix. 5. ButPosidonius remarks that none of those who are really acquainted with these subjects, such asAristotle,Timosthenes, andBion the astronomer, entertain so mistaken an opinion in regard to the winds. They say that the north-east (Caecias) blows from the commencement of summer, and that the southwest wind (Libs), which is exactly opposite to this, blows from the decline of winter. And again, the south-east wind (Eurus), which is opposite to the north-west wind (Argestes), from the commencement of winter. The east and west winds being intermediate. When our poet makes use of the expression "stormy zephyr," he means the wind which is now called by us the north-west; and by the "clear-blowing zephyr" our west wind; ourLeuconotus is hisArgestes-notus, or clearing south wind, for this wind brings but few clouds, all the other southern winds bringing clouds and rain, "As when whirlwinds of the west A storm encounter from the clearing south." Iliad xi. 305. Here he alludes to the stormy zephyr, which very frequently scatters the feathery clouds brought up by theLeuconotus, or, as it is called by way of epithet, the clearing south. The statements made byEratosthenes in the first book of his Geography, require some such correction as this.

§ 1.2.22  Persisting in his false views in relation toHomer, he goes on to say, "He was ignorant that theNile separated into many mouths, nay, he was not even acquainted with the name of the river, thoughHesiod knew it well, for he even mentions it." In respect of the name, it is probable that it had not then been given to the river, and as to the mouths, if they were obscure and little known, will not every one excuse him for not being aware whether there were several or merely one? At that time, the river, its rising, and its mouths were considered, as they are at the present day, amongst the most remarkable, the most wonderful, and most worthy of recording of all the peculiarities ofEgypt: who can suppose that those who told our poet of the country and river ofEgypt, ofEgyptianThebes, and ofPharos, were unaware of the many embouchures of theNile; or that being aware, they would not have described them, were it not that they were too generally known? "But is it not inconceivable thatHomer should describeEthiopia, and theSidonians, theErembi, and the Exterior Sea, — should tell us thatEthiopia was divided into two parts, and yet nothing about those things which were nearer and better known?" Certainly not, his not describing these things is no proof that he was not acquainted with them. He does not tell us of his own country, nor yet many other things. The most probable reason is, they were so generally known that they did not appear to him worth recording.

§ 1.2.23  Again, they are entirely wrong when they allege as a mark ofHomer's ignorance, that he describes the island ofPharos as entirely surrounded by the sea. On the contrary, it might be taken advantage of as a proof that our poet was not unacquainted with a single one of the points concerningEgypt which we have just been speaking of: and thus we demonstrate it: — Every one is prone to romance a little in narrating his travels, andMenelaus was no exception to the rule. He had been toEthiopia, and there heard much discussion concerning the sources of theNile, and the alluvium which it deposited, both along its course, and also at its mouths, and the large additions which it had thereby made to the main-land, so as fully to justify the remark ofHerodotus that the whole ofEgypt was a gift from the river; or if not the whole, at all events that part of it below the Delta, called LowerEgypt. He had heard too thatPharos was entirely surrounded by sea, and therefore misrepresented it as entirely surrounded by the sea, although it had long ago ceased so to be. Now the author of all this wasHomer, and we therefore infer that he was not ignorant concerning either the sources or the mouths of theNile.

§ 1.2.24  They are again mistaken when they say that he was not aware of the isthmus between the sea ofEgypt and theArabian Gulf, and that his description is false, "TheEthiopians, utmost of mankind, These eastward situate, those toward the west." [Od. i. 23.] Nevertheless he is correct, and the criticism of the moderns is quite out of place: indeed, there is so little truth in the assertion thatHomer was ignorant of this isthmus, that I will venture to affirm he was not only acquainted with it, but has also accurately defined it. But none of the grammarians, not even the chiefs of their number,Aristarchus andCrates, have understood the words of our poet on this subject. For they disagree as to the words which follow this expression ofHomer, "TheEthiopians, utmost of mankind, These eastward situate, those towards the west," [Od. i. 23.]Aristarchus writing, "These towards the west, and those towards the east," andCrates, "As well in the west as also in the east. " However, in regard to their hypotheses, it makes no difference whether the passage were written this way or that. One of them, in fact, takes what he considers the mathematical view of the case, and says that the torrid zone is occupied by the ocean, and that on each side of this there is a temperate zone, one inhabited by us and another opposite thereto. And as we call theEthiopians, who are situated to the south, and dwell along the shores of the ocean, the most distant on the face of the inhabited globe; so he supposed that on the other side of the ocean, there were certainEthiopians dwelling along the shores, who would in like manner be considered the most distant by the inhabitants of the other temperate zone; and thus that theEthiopians were double, separated into two divisions by the ocean. He adds, "as well in the west as also in the east," because as the celestial zodiac always corresponds to the terrestrial, and never exceeds in its obliquity the space occupied by the twoEthiopias, the sun's entire course must necessarily be within this space, and also his rising and setting, as it appears to different nations according to the sign which he may be in. He (Crates) adopted this version, because he considered it the more astronomical. But it would have maintained his opinion of the division of theEthiopians into two parts, and at the same time have been much more simple, had he said that theEthiopians dwelt on either side of the ocean from the rising to the setting of the sun. In this case what difference does it make whether we follow his version, or adopt the reading ofAristarchus, "These towards the west, and those towards the east? " which also means, that whether east or west, on either side of the ocean,Ethiopians dwell. ButAristarchus rejects this hypothesis. He says, "TheEthiopians with whom we are acquainted, and who are farthest south from the Greeks, are those described by the poet as being separated into two divisions. ButEthiopia is not so separated as to form two countries, one situated towards the west, the other towards the east, but only one, that which lies south of the Greeks and adjoinsEgypt; but of this the poet was ignorant, as well as of other matters enumerated byApollodorus, which he has falsely stated concerning various places in his second book, containing the catalogue of the ships."

§ 1.2.25  To refuteCrates would require a lengthened argument, which here perhaps may be considered out of place.Aristarchus we commend for rejecting the hypothesis ofCrates, which is open to many objections, and for referring the expression of the poet to ourEthiopia. But the remainder of his statement we must discuss. First, his minute examination of the reading is altogether fruitless, for whichever way it may have been written, his interpretation is equally applicable to both; for what difference is there whether you say thus — In our opinion there are twoEthiopias, one towards the east, the other to the west; or thus — For they are as well towards the east as the west? Secondly, He makes false assumptions. For admitting that the poet was ignorant of the isthmus, and that he alludes to theEthiopia contiguous toEgypt, when he says, "TheEthiopians separated into two divisions;" [Od. i. 23.] what then? Are they not separated into two divisions, and could the poet have thus expressed himself if he had been in ignorance? Is notEgypt, nay, are not theEgyptians, separated into two divisions by theNile from the Delta toSyene, "These towards the west, those towards the east? " And what else isEgypt, with the exception of the island formed by the river and overflowed by its waters; does it not lie on either side of the river both east and west?Ethiopia runs in the same direction asEgypt, and resembles it both in its position with respect to theNile, and in its other geographical circumstances. It is narrow, long, and subject to inundation; beyond the reach of this inundation it is desolate and parched, and unfitted for the habitation of man; some districts lying to the east and some to the west of [the river]. How then can we deny that it is separated into two divisions? Shall theNile, which is looked upon by some people as the proper boundary line betweenAsia andLibya, and which extends southward in length more than 10,000 stadia, embracing in its breadth islands which contain populations of above ten thousand men, the largest of these beingMeroe, the seat of empire and metropolis of theEthiopians, be regarded as too insignificant to divideEthiopia into two parts? The greatest obstacle which they who object to the river being made the line of demarcation between the two continents are able to allege, is, thatEgypt andEthiopia are by this means divided, one part of each being assigned toLibya, and the other toAsia, or, if this will not suit, the continents cannot be divided at all, or at least not by the river.

§ 1.2.26  But besides these there is another method of dividingEthiopia. All those who have sailed along the coasts ofLibya, whether starting from theArabian Gulf, or thePillars, after proceeding a certain distance, have been obliged to turn back again on account of a variety of accidents; and thus originated a general belief that it was divided midway by some isthmus, although the whole of theAtlantic Ocean is confluent, more especially towards the south. Besides, all of these navigators called the final country which they reached,Ethiopia, and described it under that name. Is it therefore at all incredible, thatHomer, misled by such reports, separated them into two divisions, one towards the east and the other west, not knowing whether there were any intermediate countries or not? But there is another ancient tradition related byEphorus, whichHomer had probably fallen in with. He tells us it is reported by theTartessians, that some of theEthiopians, on their arrival inLibya, penetrated into the extreme west, and settled down there, while the rest occupied the greater part of the sea-coast; and in support of this statement he quotes the passage ofHomer, "TheEthiopians, the farthest removed of men, separated into two divisions."

§ 1.2.27  These and other more stringent arguments may be urged againstAristarchus and those of his school, to clear our poet from the charge of such gross ignorance. I assert that the ancient Greeks, in the same way as they classed all the northern nations with which they were familiar under the one name ofScythians, or, according toHomer, Nomades, and afterwards becoming acquainted with those towards the west, styled themKelts andIberians; sometimes compounding the names intoKeltiberians, or Keltoscythians, thus ignorantly uniting various distinct nations; so I affirm they designated asEthiopia the whole of the southern countries towards the ocean. Of this there is evidence, forAeschylus, in thePrometheus Loosed, thus speaks: "There [is] the sacred wave, and the coralled bed of theErythraean Sea, and [there] the luxuriant marsh of theEthiopians, situated near the ocean, glitters like polished brass; where daily in the soft and tepid stream, the all-seeing sun bathes his undying self, and refreshes his weary steeds." And as the ocean holds the same position in respect to the sun, and serves the same purpose throughout the whole southern region, he therefore concludes that theEthiopians inhabited the whole of the region. AndEuripides in his Phaeton says thatClymene was given "ToMerops, sovereign of that land Which from his four-horsed chariot first The rising sun strikes with his golden rays; And which its swarthy neighbours call The radiant stable of the Morn andSun." Here the poet merely describes them as the common stables of the Morning and of theSun; but further on he tells us they were near to the dwellings ofMerops, and in fact the whole plot of the piece has reference to this. This does not therefore refer alone to the [land] next toEgypt, but rather to the whole southern country extending along the sea-coast.

§ 1.2.28  Ephorus likewise shows us the opinion of the ancients respectingEthiopia, in his Treatise on Europe. He says, "If the whole celestial and terrestrial globe were divided into four parts, theIndians would possess that towards the east, theEthiopians towards the south, theKelts towards the west, and theScythians towards the north." He adds thatEthiopia is larger thanScythia; for, says he, it appears that the country of theEthiopians extends from the rising to the setting of the sun in winter; andScythia is opposite to it. It is evident this was the opinion ofHomer, since he placesIthaca "Towards the gloomy region," that is, towards the north, but the others apart, "Towards the morning and the sun," by which he means the whole southern hemisphere: and again when he says, "speed they their course With right-hand flight towards the ruddy east, Or leftward down into the shades of eve." Iliad xii. 239. And again, "Alas! my friends, for neither west Know we, nor east, where rises or where sets The all-enlightening sun." [Od. x. 190.] Which we shall explain more fully when we come to speak ofIthaca. When therefore he says, "For to the banks of theOceanus, WhereEthiopia holds a feast toJove, He journey'd yesterday," Iliad i. 423. we should take this in a general sense, and understand by it the whole of the ocean which washesEthiopia and the southern region, for to whatever part of this region you direct your attention, you will there find both the ocean andEthiopia. It is in a similar style he says, "ButNeptune, traversing in his return FromEthiopia's sons the mountain heights OfSolyme, descried him from afar." [Od. v. 282.] which is equal to saying, "in his return from the southern regions," meaning by theSolymi, as I remarked before, not those ofPisidia, but certain others merely imaginary, having the same name, and bearing the like relation to the navigators in [Ulysses'] ship, and the southern inhabitants there calledEthiopians, as those ofPisidia do in regard toPontus and the inhabitants ofEgyptianEthiopia. What he says about the cranes must likewise be understood in a general sense. " Such clang is heard Along the skies, when from incessant showers Escaping, and from winter's cold, the cranes Take wing, and over ocean speed away. Woe to the land of dwarfs! prepared they fly For slaughter of the small Pygmaean race." Iliad iii. 3. For it is not in Greece alone that the crane is observed to emigrate to more southern regions, but likewise fromItaly andIberia, from [the shores of] theCaspian, and fromBactriana. But since the ocean extends along the whole southern coast, and the cranes fly to all parts of it indiscriminately at the approach of winter, we must likewise believe that thePygmies were equally considered to inhabit the whole of it. And if the moderns have confined the term ofEthiopians to those only who dwell near toEgypt, and have also restricted thePygmies in like manner, this must not be allowed to interfere with the meaning of the ancients. We do not speak of all the people who fought againstTroy as merelyAchaeans andArgives, thoughHomer describes the whole under those two names. Similar to this is my remark concerning the separation of theEthiopians into two divisions, that under that designation we should understand the whole of the nations inhabiting the sea-board from east to west. TheEthiopians taken in this sense are naturally separated into two parts by theArabian Gulf, which occupies a considerable portion of a meridian circle, and resembles a river, being in length nearly 15,000 stadia, and in breadth not above 1000 at the widest point. In addition to the length, the recess of the Gulf is distant from the sea atPelusium only three or four days' journey across the isthmus. On this account those who are most felicitous in their division ofAsia and Africa, prefer the Gulf as a better boundary line for the two continents than theNile, since it extends almost entirely from sea to sea, whereas theNile is so remote from the ocean that it does not by any means divide the whole ofAsia from Africa. On this account I believe it was the Gulf which the poet looked upon as dividing into two portions the whole southern regions of the inhabited earth. Is it possible, then, that he was unacquainted with the isthmus which separates this Gulf from theEgyptian Sea?

§ 1.2.29  It is quite irrational to suppose that he could be accurately acquainted withEgyptianThebes, which is separated from our sea by a little less than 5000 stadia; and yet ignorant of the recess of theArabian Gulf, and of the isthmus there, whose breadth is not more than 1000 stadia. Still more, would it not be ridiculous to believe thatHomer was aware theNile was called by the same name as the vast country [ofEgypt], and yet unacquainted with the reason why? Especially since the saying ofHerodotus would occur to him, that the country was a gift from the river, and it ought therefore to bear its name. Further, the best known peculiarities of a country are those which have something of the nature of a paradox, and are likely to arrest general attention. Of this kind are the rising of theNile, and the alluvial deposition at its mouth. There is nothing in the whole country to which travellers inEgypt so immediately direct their inquiries, as the character of theNile; nor do the inhabitants possess anything else equally wonderful and curious, of which to inform foreigners; for in fact, to give them a description of the river, is to lay open to their view every main characteristic of the country. It is the question put before every other by those who have never seenEgypt themselves. To these considerations we must addHomer's thirst after knowledge, and his delight in visiting foreign lands, (tastes which we are assured both by those who have written histories of his life, and also by innumerable testimonies throughout his own poems, he possessed in an eminent degree,) and we shall have abundant evidence both of the extent of his information, and the felicity with which he described objects he deemed important, and passed over altogether, or with slight allusion, matters which were generally known.

§ 1.2.30  TheseEgyptians and Syrians whom we have been criticising fill one with amazement. They do not understand [Homer], even when he is describing their own countries, but accuse him of ignorance where, as our argument proves, they are open to the charge themselves. Not to mention a thing is clearly no evidence that a person is not acquainted with it.Homer does not tell us of the change in the current of theEuripus, nor ofThermopylae, nor of many other remarkable things well known to the Greeks; but was he therefore unacquainted with them? He describes to us, although these men, who are obstinately deaf, will not hear: they have themselves to blame. Our poet applies to rivers the epithet of "heaven-sent." And this not only to mountain torrents, but to all rivers alike, since they are all replenished by the showers. But even what is general becomes particular when it is bestowed on any object par excellence. Heaven-sent, when applied to a mountain torrent, means something else than when it is the epithet of the ever-flowing river; but the force of the term is doubly felt when attributed to theNile. For as there are hyperboles of hyperboles, for instance, to be "lighter than the shadow of a cork," "more timid than aPhrygian hare," to "possess an estate shorter than aLacedemonian epistle;" so excellence becomes more excellent, when the title of "heaven-sent" is given to theNile. The mountain torrent has a better claim to be called heaven-sent than other rivers, but theNile exceeds the mountain torrents, both in its size and the lengthened period of its overflow. Since, then, the wonders of this river were known to our poet, as we have shown in this defence, when he applies this epithet to theNile, it must only be understood in the way we have explained.Homer did not think it worth mentioning, especially to those who were acquainted with the fact, that theNile had many mouths, since this is a common feature of numerous other rivers.Alcaeus does not mention it, although he tells us he had been inEgypt. One might infer the fact of its alluvial deposit, both From the rising [of the river] and whatHomer tells us concerningPharos. For his account, or rather the vulgar report concerningPharos, that it was distant from the mainland a whole day's voyage, ought not to be looked upon as a downright falsehood. It is clear thatHomer was only acquainted with the rising and deposit of the river in a general way, and concluding from what he heard that the island had been further removed in the time ofMenelaus from the mainland, than it was in his own, he magnified the distance, simply that he might heighten the fiction. Fictions however are not the offspring of ignorance, as is sufficiently plain from those concerningProteus, thePygmies, the efficacy of charms, and many others similar to these fabricated by the poets. They narrate these things not through ignorance of the localities, but for the sake of giving pleasure and enjoyment. But [some one may inquire], how could he describe [Pharos], which is without water as possessed of that necessary? " The haven there is good, and many a ship Finds watering there from rivulets on the coast." [Od. iv. 358.] [I answer, ] It is not impossible that the sources of water may since have failed. Besides, he does not say that the water was procured from the island, but that they went thither on account of the safety of the harbour; the water was probably obtained from the mainland, and by the expression the poet seems to admit that what he had before said of its being wholly surrounded by sea was not the actual fact, but a hyperbole or fiction.

§ 1.2.31  As his description of the wanderings ofMenelaus may seem to authenticate the charge of ignorance made against him in respect to those regions, it will perhaps be best to point out the difficulties of the narrative, and their explanation, and at the same time enter into a fuller defence of our poet.Menelaus thus addressesTelemachus, who is admiring the splendour of his palace: "After numerous toils And perilous wanderings o'er the stormy deep, In the eighth year at last I brought them home.Cyprus,Phoenicia,Sidon, and the shores OfEgypt, roaming without hope, I reach'd, In distantEthiopia thence arrived, AndLibya." [Od. iv. 81.] It is asked, WhatEthiopians could he have met with on his voyage fromEgypt? None are to be found dwelling by our sea, and with his vessels he could never have reached the cataracts of theNile. Next, who are theSidonians? Certainly not the inhabitants ofPhoenicia; for leaving mentioned the genus, he would assuredly not particularize the species. And then theErembi; this is altogether a new name. Our contemporaryAristonicus, the grammarian, in his [observations] on the wanderings ofMenelaus, has recorded the opinions of numerous writers on each of the heads under discussion. It will be sufficient for us to refer to them very briefly. They who assert thatMenelaus went by sea toEthiopia, tell us he directed his course pastCadiz into the Indian Ocean; with which, say they, the long duration of his wanderings agrees, since he did not arrive there till the eighth year. Others, that he passed through the isthmus which enters theArabian Gulf; and others again, through one of the canals. At the same time the idea of this circumnavigation, which owes its origin toCrates, is not necessary; we do not mean it was impossible, (for the wanderings ofUlysses are not impossible,) but neither the mathematical hypothesis, not yet the duration of the wandering, require such an explanation; for he was both retarded against his will by accidents in the voyage, as by [the tempest] which he narrates five only of his sixty ships survived; and also by voluntary delays for the sake of amassing wealth.Nestor says [of him], "Thus he, provision gathering as he went, And gold abundant, roam'd to distant lands." [Od. iii. 301.] [AndMenelaus himself], "Cyprus,Phoenicia, and theEgyptians' land I wandered through." [Od. iv. 83.] As to the navigation of the isthmus, or one of the canals, if it had been related byHomer himself, we should have counted it a myth; but as he does not relate it, we regard it as entirely extravagant and unworthy of belief. We say unworthy of belief, because at the time of theTrojan War no canal was in existence. It is recorded thatSesostris, who had planned the formation of one, apprehending that the level of the sea was too high to admit of it, desisted from the undertaking. Moreover the isthmus itself was not passable for ships, andEratosthenes is unfortunate in his conjecture, for he considers that the strait at thePillars was not then formed, so that theAtlantic should by that channel communicate with the Mediterranean, and that this sea being higher than the Isthmus [of Suez], covered it; but when the Strait [of Gibraltar] was formed, the sea subsided considerably; and left the land aboutCasium andPelusium dry as far over as theRed Sea. But what account have we of the formation of this strait, supposing it were not in existence prior to theTrojan War? Is it likely that our poet would makeUlysses sail out through the Strait [of Gibraltar] into theAtlantic Ocean, as if that strait already existed, and at the same time describeMenelaus conducting his ships fromEgypt to theRed Sea, as if it did not exist. Further, the poet introducesProteus as saying to him, "Thee the gods Have destined to the blestElysian Isles,Earth's utmost boundaries." [Od. iv. 563.] And what this place was, namely, some far western region, is evident from [the mention of] theZephyr in connexion with it: "ButZephyr always gently from the sea Breathes on them." [Od. iv. 567.] This, however, is very enigmatical.

§ 1.2.32  But if our poet speaks of the Isthmus of Suez as ever having been the strait of confluence between the Mediterranean and theRed Sea s, how much more credit may we attribute to his division of theEthiopians into two portions, being thus separated by so grand a strait! And what commerce could he have carried on with theEthiopians who dwelt by the shores of the exterior sea and the ocean?Telemachus and his companions admire the multitude of ornaments that were in the palace, "Of gold, electrum, silver, ivory." [Od. iv. 73.] Now theEthiopians are possessed of none of these productions in any abundance, excepting ivory, being for the most part a needy and nomad race. True, [you say, ] but adjoining them isArabia, and the whole country as far asIndia. One of these is distinguished above all other lands by the title ofFelix, and the other, though not dignified by that name, is both generally believed and also said to be preeminently Blessed. But [we reply],Homer was not acquainted withIndia, or he would have described it. And though he knew of theArabia which is now namedFelix, at that time it was by no means wealthy, but a wild country, the inhabitants of which dwelt for the most part in tents. It is only a small district which produces the aromatics from which the whole territory afterwards received its name, owing to the rarity of the commodity amongst us, and the value set upon it. That theArabians are now flourishing and wealthy is due to their vast and extended traffic, but formerly it does not appear to have been considerable. A merchant orcamel-driver might attain to opulence by the sale of these aromatics and similar commodities; butMenelaus could only become so either by plunder, or presents conferred on him by kings and nobles, who had the means at their disposal, and wished to gratify one so distinguished by glory and renown. TheEgyptians, it is true, and the neighbouringEthiopians andArabians, were not so entirely destitute of the luxuries of civilization, nor so unacquainted with the fame ofAgamemnon, especially after the termination of theTrojan War, but thatMenelaus might have expected some benefits from their generosity, even as the breastplate ofAgamemnon is said to be "The gift OfCinyras long since; for rumour loud HadCyprus reached." Iliad xi. 20. And we are told that the greater part of his wanderings were inPhoenicia,Syria,Egypt, Africa, aroundCyprus, and, in fact, the whole of our coasts and islands. Here, indeed, he might hope to enrich himself both by the gifts of friendship and by violence, and especially by the plunder of those who had been the allies ofTroy. They however who dwelt on the exterior ocean, and the distant barbarians, held out no such encouragement: and whenMenelaus is said to have been inEthiopia, it is because he had reached the frontiers of that country nextEgypt. But perhaps at that time the frontiers lay more contiguous toThebes than they do now. At the present day the nearest are the districts adjacent toSyene andPhilae, the former town being entirely inEgypt, whilePhilae is inhabited by a mixed population ofEthiopians andEgyptians. Supposing therefore he had arrived atThebes, and thus reached the boundary-line ofEthiopia, where he experienced the munificence of the king, we must not be surprised if he is described as having passed through the country. On no better authorityUlysses declares he has been to the land of theCyclops, although he merely left the sea to enter a cavern which he himself tells us was situated on the very borders of the country: and, in fact, wherever he came to anchor, whether atAeolia,Laestrygonia, or elsewhere, he is stated to have visited those places. In the same mannerMenelaus is said to have been toEthiopia andLibya, because here and there he touched at those places, and the port near Ardania aboveParaetonium is called after him "the port ofMenelaus."

§ 1.2.33  When, after mentioningPhoenicia, he talks ofSidon, its metropolis, he merely employs a common form of expression, for example, "He urged theTrojans andHector to the ships." (Iliad xiii.1) "For the sons of magnanimousOeneus were no more, nor was he himself surviving; moreover, fair-hairedMeleager was dead." "He came toIda — and toGargarus." Iliad viii.47 "He possessedEuboea,Chalcis, andEretria." Iliad ii. 536.Sappho likewise [says], "WhetherCyprus, or the well-harbouredPaphos." But he had some other cause besides this for mentioningSidon immediately after having spoken of thePhoenicians: for had he merely desired to recount the nations in order, it would have been quite sufficient to say, "Having wandered toCyprus,Phoenice, and theEgyptians, I came to theEthiopians." But that he might record his sojourn amongst theSidonians, which was considerably prolonged, he thought it well to refer to it repeatedly. Thus he praises their prosperity and skill in the arts, and alludes to the hospitality the citizens had shown toHelen andAlexander. Thus he tells us of the many [treasures]of this nature laid up in store byAlexander. " There his treasures lay, Works ofSidonian women, whom her son, The godlikeParis, when he crossed the seas WithJove-begottenHelen, brought toTroy." Iliad vi. 289. And also byMenelaus, who says toTelemachus, "'I give thee this bright beaker, argent all, But round encircled with a lip of gold. It is the work ofVulcan, which to me The heroPhaedimus presented, king Of theSidonians, when on my return Beneath his roof I lodged. I make it thine.'" [Od. xv. 115.] Here the expression, "work ofVulcan," must be looked upon as a hyperbole: in the same way all elegant productions are said to be the work ofMinerva, of theGraces, or of theMuses. But that theSidonians were skilful artists, is clear from the praises bestowed [byHomer] on the bowl whichEuneos gave in exchange forLycaon: "Earth Own'd not its like for elegance of form. SkilfulSidonian artists had around Embellish'd it, and o'er the sable deepPhoenician merchants intoLemnos' port Had borne it." Iliad xxiii.742.

§ 1.2.34  Many conjectures have been hazarded as to who theErembi were: they who suppose theArabs are intended, seem to deserve the most credit. OurZeno reads the passage thus: — " I came to theEthiopians, theSidonians, and theArabians." But there is no occasion to tamper with the text, which is of great antiquity; it is a far preferable course to suppose a change in the name itself, which is of frequent and ordinary occurrence in every nation: and in fact certain grammarians establish this view by a comparison of the radical letters.Posidonius seems to me to adopt the better plan after all, in looking for the etymology of names in nations of one stock and community; thus between theArmenians, Syrians, andArabians there is a strong affinity both in regard to dialect, mode of life, peculiarities of physical conformation, and above all in the contiguity of the countries.Mesopotamia, which is a motley of the three nations, is a proof of this; for the similarity amongst these three is very remarkable. And though in consequence of the various latitudes there may be some difference between those who dwell in the north and those of the south, and again between each of these and the inhabitants of the middle region, still the same characteristics are dominant in all. Also theAssyrians andArians have a great affinity both to these people and to each other. And [Posidonius] believes there is a similarity in the names of these different nations. Those whom we call Syrians style themselvesArmenians and Arammaeans, names greatly like those of theArmenians,Arabs, andErembi. Perhaps this [last] term is that by which the Greeks anciently designated theArabs; the etymon of the word certainly strengthens the idea. Many deduce the etymology of theErembi from ἔραν ἐμβαίνειν, (to go into the earth,) which [they say] was altered by the people of a later generation into the more intelligible name ofTroglodytes, by which are intended thoseArabs who dwell on that side of theArabian Gulf next toEgypt andEthiopia. It is probable then that the poet describesMenelaus as having visited these people in the same way that he says he visited theEthiopians; for they are likewise near to theThebaid; and he mentions them not on account of any commerce or gain, (for of these there was not much,) but probably to enhance the length of the journey and his meed of praise: for such distant travelling was highly thought of. For example, — " Discover'd various cities, and the mind And manners learn'd of men in lands remote." [Od. i. 3.] And again: "After numerous toils And perilous wanderings o'er the stormy deep, In the eighth year at last I brought them home." [Od. iv. 81.]Hesiod, in his Catalogue, writes, "And the daughter ofArabus, whom graciousHermes andThronia, descended from kingBelus, brought forth." Thus, too, saysStesichorus. Whence it seems that at that time the country was from him namedArabia, though it is not likely this was the case in the heroic period.

§ 1.2.35  There are many who would make theErembi a tribe of theEthiopians, or of theCephenes, or again of thePygmies, and a thousand other fancies. These ought to be regarded with little trust; since their opinion is not only incredible, but they evidently labour under a certain confusion as to the different characters of history and fable. In the same category must be reckoned those who place theSidonians andPhoenicians in thePersian Gulf, or somewhere else in the Ocean, and make the wanderings ofMenelaus to have happened there. Not the least cause for mistrusting these writers is the manner in which they contradict each other. One half would have us believe that theSidonians are a colony from the people whom they describe as located on the shores of the [Indian] Ocean, and who they say were calledPhoenicians from the colour of theErythraean Sea, while the others declare the opposite. Some again would transportEthiopia into ourPhoenicia, and makeJoppa the scene of the adventures ofAndromeda; and this not from any ignorance of the topography of those places, but by a kind of mythic fiction similar to those ofHesiod and other writers censured byApollodorus, who, however, couplesHomer with them, without, as it appears, any cause. He cites as instances whatHomer relates of theEuxine andEgypt, and accuses him of ignorance for pretending to speak the actual truth, and then recounting fable, all the while ignorantly mistaking it for fact. Will anyone then accuseHesiod of ignorance on account of his Hemicynes, hisMacrocephali, and hisPygmies; orHomer for his like fables, and amongst others thePygmies themselves; orAlcman for describing theSteganopodes; orAeschylus for hisCynocephali, Sternophthalmi, andMonommati; when amongst prose writers, and in works bearing the appearance of veritable history, we frequently meet with similar narrations, and that without any admission of their having inserted such myths. Indeed it becomes immediately evident that they have woven together a tissue of myths not through ignorance of the real facts, but merely to amuse by a deceptive narration of the impossible and marvellous. If they appear to do this in ignorance, it is because they can romance more frequently and with greater plausibility on those things which are uncertain and unknown. ThisTheopompus plainly confesses in the announcement of his intention to relate the fables in his history in a better style thanHerodotus,Ctesias,Hellanicus, and those who had written on the affairs ofIndia.

§ 1.2.36  Homer has described to us the phenomena of the ocean under the form of a myth; this [art] is very desirable in a poet; the idea of hisCharybdis was taken from the ebb and flow of the tide, and was by no means a pure invention of his own, but derived from what he knew concerning theStrait of Sicily. And although he states that the ebb and flow occurred thrice during the four and twenty hours, instead of twice, "(Each day she thrice disgorges, and each day Thrice swallows it") we must suppose that he said this not through any ignorance of the fact, but for tragic effect, and to excite the fear whichCirce endeavours to infuse into her arguments to deterUlysses from departing, even at a little expense of truth. The following is the languageCirce makes use of in her speech to him: "Each day she thrice disgorges, and each day Thrice swallows it. Ah! well-forewarn'd beware What time she swallows, that thou come not nigh, For not himself,Neptune, could snatch thee thence." [Od. xii. 105.] And yet whenUlysses was ingulfed in the eddy he was not lost. He tells us himself, "'It was the time when she absorb'd profound The briny flood, but by a wave upborne, I seized the branches fast of the wild fig, To which bat-like I clung." And then having waited for the timbers of the wreck he seized hold of them, and thus saved himself.Circe, therefore, had exaggerated both the peril, and also the fact of its vomiting forth thrice a day instead of twice. However, this latter is a hyperbole which every one makes use of; thus we say thricehappy and thrice-miserable. So the poet, "Thrice-happy Greeks!" [Od. v. 306.] Again, "O delightful, thrice-wished for!" Iliad viii. 488. And again, "O thrice and four times." Iliad iii. 363. Any one, too, might conclude from the passage itself thatHomer even here hinted at the truth, for the long time which the remains of the wreck lay under water, whichUlysses, who was all the while hanging suspended to the branches, so anxiously desired to rise, accords much better with the ebb and flow taking place but twice during the night and day instead of thrice. " Therefore hard I clench'd the boughs, till she disgorged again Both keel and mast. Not undesired by me They came, though late; for at what hour the judge, After decision made of numerous strifes Between young candidates for honour, leaves The forum, for refreshment's sake at home, Then was it that the mast and keel emerged." [Od. xii. 437.] Every word of this indicates a considerable length of time, especially when he prolongs it to the evening, not merely saying at that time when the judge has risen, but having adjudicated on a vast number of cases, and therefore detained longer than usual. Otherwise his account of the return of the wreck would not have appeared likely, if he had brought it back again with the return of the wave, before it had been first carried a long way off.

§ 1.2.37  Apollodorus, who agrees withEratosthenes, throws much blame uponCallimachus for asserting, in spite of his character as a grammarian, thatGaudus andCorcyra were among the scenes ofUlysses' wandering, such an opinion being altogether in defiance ofHomer's statement, and his description of the places as situated in the exterior ocean. This criticism is just if we suppose the wandering to have never actually occurred, and to be merely the result ofHomer's imagination; but if it did take place, although in other regions,Apollodorus ought plainly to have stated which they were, and thus set right the mistake ofCallimachus. Since, however, after such evidence as we have produced, we cannot believe the whole account to be a fiction, and since no other more likely places have as yet been named, we hold that the grammarian is absolved from blame.

§ 1.2.38  Demetrius ofSkepsis is also wrong, and, in fact, the cause of some of the mistakes ofApollodorus. He eagerly objects to the statement ofNeanthes ofCyzicus, that theArgonauts, when they sailed to thePhasis, instituted atCyzicus the rites of theIdaean Mother. Though their voyage is attested both byHomer and other writers, he denies thatHomer had any knowledge whatever of the departure ofJason to thePhasis. In so doing, he not only contradicts the very words ofHomer, but even his own assertions. The poet informs us thatAchilles, having ravagedLesbos and other districts, sparedLemnos and the adjoining islands, on account of his relationship withJason and his sonEuneos, who then had possession of the island. How should he know of a relationship, identity of race, or other connexion existing betweenAchilles andJason, which, after all, was nothing else than that they were bothThessalians, one being ofIolcos, the other of theAchaean Phthiotis, and yet was not aware how it happened thatJason, who was aThessalian ofIolcos, should leave no descendants in the land of his nativity, but establish his son as ruler ofLemnos?Homer then was familiar with the history ofPelias and the daughters ofPelias, ofAlcestis, who was the most charming of them all, and of her son "Eumelus, whomAlcestis, praised For beauty above all her sisters fair, InThessaly to kingAdmetus bore," Iliad ii. 714. and was yet ignorant of all that befellJason, andArgo, and theArgonauts, matters on the actual occurrence of which all the world is agreed. The tale then of their voyage in the ocean fromAeeta, was a mere fiction, for which he had no authority in history.

§ 1.2.39  If, however, the expedition to thePhasis, fitted out byPelias, its return, and the conquest of several islands, have at the bottom any truth whatever, as all say they have, so also has the account of their wanderings, no less than those ofUlysses andMenelaus; monuments of the actual occurrence of which remain to this day elsewhere than in the writings ofHomer. The city ofAea, close by thePhasis, is still pointed out.Aeetes is generally believed to have reigned inColchis, the name is still common throughout the country, tales of the sorceressMedea are yet abroad, and the riches of the country in gold, silver, and iron, proclaim the motive ofJason's expedition, as well as of that whichPhrixus had formerly undertaken. Traces both of one and the other still remain. Such is Phrixium, midway betweenColchis andIberia, and theJasonia, or towns ofJason, which are everywhere met with inArmenia,Media, and the surrounding countries. Many are the witnesses to the reality of the expeditions ofJason andPhrixus atSinope and its shore, atPropontis, at theHellespont, and even atLemnos. OfJason and hisColchian followers there are traces even as far asCrete,Italy, and theAdriatic.Callimachus himself alludes to it where he says, "AigletenAnaphe, Near toLaconianThera." In the verses which commence, "I sing how the heroes from CytaeanAeeta, Return'd again to ancientAemonia." And again concerning theColchians, who, "Ceasing to plough with oars theIllyrian Sea,
Near to the tomb of fairHarmonia,
Who was transform'd into a dragon's shape,
Founded their city, which a Greek would call
The Town of Fugitives, but in their tongue
IsPola named." Some writers assert thatJason and his companions sailed high up theIster, others say he sailed only so far as to be able to gain theAdriatic: the first statement results altogether from ignorance; the second, which supposes there is a secondIster having its source from the larger river of the same name, and discharging its waters into theAdriatic, is neither incredible nor even improbable.

§ 1.2.40  Starting from these premises, the poet, in conformity both with general custom and his own practice, narrates some circumstances as they actually occurred, and paints others in the colours of fiction. He follows history when he tells us ofAeetes andJason also, when he talks ofArgo, and on the authority of [the actual city ofAea], feigns his city ofAeaea, when he settlesEuneos inLemnos, and makes that island friendly toAchilles, and when, in imitation ofMedea, he makes the sorceressCirce " Sister by birth of the all-wiseAeetes," [Od. x. 137.] he adds the fiction of the entrance of theArgonauts into the exterior ocean as the sequel to their wanderings on their return home. Here, supposing the previous statements admitted, the truth of the phrase "the renownedArgo," is evident, since, in that case, the expedition was directed to a populous and well-known country. But if, as [Demetrius] theSkepsian asserts, on the authority ofMimnermus,Aeetes dwelt by the Ocean, andJason was sent thither far east byPelias, to bring back the fleece, it neither seems probable that such an expedition would have been undertaken into unknown and obscure countries after the Fleece, nor could a voyage to lands desert, uninhabited, and so far remote from us, be considered either glorious or renowned. [Here follow the words ofDemetrius.] "Nor as yet hadJason, having accomplished the arduous journey, carried off the splendid fleece fromAea, fulfilling the dangerous mission of the insolentPelias, nor had they ploughed the glorious wave of the ocean." And again: "The city ofAeetes, where the rays of the swift sun recline on their golden bed by the shore of the ocean, which the nobleJason visited."

§ 1.3.1  Eratosthenes is guilty of another fault in so frequently referring to the works of men beneath his notice, sometimes for the purpose of refuting them; at others, when he agrees with them, in order to cite them as authorities. I allude toDamastes, and such as him, who even when they speak the truth, are utterly unworthy of being appealed to as authorities, or vouchers for the credibility of a statement. For such purposes the writings of trustworthy men should only be employed, who have accurately described much; and though perhaps they may have omitted many points altogether, and barely touched on others, are yet never guilty of wilfully falsifying their statements. To citeDamastes as an authority is little better than to quote theBergaean, orEuemerus theMessenian, and those other scribblers whomEratosthenes himself sneers at for their absurdities. Why, he even points out as one of the follies of thisDamastes, his observation that theArabian Gulf was a lake; likewise the statement thatDiotimus, the son of Strombicus and chief of theAthenian legation, sailed throughCilicia up theCydnus into the riverChoaspes, which flows bySusa, and so arrived at that capital after forty days' journey. This particular he professes to state on the authority ofDiotimus himself, and then expresses his wonder whether theCydnus could actually cross theEuphrates andTigris in order to disgorge itself into theChoaspes.

§ 1.3.2  However, this is not all we have to say against him. Of many places he tells us that nothing is known, when in fact they have every one been accurately described. Then he warns us to be very cautious in believing what we are told on such matters, and endeavours by long and tedious arguments to show the value of his advice; swallowing at the same time the most ridiculous absurdities himself concerning theEuxine andAdriatic. Thus he believed theGulf of Issos to be the most easterly point of the Mediterranean, thoughDioscurias, which is nearly at the bottom of thePontus Euxinus, is, according to his own calculations, farther east by a distance of 3000 stadia. In describing the northern and farther parts of theAdriatic he cannot refrain from similar romancing, and gives credit to many strange narrations concerning what lies beyond thePillars of Hercules, informing us of an Isle ofKerne there, and other places now nowhere to be found, which we shall speak of presently. Having remarked that the ancients, whether out onpiratical excursions, or for the purposes of commerce, never ventured into the high seas, but crept along the coast, and instancingJason, who leaving his vessels atColchis penetrated intoArmenia andMedia on foot, he proceeds to tell us that formerly no one dared to navigate either theEuxine or the seas byLibya,Syria, andCilicia. If by formerly he means periods so long past that we possess no record of them, it is of little consequence to us whether they navigated those seas or not, but if [he speaks] of times of which we know any thing, and if we are to place any trust in the accounts which have come down to us, every one will admit that the ancients appear to have made longer journeys both by sea and land than their successors; witnessBacchus,Hercules, nayJason himself, and againUlysses andMenelaus, of whomHomer tells us. It seems most probable thatTheseus andPirithous are indebted to some long voyages for the credit they afterwards obtained of having visited the infernal regions; and in like manner theDioscuri gained the appellation of guardians of the sea, and the deliverers of sailors. The sovereignty of the seas exercised byMinos, and the navigation carried on by thePhoenicians, is well known. A little after the period of theTrojan War they had penetrated beyond thePillars of Hercules, and founded cities as well there as to the midst of the African coast. Is it not correct to number amongst the ancientsAeneas,Antenor, theHeneti, and all the crowd of warriors, who, after the destruction ofTroy, wandered over the face of the whole earth? For at the conclusion of the war both the Greeks and Barbarians found themselves deprived, the one of their livelihood at home, the other of the fruits of their expedition; so that whenTroy was overthrown, the victors, and still more the vanquished, who had survived the conflict, were compelled by want to a life ofpiracy; and we learn that they became the founders of many cities along the sea-coast beyond Greece, besides several inland settlements.

§ 1.3.3  Again, having discoursed on the advance of knowledge respecting the Geography of the inhabited earth, between the time ofAlexander and the period when he was writing,Eratosthenes goes into a description of the figure of the earth; not merely of the habitable earth, an account of which would have been very suitable, but of the whole earth, which should certainly have been given too, but not in this disorderly manner. He proceeds to tell us that the earth is spheroidal, not however perfectly so, inasmuch as it has certain irregularities, he then enlarges on the successive changes of its form, occasioned by water, fire, earthquakes, eruptions, and the like; all of which is entirely out of place, for the spheroidal form of the whole earth is the result of the system of the universe, and the phenomena which he mentions do not in the least change its general form; such little matters being entirely lost in the great mass of the earth. Still they cause various peculiarities in different parts of our globe, and result from a variety of causes.

§ 1.3.4  He points out as a most interesting subject for disquisition the fact of our finding, often quite inland, two or three thousand stadia from the sea, vast numbers of muscle, oyster, and scallop-shells, and salt-water lakes. He gives as an instance, that about the sanctuary ofAmmon, and along the road to it for the space of 3000 stadia, there are yet found a vast amount of oyster shells, many salt-beds, and salt springs bubbling up, besides which are pointed out numerous fragments of wreck which they say have been cast up through some opening, anddolphins placed on pedestals with the inscription, Of the delegates fromCyrene. Herein he agrees with the opinion ofStrato the natural philosopher, andXanthus ofLydia.Xanthus mentioned that in the reign ofArtaxerxes there was so great a drought, that every river, lake, and well was dried up: and that in many places he had seen a long way from the sea fossil shells, some like cockles, others resembling scallop shells, also salt lakes inArmenia,Matiana, and LowerPhrygia, which induced him to believe that sea had formerly been where the land now was.Strato, who went more deeply into the causes of these phenomena, was of opinion that formerly there was no exit to theEuxine as now atByzantium, but that the rivers running into it had forced a way through, and thus let the waters escape into thePropontis, and thence to theHellespont. And that a like change had occurred in the Mediterranean. For the sea being overflowed by the rivers, had opened for itself a passage by thePillars of Hercules, and thus, much that was formerly covered by water, had been left dry. He gives as the cause of this, that anciently the levels of the Mediterranean andAtlantic were not the same, and states that a bank of earth, the remains of the ancient separation of the two seas, is still stretched under water from Europe to Africa. He adds, that theEuxine is the most shallow, and the seas ofCrete,Sicily, andSardinia much deeper, which is occasioned by the number of large rivers flowing into theEuxine both from the north and east, and so filling it up with mud, whilst the others preserve their depth. This is the cause of the remarkable sweetness of theEuxine Sea, and of the currents which regularly set towards the deepest part. He gives it as his opinion, that should the rivers continue to flow in the same direction, theEuxine will in time be filled up [by the deposits], since already the left side of the sea is little else than shallows, as alsoSalmydessus, and the shoals at the mouth of theIster, and the desert ofScythia, which the sailors call the Breasts. Probably too the sanctuary ofAmmon was originally close to the sea, though now, by the continual deposit of the waters, it is quite inland: and he conjectures that it was owing to its being so near the sea that it became so celebrated and illustrious, and that it never would have enjoyed the credit it now possesses had it always been equally remote from the sea.Egypt too [he says] was formerly covered by sea as far as the marshes nearPelusium, MountCasius, and the LakeSirbonis. Even at the present time, when salt is being dug inEgypt, the beds are found under layers of sand and mingled with fossil shells, as if this district had formerly been under water, and as if the whole region aboutCasium andGerrha had been shallows reaching to theArabian Gulf. The sea afterwards receding left the land uncovered, and the LakeSirbonis remained, which having afterwards forced itself a passage, became a marsh. In like manner the borders of the LakeMoeris resemble a sea-beach rather than the banks of a river. Every one will admit that formerly at various periods a great portion of the mainland has been covered and again left bare by the sea. Likewise that the land now covered by the sea is not all on the same level, any more than that whereon we dwell; which is now uncovered and has experienced so many changes, asEratosthenes has observed. Consequently in the reasoning ofXanthus there does not appear to be any thing out of place.

§ 1.3.5  In regard toStrato, however, we must remark that, leaving out of the question the many arguments he has properly stated, some of those which he has brought forward are quite inadmissible. For first he is inaccurate in stating that the beds of the interior and the exterior seas have not the same level, and that the depth of those two seas is different: whereas the cause why the sea is at one time raised, at another depressed, that it inundates certain places and again retreats, is not that the beds have different levels, some higher and some lower, but simply this, that the same beds are at one time raised, at another depressed, causing the sea to rise or subside with them; for having risen they cause an inundation, and when they subside the waters return to their former places. For if it is so, an inundation will of course accompany every sudden increase of the waters of the sea, [as in the spring-tides, ] or the periodical swelling of rivers, in the one instance the waters being brought together from distant parts of the ocean, in the other, their volume being increased. But the risings of rivers are not violent and sudden, nor do the tides continue any length of time, nor occur irregularly; nor yet along the coasts of our sea do they cause inundations, nor any where else. Consequently we must seek for an explanation of the cause either in the stratum composing the bed of the sea, or in that which is overflowed; we prefer to look for it in the former, since by reason of its humidity it is more liable to shiftings and sudden changes of position, and we shall find that in these matters the wind is the great agent after all. But, I repeat it, the immediate cause of these phenomena, is not in the fact of one part of the bed of the ocean being higher or lower than another, but in the upheaving or depression of the strata on which the waters rest.Strato's hypothesis evidently originated in the belief that that which occurs in rivers is also the case in regard to the sea; viz. that there is a flow of water from the higher places. Otherwise he would not have attempted to account for the current he observed at the Strait ofByzantium in the manner he does, attributing it to the bed of theEuxine being higher than that of thePropontis and adjoining ocean, and even attempting to explain the cause thereof: viz. that the bed of theEuxine is filled up and choked by the deposit of the rivers which flow into it; and its waters in consequence driven out into the neighbouring sea. The same theory he would apply in respect to the Mediterranean andAtlantic, alleging that the bed of the former is higher than that of the latter, in consequence of the number of rivers which flow into it, and the alluvium they carry along with them. In that case there ought to be a like influx at thePillars andCalpe, as there is atByzantium. But I waive this objection, as it might be asserted that the influx was the same in both places, but owing to the interference of the ebb and flow of the sea, became imperceptible.

§ 1.3.6  I rather make this inquiry: — If there were any reason why, before the outlet was opened atByzantium, the bed of theEuxine (being deeper than either that of thePropontis or of the adjoining sea) should not gradually have become more shallow by the deposit of the rivers which flow into it, allowing it formerly either to have been a sea, or merely a vast lake greater than thePalus Maeotis? This proposition being conceded, I would next ask, whether before this the bed of theEuxine would not have been brought to the same level as thePropontis, and in that case, the pressure being counterpoised, the overflowing of the water have been thus avoided; and if after theEuxine had been filled up, the superfluous waters would not naturally have forced a passage and flowed off, and by their commingling and power have caused theEuxine andPropontis to flow into each other, and thus become one sea? no matter, as I said above, whether formerly it were a sea or a lake, though latterly certainly a sea. This also being conceded, they must allow that the present efflux depends neither upon the elevation nor the inclination of the bed, asStrato's theory would have us consider it.

§ 1.3.7  We would apply the same arguments to the whole of the Mediterranean andAtlantic, and account for the efflux of the former, not by any [supposed] difference between the elevation and inclination of its bed and of that of theAtlantic, but attribute it to the number of rivers which empty themselves into it. Since, according to this supposition, it is not incredible that, had the whole of the Mediterranean Sea in times past been but a lake filled by the rivers, and having overflowed, it might have broken through the Strait at thePillars, as through a cataract; and still continuing to swell more and more, theAtlantic in course of time would have become confluent by that channel, and have run into one level, the Mediterranean thus becoming a sea. In fine, the Physician did wrong in comparing the sea to rivers, for the latter are borne down as a descending stream, but the sea always maintains its level. The currents of straits depend upon other causes, not upon the accumulation of earth formed by the alluvial deposit from rivers, filling up the bed of the sea. This accumulation only goes on at the mouths of rivers. Such are what are called the Stethe or Breasts at the mouth of theIster, the desert of theScythians, andSalmydessus, which are partially occasioned by other winter-torrents as well; witness the sandy, low, and even coast ofColchis, at the mouth of thePhasis, the whole of the coast ofThemiscyra, named the plain of theAmazons, near the mouths of theThermodon andIris, and the greater part ofSidene. It is the same with other rivers, they all resemble theNile in forming an alluvial deposit at their mouths, some more, some less than others. Those rivers which carry but little soil with them deposit least, while others, which traverse an extended and soft country, and receive many torrents in their course, deposit the greatest quantity. Such for example is the riverPyramus, by whichCilicia has been considerably augmented, and concerning which an oracle has declared, "This shall occur when the wide waters of thePyramus have enlarged their banks as far as sacredCyprus." This river becomes navigable from the middle of the plains ofCataonia, and enteringCilicia by the defiles of theTaurus, discharges itself into the sea which flows between that country and the island ofCyprus.

§ 1.3.8  These river deposits are prevented from advancing further into the sea by the regularity of the ebb and flow, which continually drive them back. For after the manner of living creatures, which go on inhaling and exhaling their breath continually, so the sea in a like way keeps up a constant motion in and out of itself. Any one may observe who stands on the sea-shore when the waves are in motion, the regularity with which they cover, then leave bare, and then again cover up his feet. This agitation of the sea produces a continual movement on its surface, which even when it is most tranquil has considerable force, and so throws all extraneous matters on to the land, and "Flings forth the salt weed on the shore." Iliad ix. 7. This effect is certainly most considerable when the wind is on the water, but it continues when all is hushed, and even when it blows from land the swell is still carried to the shore against the wind, as if by a peculiar motion of the sea itself. To this the verses refer — " O'er the rocks that breast the flood Borne turgid, scatter far the showery spray," Iliad iv. 425. and, "Loud sounds the roar of waves ejected wide." Iliad xvii. 265.

§ 1.3.9  The wave, as it advances, possesses a kind of power, which some call the purging of the sea, to eject all foreign substances. It is by this force that dead bodies and wrecks are cast on shore. But on retiring it does not possess sufficient power to carry back into the sea either dead bodies, wood, or even the lightest substances, such as cork, which may have been cast out by the waves. And by this means when places next the sea fall down, being undermined by the wave, the earth and the water charged with it are cast back again; and the weight [of the mud] working at the same time in conjunction with the force of the advancing tide, it is the sooner brought to settle at the bottom, instead of being carried out far into the sea. The force of the river current ceases at a very little distance beyond its mouth. Otherwise, supposing the rivers had an uninterrupted flow, by degrees the whole ocean would be filled in from the beach onwards, by the alluvial deposits. And this would be inevitable even were theEuxine deeper than the sea ofSardinia, than which a deeper sea has never been sounded, measuring, as it does, according toPosidonius, about 1000 fathoms.

§ 1.3.10  Some, however, may be disinclined to admit this explanation, and would rather have proof from things more manifest to the senses, and which seem to meet us at every turn. Now deluges, earthquakes, eruptions of wind, and risings in the bed of the sea, these things cause the rising of the ocean, as sinking of the bottom causes it to become lower. It is not the case that small volcanic or other islands can be raised up from the sea, and not large ones, nor that all islands can, but not continents, since extensive sinkings of the land no less than small ones have been known; witness the yawning of those chasms which have ingulfed whole districts no less than their cities, as is said to have happened toBura,Bizone, and many other towns at the time of earthquakes: and there is no more reason why one should rather thinkSicily to have been disjoined from the main-land ofItaly than cast up from the bottom of the sea by the fires ofAetna, as theLipari andPithecussan Isles have been.

§ 1.3.11  However, so nice a fellow isEratosthenes, that though he professes himself a mathematician, he rejects entirely the dictum ofArchimedes, who, in his work "On Bodies in Suspension," says that all liquids when left at rest assume a spherical form, having a centre of gravity similar to that of the earth. A dictum which is acknowledged by all who have the slightest pretensions to mathematical sagacity. He says that the Mediterranean, which, according to his own description, is one entire sea, has not the same level even at points quite close to each other; and offers us the authority of engineers for this piece of folly, notwithstanding the affirmation of mathematicians that engineering is itself only one division of the mathematics. He tells us thatDemetrius intended to cut through theIsthmus of Corinth, to open a passage for his fleet, but was prevented by his engineers, who, having taken measurements, reported that the level of the sea at theGulf of Corinth was higher than atCenchreae, so that if he cut through the isthmus, not only the coasts nearAigina, but evenAigina itself, with the neighbouring islands, would be laid completely under water, while the passage would prove of little value. According toEratosthenes, it is this which occasions the current in straits, especially the current in theStrait of Sicily, where effects similar to the flow and ebb of the tide are remarked. The current there changes twice in the course of a day and night, like as in that period the tides of the sea flow and ebb twice. In theTyrrhenian sea the current which is called descendent, and which runs towards the sea ofSicily, as if it followed an inclined plane, corresponds to the flow of the tide in the ocean. We may remark, that this current corresponds to the flow both in the time of its commencement and cessation. For it commences at the rising and setting of the moon, and recedes when that satellite attains its meridian, whether above [in the zenith] or below the earth [in the nadir]. In the same way occurs the opposite or ascending current, as it is called. It corresponds to the ebb of the ocean, and commences as soon as the moon has reached either zenith or nadir, and ceases the moment she reaches the point of her rising or setting. [So farEratosthenes.]

§ 1.3.12  The nature of the ebb and flow has been sufficiently treated of byPosidonius andAthenodorus. Concerning the flux and reflux of the currents, which also may be explained by physics, it will suffice our present purpose to observe, that in the various straits these do not resemble each other, but each strait has its own peculiar current. Were they to resemble each other,. the current at theStrait of Sicily would not change merely twice during the day, (asEratosthenes himself tells us it does,) and atChalcis seven times; nor again that ofConstantinople, which does not change at all, but runs always in one direction from theEuxine to thePropontis, and, asHipparchus tells us, sometimes ceases altogether. However, if they did all depend on one cause, it would not be that whichEratosthenes has assigned, namely, that the various seas have different levels. The kind of inequality he supposes would not even be found in rivers only for the cataracts; and where these cataracts occur, they occasion no ebbing, but have one continued downward flow, which is caused by the inclination both of the flow and the surface; and therefore though they have no flux or reflux they do not remain still, on account of a principle of flowing which is inherent in them; at the same time they cannot be on the same level, but one must be higher and one lower than another. But who ever imagined the surface of the ocean to be on a slope, especially those who follow a system which supposes the four bodies we call elementary, to be spherical. For water is not like the earth, which being of a solid nature is capable of permanent depressions and risings, but by its force of gravity spreads equally over the earth, and assumes that kind of level whichArchimedes has assigned it.

§ 1.3.13  To what we cited before concerning the sanctuary ofAmmon andEgypt,Eratosthenes adds, that to judge from appearances, MountCasius was formerly covered by sea, and the whole district now known asGerra lay under shoal water touching the bay of theErythraean Sea, but was left dry on the union of the [Mediterranean] Sea [with the ocean]. A certain amphibology lurks here under this description of the district lying under shoal water and touching the bay of theErythraean Sea; for to touch both means to be close to, and also to be in actual contact with, so that when applied to water it would signify that one flows into the other. I understand him to mean, that so long as the strait by thePillars of Hercules remained closed, these marshes covered with shoalwater extended as far as theArabian Gulf, but on that passage being forced open, the Mediterranean, discharging itself by the strait, became lower, and the land was left dry. On the other hand,Hipparchus understands by the term touching, that the Mediterranean, being over-full, flowed into theErythraean Sea, and he inquires how it could happen, that as the Mediterranean flowed out by this new vent at thePillars of Hercules, theErythraean Sea, which was all one with it, did not flow away too, and thus become lower, but has always retained the same level? and sinceEratosthenes supposes the whole exterior sea to be confluent, it follows that the Western Ocean and theErythraean Sea are all one; and thus [remarksHipparchus] as a necessary consequence, the sea beyond thePillars of Hercules, theErythraean Sea, and that also which is confluent with it, have all the same level.

§ 1.3.14  But,Eratosthenes would reply, I never said that, in consequence of the repletion of the Mediterranean, it actually flowed into theErythraean Sea, but only that it approached very near thereto: besides, it does not follow, that in one and the self-same sea, the level of its surface must be all the same; to instance the Mediterranean itself, no one, surely, will say it is of the same height atLechaion and atCenchreae. This answerHipparchus anticipated in his Critique; and being aware of the opinion ofEratosthenes, was justified in attacking his arguments. But he ought not to have taken it for granted, that whenEratosthenes said the exterior sea was all one, he necessarily implied that its level was every where the same.

§ 1.3.15  Hipparchus rejects as false the [account] of the inscription on thedolphins "by the delegates fromCyrene," but the reason he assigns for this is insufficient, viz. that thoughCyrene was built in times of which we have record, no one mentions the oracle, as being situated on the sea-shore. But what matters it that no historian has recorded this, when amongst the other proofs from which we infer that this place was formerly on the sea-shore, we number this of thedolphins which were set up, and the inscription, "by the delegates fromCyrene?"Hipparchus agrees that if the bottom of the sea were raised up, it would lift the water with it, and might therefore overflow the land as far as the locality of the oracle, or more than 3000 stadia from the shore; but he will not allow that the rising would be sufficient to overflow the Island ofPharos and the major portion ofEgypt, since [he says] the elevation would not be sufficient to submerge these. He alleges that if before the opening of the passage at thePillars of Hercules, the Mediterranean had been swollen to such an extent asEratosthenes affirms, the whole ofLibya, and the greater part of Europe andAsia, must long ago have been buried beneath its waves. Besides, he adds, in this case theEuxine would in certain places have been connected with theAdriatic, since in the vicinity of theEuxine, [near to its source,) theIster is divided in its course, and flows into either sea, owing to the peculiarities of the ground. To this we object, that theIster does not take its rise at all in the vicinity of theEuxine, but, on the contrary, beyond the mountains of theAdriatic; neither does it flow into both the seas, but into theEuxine alone, and only becomes divided just above its mouths. This latter, however, was an error into which he fell in common with many of his predecessors. They supposed that there was another river in addition to the formerIster, bearing the same name, which emptied itself into theAdriatic, and from which the country ofIstria, through which it flowed, gained that appellation. It was by this river they believedJason returned on his voyage fromColchis.

§ 1.3.16  In order to lessen surprise at such changes as we have mentioned as causes of the inundations and other similar phenomena which are supposed to have producedSicily, the islands ofAeolus, and thePithecussae, it may be as well to compare with these others of a similar nature, which either now are, or else have been observed in other localities. A large array of such facts placed at once before the eye would serve to allay our astonishment; while that which is uncommon startles our perception, and manifests our general ignorance of the occurrences which take place in nature and physical existence. For instance, supposing any one should narrate the circumstances concerningThera and the Therasian Islands, situated in the strait betweenCrete and theCyrenaic,Thera being itself the metropolis ofCyrene; or those [in connexion with]Egypt, and many parts of Greece. For midway betweenThera andTherasia flames rushed forth from the sea for the space of four days; causing the whole of it to boil and be all on fire; and after a little an island twelve stadia in circumference, composed of the burning mass, was thrown up, as if raised by machinery. After the cessation of this phenomenon, theRhodians, then masters of the sea, were the first who dared to sail to the place, and they built there on the island a sanctuary to the AsphalianNeptune.Posidonius remarks, that during an earthquake which occurred inPhoenicia, a city situated aboveSidon was swallowed up, and that nearly two-thirds ofSidon also fell, but not suddenly, and therefore with no great loss of life. That the same occurred, though in a lighter form, throughout nearly the whole ofSyria, and was felt even in some of theCyclades and the Island ofEuboea, so that the fountains ofArethusa, a spring inChalcis, were completely obstructed, and after some time forced for themselves another opening, and the whole island ceased not to experience shocks until a chasm was rent open in the earth in the plain ofLelanto, from which poured a river of burning mud.

§ 1.3.17  Many writers have recorded similar occurrences, but it will suffice us to narrate those which have been collected byDemetrius ofSkepsis. Apropos of that passage ofHomer: — "And now they reach'd the running rivulets clear, Where fromScamander's dizzy flood arise Two fountains, tepid one, from which a smoke Issues voluminous as from a fire, The other, even in summer heats, like hail For cold, or snow, or crystal stream frost-bound: "Iliad xxii. 147. this writer tells us we must not be surprised, that although the cold spring still remains, the hot cannot be discovered; and says we must reckon the failing of the hot spring as the cause. He goes on to relate certain catastrophes recorded byDemocles, how formerly in the reign ofTantalus there were great earthquakes inLydia andIonia as far as theTroad, which swallowed up whole villages and overturned MountSipylus; marshes then became lakes, and the city ofTroy was covered by the waters.Pharos, nearEgypt, which anciently was an island, may now be called a peninsula, and the same may be said ofTyre andClazomenae. During my stay atAlexandria inEgypt the sea rose so high nearPelusium and MountCasius as to overflow the land, and convert the mountain into an island, so that a journey fromCasius intoPhoenicia might have been undertaken by water. We should not be surprised therefore if in time to come the isthmus which separates theEgyptian sea from theErythraean Sea, should part asunder or subside, and becoming a strait, connect the outer and inner seas, similarly to what has taken place at the strait of thePillars. At the commencement of this work will be found some other narrations of a similar kind, which should be considered at the same time, and which will greatly tend to strengthen our belief both in these works of nature and also in its other changes.

§ 1.3.18  ThePiraeus having been formerly an island, and lying πέραν, or off the shore, is said to have thus received its name.Leucas, on the contrary, has been made an island by theCorinthians, who cut through the isthmus which connected it with the shore [of the mainland]. It is concerning this place thatLaertes is made to say, "Oh that I possessed Such vigour now as when in arms I tookNericus, continental city fair." Here man devoted his labour to make a separation, in other instances to the construction of moles and bridges. Such is that which connects the island opposite toSyracuse with the mainland. This junction is now effected by means of a bridge, but formerly, according toIbycus, by a pier of picked stones, which he calls elect. OfBura andHelice, one has been swallowed by an earthquake, the other covered by the waves. Near toMethone, which is on theHermionic Gulf, a mountain seven stadia in height was cast up during a fiery eruption; during the day it could not be approached on account of the heat and sulphureous smell; at night it emitted an agreeable odour, appeared brilliant at a distance, and was so hot that the sea boiled all around it to a distance of five stadia, and appeared in a state of agitation for twenty stadia, the heap being formed of fragments of rock as large as towers. BothArne andMideia have been buried in the waters of LakeCopais. These towns the Poet in hisCatalogue thus speaks of; "Arne claims a record next for her illustrious sons, Vine-bearingArne. Thou wast also thereMideia." Iliad 2.507. It seems that several Thracian cities have been submerged by the LakeBistonis, and that now called Aphnitis. Some also affirm that certain cities ofTrerus were also overwhelmed, in the neighbourhood ofThrace.Artemita, formerly one of theEchinades, is now part of the mainland; the same has happened to some other of the islets near theAchelous, occasioned, it is said, in the same way, by the alluvium carried into the sea by that river, andHesiod assures us that a like fate awaits them all. Some of theAetolian promontories were formerly islands. Asteria, called byHomerAsteris, is no longer what it was.
"There is a rocky isle
In the mid-sea, betweenSamos the rude
AndIthaca, not large, namedAsteris. It hath commodious havens, into which
A passage clear opens on either side." [Odyssey 4.844] There is no good anchorage there now. Neither is there inIthaca the cavern, nor yet the sanctuary of the nymphs described to us byHomer. It seems more correct to attribute this to change having come over the places, than either to the ignorance or the romancing of the poet. This however, being uncertain, must be left to every man's opinion.

§ 1.3.19  Myrsilus tells us thatAntissa was formerly an island, and so called because it was opposite toLesbos, then namedIssa. Now, however, it forms one of the towns ofLesbos. Some have believed thatLesbos itself has been disjoined from MountIda in the same way asProchytas andPithecussa fromMisenum,Capreae from theAthenaion,Sicily fromRhegium, andOssa fromOlympus. Many changes similar to these have occurred elsewhere. The riverLadon inArcadia ceased for some time its flow.Duris informs us that theRhagae inMedia gained that appellation from chasms made in the ground near theCaspian Gates by earthquakes, in which many cities and villages were destroyed, and the rivers underwent various changes.Ion, in his satirical composition ofOmphale, has said ofEuboea, "The light wave of theEuripus has divided the land ofEuboea fromBoeotia; separating the projecting land by a strait."

§ 1.3.20  Demetrius ofCallatis, speaking of the earthquakes which formerly occurred throughout the whole of Greece, states that a great portion of theLichadian Islands and ofKenaion were submerged; that the hot springs ofAedepsus andThermopylae were suppressed for three days, and that when they commenced to run again those ofAedepsus gushed from new fountains. That atOreus on the sea-coast the wall and nearly seven hundred houses fell at once. That the greater part ofEchinus,Phalara, andHeraclaea ofTrachis were thrown down,Phalara being overturned from its very foundations. That almost the same misfortune occurred to theLamians and inhabitants ofLarissa; thatScarpheia was overthrown from its foundations, not less than one thousand seven hundred persons being swallowed up, and atThronium more than half that number. That a torrent of water gushed forth taking three directions, one toScarphe andThronium, another toThermopylae, and a third to the plains ofDaphnus inPhocis. That the springs of [many] rivers were for several days dried up; that the course of theSperchius was changed, thus rendering navigable what formerly were highways; that theBoagrius flowed through another channel; that many parts ofAlope,Cynus, andOpus were injured, and the castle ofOeum, which commands the latter city, entirely overturned. That part of the wall ofElateia was thrown down; and that atAlponus, during the celebration of the games in honour ofCeres, twenty-five maidens, who had mounted a tower to enjoy the show exhibited in the port, were precipitated into the sea by the falling of the tower. They also record that a large fissure was made [by the water] through the midst of the island ofAtalanta, oppositeEuboea, sufficient for ships to sail in; that the course of the channel was in places as broad as twenty stadia between the plains; and that a trireme being raised [thereby] out of the docks, was carried over the walls.

§ 1.3.21  Those who desire to instill into us that more perfect freedom from [ignorant] wonder, whichDemocritus and all other philosophers so highly extol, should add the changes which have been produced by the migrations of various tribes: we should thus be inspired with courage, steadiness, and composure. For instance, the WesternIberians, removed to the regions beyond theEuxine andColchis, being separated fromArmenia, according toApollodorus, by theAraxes, but rather by theCyrus and Moschican mountains. The expedition of theEgyptians intoEthiopia andColchis. The migration of theHeneti, who passed fromPaphlagonia into the country bordering on theAdriatic Gulf. Similar emigrations were also undertaken by the nations of Greece, theIonians,Dorians,Achaians, andAeolians; and theAenians, now next neighbours to theAetolians, formerly dwelt nearDotium andOssa, beyond thePerrhaebi; thePerrhaebi too are but wanderers here themselves. Our present work furnishes numerous instances of the same kind. Some of these are familiar to most readers, but the migrations of theCarians, theTreres, the Teucrians, and theGalatae orGauls, are not so generally known. Nor yet for the most part are the expeditions of their chiefs, for instance,Madys theScythian, Tearko the Ethiopian, Cobus ofTrerus,Sesostris and Psammeticus theEgyptians; nor are those of thePersians fromCyrus toXerxes familiar to every one. TheKimmerians, or a separate tribe of them, called theTreres, have frequently overrun the countries to the right of theEuxine and those adjacent to them, bursting now intoPaphlagonia, now intoPhrygia, as they did when, according to report,Midas came to his death by drinkingbull's blood.Lygdamis led his followers intoLydia, passed throughIonia, tookSardis, but was slain inCilicia. TheKimmerians andTreres frequently made similar incursions, until at last, as it is reported, these latter, together with [their chief] Cobus, were driven out byMadys, king of the "Scythians." But enough has been said in this place on the general history of the earth, as each country will have a particular account.

§ 1.3.22  We must now return to the point whence we digressed.Herodotus having observed that there could be no such people asHyperborean, inasmuch as there were noHypernotii,Eratosthenes calls this argument ridiculous, and compares it to the sophism, that there are no epichaerekaki, inasmuch as there are no epichaeragathi; [adding] perhaps there areHypernotii; since at all events inEthiopiaNotus does not blow, although lower down it does. It would indeed be strange, since winds blow under every latitude, and especially the southern wind calledNotus, if any region could be found where this latter was not felt. On the contrary, not only doesEthiopia experience ourNotus, but also the whole country which lies above as far as the equator. IfHerodotus must be blamed at all, it is for supposing that theHyperboreans were so named in consequence ofBoreas, or the north wind, not blowing upon them. The poets are allowed much licence in their modes of expression; but their commentators, who endeavour always to give us the correct view, tell us that the people who dwelt in the extreme north, were styledHyperboreans. The pole is the boundary of the northern winds, and the equator of the southern; these winds have no other limit.

§ 1.3.23  Eratosthenes next finds fault with the writers who fill their narrative with stories evidently feigned and impossible; some as mere fable, but others as history, which did not deserve mention. In the discussion of a subject like his, he should not have wasted his time about such trifles. Such is the way in which this writer completes the First Book of his Memoirs.

§ 1.4.1  IN his Second BookEratosthenes endeavours to correct some errors in geography, and offers his own views on the subject, any mistakes in which we shall endeavour in our turn to set right. He is correct in saying that the inductions of mathematics and natural philosophy should be employed, and that if the earth is spheroidal like the universe, it is inhabited in all parts; together with some other things of this nature. Later writers do not agree with him as to the size of the earth, nor admit his measurement. HoweverHipparchus, when noting the celestial appearances for each particular locality, adopts his admeasurements, saying that those taken for the meridian ofMeroe,Alexandria, and theDnieper, differ but very slightly from the truth.Eratosthenes then enters into a long discussion concerning the figure of the globe, proving that the form of the earth together with the water is spheroidal, as also the heavens. This however we imagine was foreign to his purpose, and should have been disposed of in the compass of a few words.

§ 1.4.2  After this he proceeds to determine the breadth of the habitable earth: he tells us, that measuring from the meridian ofMeroe toAlexandria, there are 10,000 stadia. From thence to theHellespont about 8100. Again; from thence to theDnieper, 5000; and thence to the parallel ofThule, whichPytheas says is six days' sail north fromBritain, and near the Frozen Sea, other 11,500. To which if we add 3400 stadia aboveMeroe in order to include the Island of theEgyptians, the Cinnamon country, andTaprobane, there will be in all 38,000 stadia.

§ 1.4.3  We will let pass the rest of his distances, since they are something near, — but that theDnieper is under the same parallel asThule, what man in his senses could ever agree to this?Pytheas, who has given us the history ofThule, is known to be a man upon whom no reliance can be placed, and other writers who have seenBritain andIerne, although they tell us of many small islands roundBritain, make no mention whatever ofThule. The length ofBritain itself is nearly the same as that ofKeltica, opposite to which it extends. Altogether it is not more than 5000 stadia in length, its outermost points corresponding to those of the opposite continent. In fact the extreme points of the two countries lie opposite to each other, the eastern extremity to the eastern, and the western to the western: the eastern points are situated so close as to be within sight of each other, both at Kent and at the mouths of theRhine. ButPytheas tells us that the island [ofBritain] is more than 20,000 stadia in length, and that Kent is some days' sail from France. With regard to the locality of theOstimii, and the countries beyond theRhine, as far asScythia, he is altogether mistaken. The veracity of a writer who has been thus false in describing countries with which we are well acquainted, should not be too much trusted in regard to unknown places.

§ 1.4.4  Further,Hipparchus and many others are of opinion that the parallel of latitude of theDnieper does not differ from that ofBritain; since that ofByzantium andMarseilles are the same. The degree of shadow from the gnomon whichPytheas states he observed atMarseilles being exactly equal to that whichHipparchus says he found atByzantium; the periods of observation being in both cases similar. Now fromMarseilles to the centre ofBritain is not more than 5000 stadia; and if from the centre ofBritain we advance north not more than 4000 stadia, we arrive at a temperature in which it is scarcely possible to exist. Such indeed is that ofIerne. Consequently the far region in whichEratosthenes placesThule must be totally uninhabitable. By what guesswork he arrived at the conclusion that between the latitude ofThule and theDnieper there was a distance of 11,500 stadia I am unable to divine.

§ 1.4.5  Eratosthenes being mistaken as to the breadth [of the habitable earth], is necessarily wrong as to its length. The most accurate observers, both ancient and modern, agree that the known length of the habitable earth is more than twice its breadth. Its length I take to be from the [eastern] extremity ofIndia to the [westernmost] point of Spain; and its breadth from [the south of]Ethiopia to the latitude ofIerne.Eratosthenes, as we have said, reckoning its breadth from the extremity ofEthiopia toThule, was forced to extend its length beyond the true limits, that he might make it more than twice as long as the breadth he had assigned to it. He says thatIndia, measured where it is narrowest, is 16,000 stadia to the riverIndus. If measured from its most prominent capes it extends 3000 more. Thence to theCaspian Gates, 14,000. From theCaspian Gates to theEuphrates, 10,000. From theEuphrates to theNile, 5000. Thence to theCanopic mouth, 1300. From theCanopic mouth toCarthage, 13,500. From thence to thePillars at least 8000. Which make in all 70,800 stadia. To these [he says] should be added the curvature of Europe beyond thePillars of Hercules, fronting theIberians, and inclining west, not less than 3000 stadia, and the headlands, including that of theOstimii, named Cabaion, and the adjoining islands, the last of which, named Uxisama, is distant, according toPytheas, a three days' sail. But he added nothing to its length by enumerating these last, viz. the headlands, including that of theOstimii, the island of Uxisama, and the rest; they are not situated so as affect the length of the earth, for they all lie to the north, and belong toKeltica, not toIberia; indeed it seems but an invention ofPytheas. Lastly, to fall in with the general opinion that the breadth ought not to exceed half the length, he adds to the stated measure of its length 2000 stadia west, and as many east.

§ 1.4.6  Further, endeavouring to support the opinion that it is in accordance with natural philosophy to reckon the greatest dimension of the habitable earth from east to west, he says that, according to the laws of natural philosophy, the habitable earth ought to occupy a greater length from east to west, than its breadth from north to south. The temperate zone, which we have already designated as the longest zone, is that which the mathematicians denominate a continuous circle returning upon itself. So that if the extent of theAtlantic Ocean were not an obstacle, we might easily pass by sea fromIberia toIndia, still keeping in the same parallel; the remaining portion of which parallel, measured as above in stadia, occupies more than a third of the whole circle: since the parallel drawn throughAthens, on which we have taken the distances fromIndia toIberia, does not contain in the whole 200,000 stadia. Here too his reasoning is incorrect. For this speculation respecting the temperate zone which we inhabit, and whereof the habitable earth is a part, devolves properly on those who make mathematics their study. But it is not equally the province of one treating of the habitable earth. For by this term we mean only that portion of the temperate zone where we dwell, and with which we are acquainted. But it is quite possible that in the temperate zone there may be two or even more habitable earths, especially near the circle of latitude which is drawn throughAthens and theAtlantic Ocean. After this he returns to the form of the earth, which he again declares to be spheroidal. Here he exhibits the same churlishness we have previously pointed out, and goes on abusingHomer in his old style. He proceeds:

§ 1.4.7  "There has been much argument respecting the continents. Some, considering them to be divided by the riversNile andTanais, have described them as islands; while others suppose them to be peninsulas connected by the isthmuses between theCaspian and theEuxine Seas, and between theErythraean Sea andEcregma." He adds, that this question does not appear to him to be of any practical importance, but rather, asDemocritus observed, a bone of contention for angry litigants. Where there are no precise boundary marks, columns, or walls, as atColyttus andMelite, it is easy for us to say such a place isColyttus, and such anotherMelite, but not so easy to show the exact limits: thus disputes have frequently arisen concerning certain districts; that, for instance, between theArgives andLacedemonians concerning [the possession of]Thyrea, and that between theAthenians andBoeotians relative toOropus. Further, in giving names to the three continents, the Greeks did not take into consideration the whole habitable earth, but merely their own country and the land exactly opposite, namely,Caria, which is now inhabited by theIonians and other neighbouring tribes. In course of time, as they advanced further and daily became acquainted with new countries, this their division came to be general." I take this last part first, and (to useEratosthenes' own words, not those ofDemocritus) willing to pick my bone of contention, inquire, whether they who first made the division of the three continents were the same persons as those who first desired to distinguish their own land from that of theCarians opposite, or whether they were only acquainted with Greece,Caria, and some few other adjoining countries, and not with Europe,Asia, or Africa; but that others who followed them, and were able to write a description of the habitable earth, were the real authors of the division into three continents. How did he know that these were not the men who made this division of the habitable earth? And he who divided the earth into three parts, giving to each portion the name of "continent," could he not form in his mind a just idea of that taken as a whole, which he had so parcelled out. But if indeed he were not acquainted with the whole habitable earth, but merely made a division of some part thereof, pray what portion of that part did he denominateAsia, or Europe, or simply continent? Such talk is altogether nonsense.

§ 1.4.8  The reasoning ofEratosthenes, however, is still more absurd, when he declares that he sees no advantage in being acquainted with the exact boundaries of countries, and then cites the example ofColyttus andMelite, which prove just the contrary of his assertion. Surely if a want of certainty respecting the boundaries ofThyrea andOropus gave rise to war, a knowledge of the limits of different districts must be of practical importance. Will he tell us that the boundaries of districts, or the limits of kingdoms, may be of some service, but when applied to continents it is carrying the matter too far. We reply, it is of equal consequence here. Suppose a dispute between two powerful princes, one claiming the possession ofAsia and the other of Africa, to which of these shouldEgypt, I mean the country called LowerEgypt, appertain. Will any one paws over such cases on account of their rarity? By no means. It is acknowledged by every one that the limits of each continent ought to be defined by some notable boundary, indicated by the configuration of the whole habitable earth. In following out this principle, we should not be very particular if they who determine boundaries by the rivers leave some districts undefined, since the rivers do not reach from sea to sea, nor leave the continents altogether as islands.

§ 1.4.9  At the close of the bookEratosthenes blames the system of those who would divide all mankind into Greeks and Barbarians, and likewise those who recommendedAlexander to treat the Greeks as friends, but the Barbarians as enemies. He suggests, as a better course, to distinguish them according to their virtues and their vices, "since amongst the Greeks there are many worthless characters, and many highly civilized are to be found amongst the Barbarians; witness theIndians andAriani, or still better the Romans andCarthaginians, whose political system is so beautifully perfect.Alexander, considering this, disregarded the advice which had been offered him, and patronized without distinction any man he considered to be deserving." But we would inquire whether those men who thus divided the human race, abandoning one portion to contempt, and exalting to dignity the other, were not actuated to this because they found that on one side justice, knowledge, and the force of reason reigned supreme, but their contraries on the other.Alexander did not disregard the advice tendered him, but gladly embraced and followed it, respecting the wisdom of those who gave it; and so far from taking the opposite course, he closely pursued that which they pointed out.

§ 2.1.1  IN the Third Book of his GeographyEratosthenes furnishes us with a chart of the habitable earth. This he divides into two portions, by a line running from east to west parallel to the equator. He makes thePillars of Hercules the boundary of this line to the west, and to the east the farthest ridges of those mountains which boundIndia on the north. From thePillars he draws the line through theStrait of Sicily, and the southern extremities ofPeloponnesus andAttica, toRhodes and theGulf of Issos. He says, "Through the whole of this distance the line mentioned is drawn across the sea and adjacent continents; the whole length of the Mediterranean as far asCilicia extending in that direction. Thence it runs nearly in a straight line along the whole chain of theTaurus toIndia. TheTaurus continuing in a straight line from thePillars dividesAsia through its whole length into two halves, north and south. So that both theTaurus and the sea from thePillars hither lie under the parallel ofAthens."

§ 2.1.2  He then declares that the ancient geographical chart wants revision; that in it the eastern portion of theTaurus is made to run too far north,India itself being also too much drawn in the same direction. One proof which he offers in support of this is, that the most southern extremities ofIndia are under the same latitude asMeroe, as attested by many, both from astronomical observations and the temperature of the climate. From thence to the most northerly point by the mountains of theCaucasus, there are 15,000 stadia, according toPatrocles, a writer whom we are bound to believe, both on account of his worth, and the vast amount of his geographical attainments. Now since the distance fromMeroe to the parallel ofAthens is nearly the same, the most northerly points ofIndia next to theCaucasian mountains ought to be under the same degree of latitude.

§ 2.1.3  But there is another method (saysEratosthenes) of proving this. The distance from theGulf of Issos to theEuxine, proceeding in a northerly direction towardsAmisus andSinope, is about 3000 stadia, which is as much as the supposed extent of the mountains [of theTaurus]. The traveller who directs his course fromAmisus due east, arrives first atColchis, then at the high lands by theHyrcanian Sea, afterwards at the road leading toBactra, and beyond to theScythians; having the mountains always on the right. The same line drawn throughAmisus westward, crosses thePropontis andHellespont. FromMeroe to theHellespont there are not more than 18,000 stadia. The distance is just the same from the southern extremity ofIndia to the land ofBactria, if we add to the 15,000 stadia of that country the 3000 which its mountains occupy in breadth.

§ 2.1.4  Hipparchus tries to invalidate this view ofEratosthenes, by sneering at the proofs on which it rests.Patrocles, he says, merits little credit, being contradicted by the two writersDeimachus andMegasthenes, who say that the distance taken from the southern ocean, is in some places 20,000, in others 30,000 stadia; that in this assertion they are supported by the ancient charts, and he considers it absurd to require us to put implicit faith inPatrocles alone, when there is so much testimony against him; or that the ancient charts should be corrected; but rather that they should be left as they are until we have something more certain on the subject.

§ 2.1.5  This argument, I think, is in many instances unfounded.Eratosthenes availed himself of the statements of many writers, althoughHipparchus alleges he was solely led byPatrocles. Who then are the authors of the statement that the southern extremity ofIndia is under the same parallel asMeroe; and who are they who estimate the distance fromMeroe to the parallel passing throughAthens? Or who, again, were those who asserted that the whole breadth occupied by the mountains was equal to the distance fromCilicia toAmisus? Or who made known that, travelling fromAmisus, the course lay in a straight line due east throughColchis, the [sea of]Hyrcania, so on toBactria, and beyond this to the eastern ocean, the mountains being always on the right hand; and that this same line carried west in a straight line, traverses thePropontis and theHellespont? These thingsEratosthenes advances on the testimony of men who had been on the spot, and from the study of those numerous memoirs which he had for reference in that noble library whichHipparchus himself acknowledges to be gigantic.

§ 2.1.6  Besides, the credibility ofPatrocles can be proved by a variety of evidence — the princes who confided to him so important trusts — the authors who follow his statements — and those, too, who criticise them, whose namesHipparchus has recorded. Since whenever these are refuted, the credit ofPatrocles is by so much advanced. Nor doesPatrocles appear to state any thing improbable when he says that the army ofAlexander took but a very hasty view of every thing [inIndia], butAlexander himself a more exact one, causing the whole country to be described by men well acquainted with it. Which description he says was afterwards put into his hands byXenocles the treasurer.

§ 2.1.7  Again, in the second volume of his Commentaries,Hipparchus accusesEratosthenes of himself throwing discredit on the statement ofPatrocles, on account of his differing withMegasthenes, as to the length ofIndia on its northern side;Megasthenes stating the length at 16,000 stadia, andPatrocles at 1000 less. Being biassed by a certain Itinerary,Eratosthenes was led to reject them both on account of this discrepancy, and to follow the Itinerary. If then merely the difference of 1000 stadia is sufficient to cause the authority ofPatrocles to be rejected, how much more should this be the case when we find a difference of 8000 stadia between his statement and that of two writers who agree perfectly in theirs, that the breadth ofIndia is 20,000 stadia, while he gives only 12,000!

§ 2.1.8  We reply, that [Eratosthenes] did not object [to the statement ofPatrocles] merely because it differed [from that ofMegasthenes], but because the statement of this latter as to the stadia was confirmed by the Itinerary, an authority of no mean importance. There is nothing wonderful in this, that though a certain statement may be credible, another may be more credible; and that while in some instances we follow the former, in others we may dissent from it on finding a more trust-worthy guide. It is ridiculous to say that the greater the difference of one writer from others, the less he should be trusted. On the contrary, such a rule would be more applicable in regard to small differences; for in little particulars the ordinary observer and the man of great ability are equally liable to err. On the other hand, in great matters, the ordinary run of men are more like to be deceived than the man of superior talent, to whom consequently in such cases greater deference is paid.

§ 2.1.9  Generally speaking, the men who hitherto have written on the affairs ofIndia, were a set of liars.Deimachus holds the first place in the list,Megasthenes comes next, whileOnesicritus andNearchus, with others of the same class, manage to stammer out a few words [of truth]. Of this we became the more convinced whilst writing the history ofAlexander. No faith whatever can be placed inDeimachus andMegasthenes. They coined the fables concerning men with ears large enough to sleep in, men without any mouths, without noses, with only one eye, withspider-legs, and with fingers bent backward. They renewedHomer's fable concerning thebattles of the Cranes andPygmies, and asserted the latter to be three spans high. They told of ants digging for gold, of Pans with wedge-shaped heads, ofserpents swallowing downoxen and stags, horns and all; meantime, asEratosthenes has observed, reciprocally accusing each other of falsehood. Both of these men were sent ambassadors toPalimbothra, —Megasthenes toSandrocottus,Deimachus to Allitrochades his son; and such are the notes of their residence abroad, which, I know not why, they thought fit to leave.Patrocles certainly does not resemble them; nor do any other of the authorities consulted byEratosthenes contain such absurdities.

§ 2.1.10  If the meridian ofRhodes andByzantium has been rightly determined to be the same, then that ofCilicia andAmisus has likewise been rightly determined; many observations having proved that the lines are parallel, and that they never impinge on each other.

§ 2.1.11  In like manner, that the voyage fromAmisus toColchis, and the route to theCaspian, and thence on toBactra, are both due east, is proved by the winds, the seasons, the fruits, and even the sun-risings. Frequently evidence such as this, and general agreement, are more to be relied on than the measurement taken by means of instruments.Hipparchus himself was not wholly indebted to instruments and geometrical calculations for his statement that thePillars andCilicia lie in a direct line due east. For that part of it included between thePillars and theStrait of Sicily he rests entirely on the assertion of sailors. It is therefore incorrect to say that, because we cannot exactly determine the duration of the longest and shortest days, nor the degree of shadow of the gnomon throughout the mountainous region betweenCilicia andIndia, that therefore we are unable to decide whether the line traced obliquely on the ancient charts should or should not be parallel, and consequently must leave it unreformed, keeping it oblique as the ancient charts have it. For in the first place, not to determine any thing is to leave it undetermined; and to leave a thing undetermined, is neither to take one view of the matter nor the other: but to agree to leave it as the ancients have, that is to take a view of the case. It would have been more consistent with his reasoning, if he had told us to leave Geography alone altogether, since we are similarly unable to determine the position of theAlps, thePyrenees, and the mountains ofThrace,Illyria, andGermania. Wherefore should we give more credit to the ancient writers than to the modern, when we call to mind the numerous errors of their charts which have been pointed out byEratosthenes, and whichHipparchus has not attempted to defend.

§ 2.1.12  But the system ofHipparchus altogether teems with difficulties. Reflect for an instant on the following absurdity; after admitting that the southern extremity ofIndia is under the same degree of latitude asMeroe, and that the distance fromMeroe to the Strait ofByzantium is about 18,000 stadia, lie then makes the distance from the southern extremity ofIndia to the mountains 30,000 stadia. SinceByzantium andMarseilles are under the same parallel of latitude, asHipparchus tells us they are, on the authority ofPytheas, and sinceByzantium and theDnieper have also the same meridian, asHipparchus equally assures us, if we take his assertion that there is a distance of 3700 stadia betweenByzantium and theDnieper, there will of course be a like difference between the latitude ofMarseilles and theDnieper. This would make the latitude of theDnieper identical with that ofKeltica next the Ocean; for on proceeding 3700 stadia [north ofMarseilles ], we reach the ocean.

§ 2.1.13  Again, we know that the Cinnamon Country is the most southerly point of the habitable earth. According toHipparchus's own statement, the latitude of this country, which marks the commencement of the temperate zone, and likewise of the habitable earth, is distant from the equator about 8800 stadia. And since he likewise says that from the equator to the parallel of theDnieper there are 34,000 stadia, there will remain a distance of 25,200 stadia between the parallel of theDnieper (which is the same as that which passes over the side ofKeltica next the Ocean) to that which separates the torrid from the temperate zone. It is said that the farthest voyages now made north ofKeltica are toIerne, which lies beyondBritain, and, on account of its extreme cold, barely sustains life; beyond this it is thought to be uninhabitable. Now the distance betweenKeltica andIerne is estimated at not more than 5000 stadia; so that on this view they must have estimated the whole breadth of the habitable earth at 30,000 stadia, or just above.

§ 2.1.14  Let us then transport ourselves to the land opposite the Cinnamon Country, and lying to the east under the same parallel of latitude; we shall there find the country namedTaprobane. ThisTaprobane is universally believed to be a large island situated in the high seas, and lying to the south oppositeIndia. Its length in the direction ofEthiopia is above 5000 stadia, as they say. There are brought from thence to theIndian markets, ivory, tortoise-shells, and other wares in large quantities. Now if this island is broad in proportion to its length, we cannot suppose that the whole distance, inclusive of the space which separates it fromIndia, is less than 3000 stadia, which is equal to the distance of the southern extremity of the habitable earth fromMeroe, since the [southern] extremities ofIndia andMeroe are under the same parallel. It is likely there are more than 3000 stadia, but taking this number, if we add thereto the 30,000 stadia, whichDeimachus states there are between [the southern extremity ofIndia] and the country of theBactrians andSogdians, we shall find both of these nations lie beyond the temperate zone and habitable earth. Who will venture to affirm such to be the case, hearing, as they must, the statement made both by ancients and moderns of the genial climate and fertility of northernIndia,Hyrcania,Aria,Margiana, andBactriana also? These countries are all equally close to the northern side of theTaurus,Bactriana being contiguous to that part of the chain which forms the boundary ofIndia. A country blessed with such advantages must be very far from uninhabitable. It is said that inHyrcania each vine produces a metrete of wine, and each fig tree 60 medimni of fruit. That the grains of wheat which fall from the husk on to the earth spring up the year following; thatbee-hives are in the trees, and the leaves flow with honey. The same may be met with in the part ofMedia calledMatiana, and also in Sacasena and Araxena, countries ofArmenia. In these three it is not so much to be wondered at, since they lie more to the south thanHyrcania, and surpass the rest of the country in the beauty of their climate; but inHyrcania it is more remarkable. It is said that inMargiana you may frequently meet with a vine whose stock would require two men with outstretched arms to clasp it, and clusters of grapes two cubits long.Aria is described as similarly fertile, the wine being still richer, and keeping perfectly for three generations in unpitched casks.Bactriana, which adjoinsAria, abounds in the same productions, if we except olives.

§ 2.1.15  That there are cold regions in the high and mountainous parts of these countries is not to be wondered at; since in the [more] southern climates the mountains, and even the tablelands, are cold. The districts next theEuxine, inCappadocia, are much farther north than those adjoining theTaurus. Bagadania, a vast plain, situated between the mountains ofArgaeus andTaurus, hardly produces any fruit trees, although south of theEuxine Sea by 3000 stadia; while the territory roundSinope,Amisus, andPhanaroea abounds in olives. TheOxus, which dividesBactriana fromSogdiana, is said to be of such easy navigation that the wares ofIndia are brought up it into the sea ofHyrcania, and thence successively by various other rivers to the districts near theEuxine.

§ 2.1.16  Can one find any fertility to compare with this near to theDnieper, or that part ofKeltica next the ocean, where the vine either does not grow at all, or attains no maturity. However, in the more southerly portions of these districts, close to the sea, and those next theBosphorus, the vine brings its fruit to maturity, although the grapes are exceedingly small, and the vines are covered up all the winter. And in the parts near the mouth of thePalus Maeotis, the frost is so strong that a general ofMithridates defeated the barbarians here in a cavalry engagement during the winter, and on the very same spot in a naval fight in summer, when the ice was thawed.Eratosthenes furnishes us with the following inscription, which he found in the sanctuary ofAesculapius atPanticapaion, on a brazen vase which had been broken by the frost: — "If any one doubts the intensity of our winter's cold, let him believe when he sees this vase. The priestStratius placed it here, not because he considered it a worthy offering to the god, but as a proof of the severity of our winter." Since therefore the provinces we have just enumerated [are so superior in climate, that they] cannot be compared with the countries surrounding theBosphorus, nor even the regions ofAmisus andSinope, (for every one will admit that they are much superior to these latter,) it would be idle to compare them with the districts near theBorysthenes and the north ofKeltica; for we have shown that their temperature is not so low asAmisus,Sinope,Byzantium, andMarseilles, which are universally acknowledged to be 3700 stadia south of theDnieper andKeltica.

§ 2.1.17  If the followers ofDeimachus add to the 30.000 stadia the distance toTaprobane and the boundaries of the torrid zone, which cannot be reckoned less than 4000 stadia, they will then removeBactria andAria from their actual localities and place them 34,000 stadia from the torrid zone, a distance equal to that whichHipparchus states to be between the equator and [the mouth of] theDnieper, and the two countries will therefore be removed 8800 stadia north of [the mouth of] theDnieper andKeltica; for there are reckoned to be 8800 stadia from the equator to the parallel of latitude which separates the temperate from the torrid zone, and which crosses the Cinnamon Country. We have proved that the regions not more than 5000 stadia north ofKeltica, as far asIerne, are scarcely habitable, but their reasoning leads to the conclusion that there is another circle fitted for the habitation of man, although 3800 stadia north ofIerne. And thatBactra is still farther north than the mouth of theCaspian orHyrcanian Sea, which is distant about 6000 stadia from the recess of theCaspian and the mountains ofArmenia andMedia, and which appears to be the most northerly point of the whole coast as far asIndia, with a sea navigable toIndia all the way, asPatrocles, who had the government of these regions, affirms. NowBactriana stretches 1000 stadia farther north. Beyond this theScythians occupy a much larger territory, bounded by the Northern Ocean: here they dwell, though to be sure theirs is a nomade life. But we ask how they could exist here at all, supposing evenBactra to be beyond the limits of the habitable globe. The distance from theCaucasus to the Northern Sea throughBactra would be rather more than 4000 stadia. This being added to the number of stadia north ofIerne above-mentioned, will give us the whole amount of uninhabitable land fromIerne northward 7800 stadia, and even omitting the 4000 stadia altogether, those parts ofBactriana next theCaucasus will still be 3800 stadia farther north thanIerne, and 8800 farther north thanKeltica, and [the mouth] of theDnieper.

§ 2.1.18  Hipparchus narrates that at theDnieper and [the north of]Keltica, during the whole of the summer nights there is one continued twilight from sun-set to sun-rise, but at the winter solstice the sun never rises more than nine cubits above the horizon. He adds that this phenomenon is yet more remarkable in regions 6300 stadia north ofMarseilles, (these regions he supposes to be peopled byKelts, but I believe are inhabited byBritons, and 2500 stadia north ofKeltica,) where the sun at the winter solstice rises only six cubits above the horizon. That at 9100 stadia north ofMarseilles it only rises four cubits, and not so much as three in the countries beyond, and which I consider much farther north thanIerne. However,Hipparchus, on the authority ofPytheas, places them south ofBritain, and says that the longest day there consists only of 19 hours; while in countries where the sun rises but four cubits above the horizon, and which are situated 9100 stadia north ofMarseilles, the day has 18 hours. Consequently [according to his hypothesis] the most southerly parts ofBritain must be north of these regions. They must therefore be under the same parallel, or almost the same, as the parts ofBactriana next to theCaucasus, which I have shown are, according to the followers ofDeimachus, 3800 stadia farther north thanIerne. Now if we add this to the number betweenMarseilles andIerne, we shall get 12,500 stadia. But who ever made known to us that, in those parts, I mean, in the vicinity ofBactra, this was the duration of the longest day, or the height which the sun attains in the meridian at the winter solstice? All these things are patent to the eyes of every man, and require no mathematical investigation; therefore they certainly would have been mentioned by numerous writers both amongst the ancients who have left us histories ofPersia, and by the later writers too, who have carried them down to our own time. How, too, would their fertility, which I have described above, harmonize with such a latitude? The facts here advanced are sufficient to give an idea of the learned manner in whichHipparchus attempts to controvert the reasoning ofEratosthenes by mere petitiones principii.

§ 2.1.19  Again,Eratosthenes wished to show the ignorance ofDeimachus, and his want of information concerning such matters, as proved by his assertion thatIndia lies between the autumnal equinox and winter tropic. Also in his blamingMegasthenes, where he says that in the southern parts ofIndia the Greater and Lesser Bear are seen to set, and the shadows to fall both ways; assuring us that such is not the case inIndia. These assertions, saysEratosthenes, arise from the ignorance ofDeimachus. For it is nothing else than ignorance to suppose that the autumnal equinox is not equally distant from the tropics with the vernal; since in both equinoxes the sun rises at the same point, and performs a similar revolution. Further, [he continues, ] the distance from the terrestrial tropic to the equator, between which, according toDeimachus himself,India is situated, has been proved by measurement to be much less than 20,000 stadia, consequently his own statements prove that my assertion is correct, and not his. For supposingIndia to be twenty or thirty thousand stadia [in breadth] it could not be contained in the given space, but if my estimate be taken it is simple enough. It is another evidence of his want of information, to say that the two Bears are not seen to set, or the shadows to fall both ways, in any part ofIndia, since 5000 stadia south ofAlexandria both of these phenomena are observable. Thus reasonsEratosthenes; whomHipparchus again criticises in the same mistaken way. First he substitutes [in the text ofDeimachus] the summer in place of the winter tropic; then he says that the evidence of a man ignorant of astronomy ought not to be received in a mathematical question; as ifEratosthenes in the main had actually been guided by the authority ofDeimachus. Could he not see thatEratosthenes had followed the general custom in regard to idle reasoners, one means of refuting whom is to show that their arguments, whatever they may be, go only to confirm our views.

§ 2.1.20  It is by assuming as a fact that the southern extremity ofIndia is under the same parallel asMeroe, a thing affirmed and believed by most writers, that we shall be best able to show the absurdities of the system ofHipparchus. In the first book of his Commentaries he does not object to this hypothesis, but in the second book he no longer admits it; we must examine his reasons for this. He says, "when two countries are situated under the same parallel, but separated by a great distance, you cannot be certain that they are exactly under the same parallel, unless the climata of both the places are found to be similar. NowPhilo, in his account of a voyage by sea toEthiopia, has given us the clima ofMeroe. He says that at that place the sun is vertical forty-five days before the summer solstice, he also informs us of the proportion of shadow thrown by the gnomon both at the equinoxes and solstices.Eratosthenes agrees almost exactly withPhilo. But not a single writer, not evenEratosthenes, has informed us of the clima ofIndia; but if it is the case, as many are inclined to believe on the authority ofNearchus, that the two Bears are seen to set in that country, then certainlyMeroe and the southern extremity ofIndia cannot be under the same parallel." [Such is the reasoning ofHipparchus, but we reply, ] IfEratosthenes confirms the statement of those authors who tell us that inIndia the two Bears are observed to set, how can it be said that not a single person, not evenEratosthenes, has informed us of any thing concerning the clima ofIndia? This is itself information on that point. If, however, he has not confirmed this statement, let him be exonerated from the error. Certain it is he never did confirm the statement. Only whenDeimachus affirmed that there was no place inIndia from which the two Bears might be seen to set, or the shadows fall both ways, asMegasthenes had asserted,Eratosthenes thereupon taxed him with ignorance, regarding as absolutely false this two-fold assertion, one half of which, namely, that concerning the shadows not falling both ways,Hipparchus himself acknowledged to be false; for if the southern extremity ofIndia were not under the same parallel asMeroe, stillHipparchus appears to have considered it south ofSyene.

§ 2.1.21  In the instances which follow,Hipparchus, treating of these subjects, either asserts things similar to those which we have already refuted, or takes for granted matters which are not so, or draws improper sequences. For instance, from the computation [ofEratosthenes] that the distance fromBabylon toThapsacus is 4800 stadia, and thence northward to the mountains ofArmenia 2100 stadia more, it does not follow that, starting from the meridian of that city, the distance to the northern mountains is above 6000 stadia. Besides,Eratosthenes never says that the distance fromThapsacus to these mountains is 2100 stadia, but that a part thereof has never yet been measured; so that this argument [ofHipparchus], founded on a false hypothesis, amounts to nothing. Nor didEratosthenes ever assert thatThapsacus lies more than 4500 stadia north ofBabylon.

§ 2.1.22  Again,Hipparchus, ever anxious to defend the [accuracy of the] ancient charts, instead of fairly stating the words ofEratosthenes concerning his third section of the habitable earth, wilfully makes him the author of an assertion easy of disproof. ForEratosthenes, following the opinion we before mentioned, that a line drawn from thePillars of Hercules across the Mediterranean, and the length of theTaurus, would run due west and east, divides, by means of this line, the habitable earth into two portions, which he calls the northern and southern divisions; each of these he again essays to subdivide into as many smaller partitions as practicable, which he denominates sections. He makesIndia the first section of the southern part, andAriana the second; these two countries possessing a good outline, he has been able not only to give us an accurate statement of their length and breadth, but an almost geometrically exact description of their figure. He tells us that the form ofIndia is rhomboidal, being washed on two of its sides by the southern and eastern oceans [respectively], which do not deeply indent its shores, The two remaining sides are contained by its mountains and the river [Indus], so that it presents a kind of rectilinear figure. As toAriana, he considered three of its sides well fitted to form a parallelogram; but of the western side he could give no regular definition, as it was inhabited by various nations; nevertheless he attempts an idea of it by a line drawn from theCaspian Gates to the limits ofCarmania, which border on thePersian Gulf. This side he calls western, and that next theIndus eastern, but he does not tell us they are parallel to each other; neither does he say this of the other sides, one bounded by the mountains, and the other by the sea; he simply calls them north and south.

§ 2.1.23  Having in this manner but imperfectly traced the outlines of his second section, the third section, for various reasons, is still less exact. The first cause has been already explained, viz. that the line from theCaspian Gates toCarmania is not clearly defined, as the side of the section is common both to the third and second sections. Secondly, on account of thePersian Gulf interrupting the continuity of the southern side, as he himself tells us, he has been obliged to take the measured road running throughSusa andPersepolis to the boundaries ofCarmania andPersia, and suppose it straight. This road, which he calls the southern side, is a little more than 9000 stadia. He does not, however, tell us, that it runs parallel to the northern side. It is also clear that theEuphrates, which he makes the western boundary, is any thing but a straight line. On leaving the mountains it flows south, but soon shifts its course to the east; it then again pursues a southerly direction till it reaches the sea. In fact,Eratosthenes himself acknowledges the indirect course of this river, when he compares the shape ofMesopotamia, which is formed by the junction of theTigris andEuphrates, to the cushion on a rower's bench. The western side bounded by theEuphrates is not entirely measured; for he tells us that he does not know the extent of the portion betweenArmenia and the northern mountains, as it has not been measured. By reason of these hinderances he states that he has been only able to give a very superficial view of the third section, and that his estimate of the distances is borrowed from various Itineraries, some of them, according to his own description, anonymous.Hipparchus therefore must be considered guilty of unfairness, for criticising with geometrical precision a work of this general nature. We ought rather to be grateful to a person who gives us any description at all of the character of such [unknown] places. But when he urges his geometrical objections not against any real statement ofEratosthenes, but merely against imaginary hypotheses of his own creation, he shows too plainly the contradictory bent of his mind.

§ 2.1.24  It is in this general kind of description of the third section thatEratosthenes supposes 10,000 stadia from theCaspian Gates to theEuphrates. This he again divides according to former admeasurements which he found preserved. Starting from the point where theEuphrates passes near toThapsacus, he computes from thence to the place whereAlexander crossed theTigris 2400 stadia. The route thence throughGaugamela, theLycus,Arbela, andEcbatana, whitherDarius fled fromGaugamela to theCaspian Gates, makes up the 10,000 stadia, which is only 300 stadia too much. Such is the measure of the northern side given byEratosthenes, which he could not have supposed to be parallel to the mountains, nor yet to the line drawn from thePillars of Hercules throughAthens andRhodes. ForThapsacus is far removed from the mountains, and the route fromThapsacus to theCaspian Gates only falls in with the mountains at that point. Such is the boundary on the northern side.

§ 2.1.25  Thus, saysEratosthenes, we have given you a description of the northern side; as for the southern, we cannot take its measure along the sea, on account of thePersian Gulf, which intercepts [its continuity], but fromBabylon throughSusa andPersepolis to the confines ofPersia andCarmania there are 9200 stadia. This he calls the southern side, but he does not say it is parallel to the northern. The difference of length between the northern and southern sides is caused, he tells us, by theEuphrates, which after running south some distance shifts its course almost due east.

§ 2.1.26  Of the two remaining sides, he describes the western first, but whether we are to regard it as one single straight line, or two, seems to be undecided. He says, — FromThapsacus toBabylon, following the course of theEuphrates, there are 4800 stadia; from thence to the mouth of theEuphrates and the city ofTeredon, 3000 more; fromThapsacus northward to theGates ofArmenia, having been measured, is stated to be 1100 stadia, but the distance throughGordyaea andArmenia, not having yet been measured, is not given. The eastern side, which stretches lengthwise throughPersia from theRed Sea towardsMedia and the north, does not appear to be less than 8000 stadia, and measured from certain headlands above 9000, the rest of the distance through Paraetacena andMedia to theCaspian Gates being 3000 stadia. The riversTigris andEuphrates flowing fromArmenia towards the south, after having passed the Gordytaean mountains, and having formed a great circle which embraces the vast country ofMesopotamia, turn towards the rising of the sun in winter and the south, particularly theEuphrates, which, continually approaching nearer and nearer to theTigris, passes by the rampart ofSemiramis, and at about 200 stadia from the village ofOpis, thence it flows throughBabylon, and so discharges itself into thePersian Gulf. Thus the figure ofMesopotamia andBabylon resembles the cushion of a rower's bench. — Such are the words ofEratosthenes.

§ 2.1.27  In the Third Section it is true he does make some mistakes, which we shall take into consideration; but they are nothing like the amount whichHipparchus attributes to him. However, we will examine his objections. [In the first place,] he would have the ancient charts left just as they are, and by no meansIndia brought more to the south, asEratosthenes thinks proper. Indeed, he asserts that the very arguments adduced by that writer only confirm him the more in his opinion. He says, "According toEratosthenes, the northern side of the third section is bounded by a line of 10,000 stadia drawn from theCaspian Gates to theEuphrates, the southern side fromBabylon to the confines ofCarmania is a little more than 9000 stadia. On the western side, following the course of theEuphrates, fromThapsacus toBabylon there are 4800 stadia, and thence to the outlets of the river 3000 stadia more. Northward fromThapsacus [to the Gates ofArmenia] is reckoned 1100 stadia; the rest has not been measured. Now sinceEratosthenes says that the northern side of this Third Section is about 10,000 stadia, and that the right line parallel thereto drawn fromBabylon to the eastern side is computed at just above 9000 stadia, it follows thatBabylon is not much more than 1000 stadia east of the passage of [theEuphrates] nearThapsacus."

§ 2.1.28  We answer, that if theCaspian Gates and the boundary line ofCarmania andPersia were exactly under the same meridian, and if right lines drawn in the direction ofThapsacus andBabylon would intersect such meridian at right angles, the inference would be just. For then the line [from the common frontier ofCarmania andPersia] toBabylon if produced to the meridian ofThapsacus, would appear to the eye equal, or nearly equal, to that from theCaspian Gates toThapsacus. Consequently,Babylon would only be east ofThapsacus in the same proportion as the line drawn from theCaspian Gates toThapsacus exceeds the line drawn from the frontier ofCarmania toBabylon.Eratosthenes, however, does not tell us that the line which bounds the western coast ofAriana follows the direction of the meridian; nor yet that a line drawn from theCaspian Gates toThapsacus would form right angles with the meridian of theCaspian Gates. But rather, that the line which would form right angles with the meridian, would be one which should follow the course of theTaurus, and with which the line drawn from theCaspian Gates toThapsacus would form an acute angle. Nor, again, does he ever say that a line drawn fromCarmania toBabylon would be parallel to that drawn [from theCaspian Gates ] toThapsacus; and even if it were parallel, this would prove nothing for the argument ofHipparchus, since it does not form right angles with the meridian of theCaspian Gates.

§ 2.1.29  But taking this for granted, and proving, as he imagines, that, according toEratosthenes,Babylon is east ofThapsacus rather more than 1000 stadia, he draws from this false hypothesis a new argument, which he uses to the following purpose; and says, If we suppose a right line drawn fromThapsacus towards the south, and another fromBabylon perpendicular thereto, a right-angled triangle would be the result; whose sides should be, 1. A line drawn fromThapsacus toBabylon; 2. A perpendicular drawn fromBabylon to the meridian ofThapsacus; 3. The meridian line ofThapsacus. The hypotenuse of this triangle would be a right line drawn fromThapsacus toBabylon, which he estimates at 4800 stadia. The perpendicular drawn fromBabylon to the meridian ofThapsacus is scarcely more than 1000 stadia; the same amount by which the line drawn [from theCaspian Gates ] toThapsacus exceeds that [from the common frontier ofCarmania andPersia] toBabylon. The two sides [of the triangle] being given,Hipparchus proceeds to find the third, which is much greater than the perpendicular aforesaid. To this he adds the line drawn fromThapsacus northwards to the mountains ofArmenia, one part of which, according toEratosthenes, was measured, and found to be 1100 stadia; the other, or part unmeasured byEratosthenes,Hipparchus estimates to be 1000 stadia at the least: so that the two together amount to 2100 stadia. Adding this to the [length of the] side upon which falls the perpendicular drawn fromBabylon,Hipparchus estimated a distance of many thousand stadia from the mountains ofArmenia and the parallel ofAthens to this perpendicular, which falls on the parallel ofBabylon.From the parallel ofAthens to that ofBabylon he shows that there cannot be a greater distance than 2400 stadia, even admitting the estimate supplied byEratosthenes himself of the number of stadia which the entire meridian contains; and that if this be so, the mountains ofArmenia and theTaurus cannot be under the same parallel of latitude asAthens, (which is the opinion of'Eratosthenes,) but many thousand stadia to the north, as the data supplied by that writer himself prove. But here, for the formation of his right-angled triangle,Hipparchus not only makes use of propositions already overturned, but assumes what was never granted, namely, that the hypotenuse subtending his right angle, which is the straight line fromThapsacus toBabylon, is 4800 stadia in length. WhatEratosthenes says is, that this route follows the course of theEuphrates, and adds, thatMesopotamia andBabylon are encompassed as it were by a great circle formed by theEuphrates andTigris, but principally by the former of these rivers. So that a straight line fromThapsacus toBabylon would neither follow the course of theEuphrates, nor yet be near so many stadia in length. Thus the argument [ofHipparchus] is overturned. We have stated before, that supposing two lines drawn from theCaspian Gates, one toThapsacus, and the other to the mountains ofArmenia oppositeThapsacus, and distant therefrom, according toHipparchus's own estimate, 2100 stadia at the very least, neither of them would be parallel to each other, nor yet to that line which, passing throughBabylon, is styled byEratosthenes the southern side [of the third section]. As he could not inform us of the exact length of the route by the mountains,Eratosthenes tells us the distance betweenThapsacus and theCaspian Gates; in fact, to speak in a general way, he puts this distance in place of the other; besides, as he merely wanted to give the length of the territory betweenAriana and theEuphrates, he was not particular to have the exact measure of either route. To pretend that he considered the lines to be parallel to each other, is evidently to accuse the man of more than childish ignorance, and we dismiss the insinuation as nonsense forthwith.

§ 2.1.30  There, however, are some instances in which one may justly accuseEratosthenes. There is a difference in dissecting limb by limb, or merely cutting off portions [indiscriminately], (for in the former you may only separate parts having a natural outline, and distinguished by a regular form; this the poet alludes to in the expression, "Cutting them limb from limb;" whereas in regard to the latter this is not the case,) and we may adopt with propriety either one or other of these plans according to the time and necessity. So in Geography, if you enter into every detail, you may sometimes be compelled to divide your territories into portions, so to speak, but it is a more preferable way to separate them into limbs, than into such chance pieces; for thus only you can define accurately particular points and boundaries, a thing so necessary to the geographer. When it can be done, the best way to define a country is by the rivers, mountains, or sea; also, where possible, by the nation or nations [who inhabit it], and by its size and configuration. However, in default of a geometrical definition, a simple and general description may be said always to answer the purpose. In regard to size, it is sufficient to state the greatest length and breadth; for example, that the habitable earth is 70,000 stadia long, and that its breadth is scarcely half its length. And as to form, to compare a country to any geometrical or other well-known figure. For example,Sicily to a triangle, Spain to anox-hide, or thePeloponnesus to a plane-leaf. The larger the territory to be divided, the more general also ought its divisions to be.

§ 2.1.31  [In the system ofEratosthenes], the habitable earth has been admirably divided into two parts by theTaurus and the Mediterranean Sea, which reaches to thePillars. On the southern side, the limits ofIndia have been described by a variety of methods; by its mountains, its river, its seas, and its name, which seems to indicate that it is inhabited only by one people. It is with justice too that he attributes to it the form of a quadrilateral or rhomboid.Ariana is not so accurately described, on account of its western side being interwoven with the adjacent land. Still it is pretty well distinguished by its three other sides, which are formed by three nearly straight lines, and also by its name, which shows it to be only one nation. As to the Third Section ofEratosthenes, it cannot be considered to be defined or circumscribed at all; for that side of it which is common toAriana is but ill defined, as before remarked. The southern side, too, is most negligently taken: it is, in fact, no boundary to the section at all, for it passes right through its centre, leaving entirely outside of it many of the southern portions. Nor yet does it represent the greatest length of the section, for the northern side is the longest. Nor, lastly, can theEuphrates be its western boundary, not even if it flowed in a right line, since its two extremes do not lie under the same meridian. How then is it the western rather than the southern boundary? Apart from this, the distance to the Seas ofCilicia andSyria is so inconsiderable, that there can be no reason why he should not have enlarged the third section, so as to include the kingdoms ofSemiramis andNinus, who are both of them known as Syrian monarchs; the first builtBabylon, which he made his royal residence; the secondNinus, the capital ofSyria; and the same dialect still exists on both sides of theEuphrates. The idea of thus dismembering so renowned a nation, and allotting its portions to strange nations with which it had no connexion, is as peculiarly unfortunate.Eratosthenes cannot plead that he was compelled to do this on account of its size, for had it extended as far as the sea and the frontiers ofArabia Felix andEgypt, even then it would not have been as large asIndia, or evenAriana. It would have therefore been much better to have enlarged the third section, making it comprehend the whole space as far as the Sea ofSyria; but if this were done, the southern side would not be as he represents it, nor yet in a straight line, but starting fromCarmania would follow the right side of the sea-shore from thePersian Gulf to the mouth of theEuphrates; it would then approach the limits ofMesene andBabylon, where the isthmus commences which separatesArabia Felix from the rest of the continent. Traversing the isthmus, it would continue its course to the recess of theArabian Gulf andPelusium, thence to the mouth of theNile atCanopus. Such would be the southern side. The west would be traced by the sea-shore from the [river's] mouth atCanopus toCilicia.

§ 2.1.32  The fourth section would consist ofArabia Felix, theArabian Gulf, and the whole ofEgypt andEthiopia. Its length bounded by two meridians, one drawn through its most western point, the other through its most eastern; and its breadth by two parallels through its most northern and southern points. For this is the best way to describe the extent of irregular figures, whose length and breadth cannot be determined by their sides. In general it is to be observed, that length and breadth are to be understood in different ways, according as you speak of the whole or a part. Of a whole, the greater distance is called its length, and the lesser its breadth; of a part, that is to be considered the length which is parallel to the length of the whole, without any regard whether it, or that which is left for the breadth, be the greater distance. The length of the whole habitable earth is measured from east to west by a line drawn parallel to the equator, and its breadth from north to south in the direction of the meridian; consequently, the length of any of the parts ought to be portions of a line drawn parallel to the length of the whole, and their breadth to the breadth of the whole. For, in the first place, by this means the size of the whole habitable earth will be best described; and secondly, the disposition and configuration of its parts, and the manner in which one may be said to be greater or less than another, will be made manifest by thus comparing them.

§ 2.1.33  Eratosthenes, however, measures the length of the habitable earth by a line which he considers straight, drawn from thePillars of Hercules, in the direction of theCaspian Gates and theCaucasus. The length of the third section, by a line drawn from theCaspian Gates toThapsacus, and of the fourth, by one running fromThapsacus throughHeroopolis to the country surrounded by theNile: this must necessarily be deflected toCanopus andAlexandria, for there is the last mouth of theNile, which goes by the name of the Canopic or Heracleotic mouth. Whether therefore these two lengths be considered to form one straight line, or to make an angle withThapsacus, certain it is that neither of them is parallel to the length of the habitable earth; this is evident from whatEratosthenes has himself said concerning them. According to him the length of the habitable earth is described by a right line running through theTaurus to thePillars of Hercules, in the direction of theCaucasus,Rhodes, andAthens. FromRhodes toAlexandria, following the meridian of the two cities, he says there cannot be much less than 4000 stadia, consequently there must be the same difference between the latitudes ofRhodes andAlexandria. Now the latitude ofHeroopolis is about the same asAlexandria, or rather more south. So that a line, whether straight or broken, which intersects the parallel ofHeroopolis,Rhodes, or theGates of the Caspian, cannot be parallel to either of these. These lengths therefore are not properly indicated, nor are the northern sections any better.

§ 2.1.34  We will now return at once toHipparchus, and see what comes next. Continuing to palm assumptions of his own [uponEratosthenes], he goes on to refute, with geometrical accuracy, statements which that author had made in a mere general way. "Eratosthenes," he says, "estimates that there are 6700 stadia betweenBabylon and theCaspian Gates, and fromBabylon to the frontiers ofCarmania andPersia above 9000 stadia; this he supposes to lie in a direct line towards the equinoctial rising, and perpendicular to the common side of his second and third sections. Thus, according to his plan, we should have a right-angled triangle, with the right angle next to the frontiers ofCarmania, and its hypotenuse less than one of the sides about the right angle! ConsequentlyPersia should be included in the second section." To this we reply, that the line drawn fromBabylon toCarmania was never intended as a parallel, nor yet that which divides the two sections as a meridian, and that therefore nothing has been laid to his charge, at all events with any just foundation. In fact,Eratosthenes having stated the number of stadia from theCaspian Gates toBabylon as above given, [from theCaspian Gates ] toSusa 4900 stadia, and fromBabylon [toSusa ] 3400 stadia,Hipparchus runs away from his former hypothesis, and says that [by drawing lines from] theCaspian Gates,Susa, andBabylon, an obtuse-angled triangle would be the result, whose sides should be of the length laid down, and of whichSusa would form the obtuse angle. He then argues, that "according to these premises, the meridian drawn from theGates of the Caspian will intersect the parallel ofBabylon andSusa 4400 stadia more to the west, than would a straight line drawn from theCaspian to the confines ofCarmania andPersia; and that this last line, forming with the meridian of theCaspian Gates half a right angle, would lie exactly in a direction midway between the south and the equinoctial rising. Now as the course of theIndus is parallel to this line, it cannot flow south on its descent from the mountains, asEratosthenes asserts, but in a direction lying between the south and the equinoctial rising, as laid down in the ancient charts." But who is there who will admit this to be an obtuse-angled triangle, without also admitting that it contains a right angle? Who will agree that the line fromBabylon toSusa, which forms one side of this obtuse-angled triangle, lies parallel, without admitting the same of the whole line as far asCarmania? or that the line drawn from theCaspian Gates to the frontiers ofCarmania is parallel to theIndus? Nevertheless, without this the reasoning [ofHipparchus] is worth nothing "Eratosthenes himself also states," [continuesHipparchus, ] "that the form ofIndia is rhomboidal; and since the whole eastern border of that country has a decided tendency towards the east, but more particularly the extremest cape, which lies more to the south than any other part of the coast, the side next theIndus must be the same."

§ 2.1.35  These arguments may be very geometrical, but they are not convincing. After having himself invented these various difficulties, he dismisses them, saying, "Had [Eratosthenes] been chargeable for small distances only, he might have been excused; but since his mistakes involve thousands of stadia, we cannot pardon him, more especially since he has laid it down that at a mere distance of 400 stadia, such as that between the parallels ofAthens andRhodes, there is a sensible variation [of latitude]." But these sensible variations are not all of the same kind, the distance [involved therein] being in some instances greater, in others less; greater, when for our estimate of the climata we trust merely to the eye, or are guided by the vegetable productions and the temperature of the air; less, when we employ gnomons and dioptric instruments. Nothing is more likely than that if you measure the parallel ofAthens, or that ofRhodes andCaria, by means of a gnomon, the difference resulting from so many stadia will be sensible. But when a geographer, in order to trace a line from west to east, 3000 stadia broad, makes use of a chain of mountains 40,000 stadia long, and also of a sea which extends still farther 30,000 stadia, and farther wishing to point out the situation of the different parts of the habitable earth relative to this line, calls some southern, others northern, and finally lays out what he calls the sections, each section consisting of divers countries, then we ought carefully to examine in what acceptation he uses his terms; in what sense he says that such a side [of any section] is the north side, and what other is the south, or east, or west side. If he does not take pains to avoid great errors, he deserves to be blamed, but should he be guilty merely of trifling inaccuracies, he should be forgiven. But here nothing shows thoroughly thatEratosthenes has committed either serious or slight errors, for on one hand what he may have said concerning such great distances, can never be verified by a geometrical test, and on the other, his accuser, while endeavouring to reason like a geometrician, does not found his arguments on any real data, but on gratuitous suppositions.

§ 2.1.36  The fourth sectionHipparchus certainly manages better, though he still maintains the same censorious tone, and obstinacy in sticking to his first hypotheses, or others similar. He properly objects toEratosthenes giving as the length of this section a line drawn fromThapsacus toEgypt, as being similar to the case of a man who should tell us that the diagonal of a parallelogram was its length. ForThapsacus and the coasts ofEgypt are by no means under the same parallel of latitude, but under parallels considerably distant from each other, and a line drawn fromThapsacus toEgypt would lie in a kind of diagonal or oblique direction between them. But he is wrong when he expresses his surprise thatEratosthenes should dare to state the distance betweenPelusium andThapsacus at 6000 stadia, when he says there are above 8000. In proof of this he advances that the parallel ofPelusium is south of that ofBabylon by more than 2500 stadia, and that according toEratosthenes (as he supposes) the latitude ofThapsacus is above 4800 stadia north of that ofBabylon; from whichHipparchus tells us it results that [betweenThapsacus andPelusium ] there are more than 8000 stadia. But I would inquire how he can prove thatEratosthenes supposed so great a distance between the parallels ofBabylon andThapsacus? He says, indeed, that such is the distance fromThapsacus toBabylon, but not that there is this distance between their parallels, nor yet thatThapsacus andBabylon are under the same meridian. So much the contrary, thatHipparchus has himself pointed out, that, according toEratosthenes,Babylon ought to be east ofThapsacus more than 2000 stadia. We have before cited the statement ofEratosthenes, thatMesopotamia andBabylon are encircled by theTigris andEuphrates, and that the greater portion of the Circle is formed by this latter river, which flowing north and south takes a turn to the east, and then, returning to a southerly direction, discharges itself [into the sea]. So long as it flows from north to south, it may be said to follow a southerly direction; but the turning towards the east andBabylon is a decided deviation from the southerly direction, and it never recovers a straight course, but forms the circuit we have mentioned above. When he tells us that the journey fromBabylon toThapsacus is 4800 stadia, he adds, following the course of theEuphrates, as if on purpose lest any one should understand such to be the distance in a direct line, or between the two parallels. If this be not granted, it is altogether a vain attempt to show that if a right-angled triangle were constructed by lines drawn fromPelusium andThapsacus to the point where the parallel ofThapsacus intercepts the meridian ofPelusium, that one of the lines which form the right angle, and is in the direction of the meridian, would be longer than that forming the hypotenuse drawn fromThapsacus toPelusium. Worthless, too, is the argument in connexion with this, being the inference from a proposition not admitted; forEratosthenes never asserts that fromBabylon to the meridian of theCaspian Gates is a distance of 4800 stadia. We have shown thatHipparchus deduces this from data not admitted byEratosthenes; but desirous to controvert every thing advanced by that writer, he assumes that fromBabylon to the line drawn from theCaspian Gates to the mountains ofCarmania, according toEratosthenes' description, there are above 9000 stadia, and from thence draws his conclusions.

§ 2.1.37  Eratosthenes cannot, therefore, be found fault with on these grounds; what may be objected against him is as follows. When you wish to give a general outline of size and configuration, you should devise for yourself some rule which may be adhered to more or less. After having laid down that the breadth of the space occupied by the mountains which run in a direction due east, as well as by the sea which reaches to thePillars of Hercules, is 3000 stadia, would you pretend to estimate different lines, which you may draw within the breadth of that space, as one and the same line? We should be more willing to grant you the power of doing so with respect to the lines which run parallel to that space than with those which fall upon it; and among these latter, rather with respect to those which fall within it than to those which extend without it; and also rather for those which, in regard to the shortness of their extent, would not pass out of the said space than for those which would. And again, rather for lines of some considerable length than for any thing very short, for the inequality of lengths is less perceptible in great extents than the difference of configuration. For example, if you give 3000 stadia for the breadth at theTaurus, as well as for the sea which extends to thePillars of Hercules, you will form a parallelogram entirely enclosing both the mountains of theTaurus and the sea; if you divide it in its length into several other parallelograms, and draw first the diagonal of the great parallelogram, and next that of each smaller parallelogram, surely the diagonal of the great parallelogram will be regarded as a line more nearly parallel and equal to the side forming the length of that figure than the diagonal of any of the smaller parallelograms: and the more your lesser parallelograms should be multiplied, the more will this become evident. Certainly, it is in great figures that the obliquity of the diagonal and its difference from the side forming the length are the less perceptible, so that you would have but little scruple in taking the diagonal as the length of the figure. But if you draw the diagonal more inclined, so that it falls beyond both sides, or at least beyond one of the sides, then will this no longer be the case; and this is the sense in which we have observed, that when you attempted to draw even in a very general way the extents of the figures, you ought to adopt some rule. ButEratosthenes takes a line from theCaspian Gates along the mountains, running as it were in the same parallel as far as thePillars, and then a second line, starting directly from the mountains to touchThapsacus; and again a third line fromThapsacus to the frontiers ofEgypt, occupying so great a breadth. If then in proceeding you give the length of the two last lines [taken together] as the measure of the length of the district, you will appear to measure the length of one of your parallelograms by its diagonal. And if, farther, this diagonal should consist of a broken line, as that would be which stretches from theCaspian Gates to the embouchure of theNile, passing byThapsacus, your error will appear much greater. This is the sum of what may be alleged againstEratosthenes.

§ 2.1.38  In another respect also we have to complain ofHipparchus, because, as he had given a category of the statements ofEratosthenes, he ought to have corrected his mistakes, in the same way that we have done; but whenever he has any thing particular to remark, he tells us to follow the ancient charts, which, to say the least, need correction infinitely more than the map ofEratosthenes. The argument which follows is equally objectionable, being founded on the consequences of a proposition which, as we have shown, is inadmissible, namely, thatBabylon was not more than 1000 stadia east ofThapsacus; when it was quite clear, fromEratosthenes' own words, thatBabylon was above 2400 stadia east of that place; since fromThapsacus to the passage of theEuphrates where it was crossed byAlexander, the shortest route is 2400 stadia, and theTigris andEuphrates, having encompassedMesopotamia, flow towards the east, and afterwards take a southerly direction and approach nearer to each other and toBabylon at the same time: nothing appears absurd in this statement ofEratosthenes.

§ 2.1.39  The next objection ofHipparchus is likewise false. He attempts to prove thatEratosthenes, in his statement that the route fromThapsacus to theCaspian Gates is 10,000 stadia, gives this as the distance taken in a straight line; such not being the case, as in that instance the distance would be much shorter. His mode of reasoning is after this fashion. He says, "According toEratosthenes, the mouth of theNile atCanopus, and theCyaneae, are under the same meridian, which is distant from that ofThapsacus 6300 stadia. Now from theCyaneae to MountCaspius, which is situated close to the defile leading fromColchis to theCaspian Sea, there are 6600 stadia, so that, with the exception of about 300 stadia, the distance from the meridian of theCyaneae to that ofThapsacus, or to that of MountCaspius, is the same: and bothThapsacus and MountCaspius are, so to speak, under the same meridian. It follows from this that theCaspian Gates are about equi-distant betweenThapsacus and MountCaspius, but that the distance between them andThapsacus is much less than the 10,000 stadia mentioned byEratosthenes. Consequently, as the distance in a right line is much less than 10,000 stadia, this route, which he considered to be in a straight course from theCaspian Gates toThapsacus, must have been a circumbendibus." To this we reply, thatEratosthenes, as is usual in Geography, speaks of right lines, meridians, and parallels to the equator, with considerable latitude, whereasHipparchus criticizes him with geometrical nicety, as if every line had been measured with rule and compass.Hipparchus at the same time himself frequently deciding as to right lines and parallels, not by actual measurement, but mere conjecture. Such is the first error of this writer. A second is, that he never lays down the distances asEratosthenes has given them, nor yet reasons on the data furnished by that writer, but from mere assumptions of his own coinage. Thus, whereEratosthenes states that the distance from the mouth of the [ThracianBosphorus ] to thePhasis is 8000 stadia, from thence toDioscurias 600 stadia, and fromDioscurias toCaspius five days' journey, (whichHipparchus estimates at 1000 stadia,) the sum of these, as stated byEratosthenes, would amount to 9600 stadia. ThisHipparchus abridges in the following manner. From theCyaneae to thePhasis are 5600 stadia, and from thePhasis to theCaspius 1000 more. There fore it is no statement ofEratosthenes that theCaspius andThapsacus are under the same meridian, but ofHipparchus himself. However, supposingEratosthenes says so, does it follow that the distance from theCaspius to theCaspian Gates, and that fromThapsacus to the same point, are equal.

§ 2.1.40  In the second book of his Commentaries,Hipparchus, having again mooted the question concerning the mountains of theTaurus, of which we have spoken sufficiently, proceeds with the northern parts of the habitable earth. He then notices the statement ofEratosthenes concerning the countries situated west of theEuxine, namely, that the three [principal] headlands [of this continent], the first thePeloponnesian, the second theItalian, the third theLigurian, run from north [to south], enclosing theAdriatic andTyrrhenian gulfs. After this general exposition,Hipparchus proceeds to criticise each point in detail, but rather on geometrical than geographical grounds; on these subjects, however, the number ofEratosthenes' errors is so overwhelming, as also ofTimosthenes the author of the Treatise on the Ports, (whomEratosthenes prefers above every other writer, though he often decides even against him,) that it does not seem to be worth my time to review their faulty productions, nor even whatHipparchus has to say about them; since he neither enumerates all their blunders, nor yet sets them right, but only points out how they falsify and contradict each other. Still any one might certainly object to the saying ofEratosthenes, that Europe has but three headlands, and considering as one that which terminates by thePeloponnesus, notwithstanding it is broken up into so many divisions. In fact,Sounion is as much a promontory asLaconia, and not very much less south thanMalea, forming a considerable bay, and the ThracianChersonesus andSounion form the Gulf ofMelas, and likewise those ofMacedonia. Added to this, it is manifest that the majority of the distances are falsely stated, thus arguing an ignorance of geography scarcely credible, and so far from requiring geometrical demonstration that it stands out prominent on the very face of the statements. For example, the distance fromEpidamnus to theThermaic Gulf is above 2000 stadia;Eratosthenes gives it at 900. So too he states the distance fromAlexandria toCarthage at 13,000 stadia; it is not more than 9000, that is, if, as he himself tells us,Caria andRhodes are under the same meridian asAlexandria, and theStrait of Messina under the same asCarthage, for every one is agreed that the voyage fromCaria to theStrait of Sicily does not exceed 9000 stadia. It is doubtless permissible in very great distances to consider as under one and the same meridian places which are not more east and west of each other thanCarthage is west of theStrait; but an error of 3000 stadia is too much; and when he placesRome under the same meridian asCarthage, notwithstanding its being so far west of that city, it is but the crowning proof of his extreme ignorance both of these places, and likewise of the other countries farther west as far as thePillars of Hercules.

§ 2.1.41  SinceHipparchus does not furnish a Geography of his own, but merely reviews what is said in that ofEratosthenes, he ought to have gone farther, and corrected the whole of that writer's mistakes. As for ourselves, it is only in those particulars whereEratosthenes is correct (and we acknowledge that he frequently errs) that we have thought it our duty to quote his own words, in order to reinstate them in their position, and to defend him when he could be acquitted of the charges ofHipparchus; never failing to break a lance with the latter writer whenever his objections seemed to be the result of a mere propensity to find fault. But whenEratosthenes is grossly mistaken, and the animadversions ofHipparchus are just, we have thought it sufficient in our Geography to set him (Eratosthenes) right by merely stating facts as they are. As the mistakes were so continual and numerous, it was better not to mention them except in a sparse and general manner. This principle in the details we shall strive to carry out. In the present instance we shall only remark, thatTimosthenes,Eratosthenes, and those who preceded them, were but ill acquainted withIberia andKeltica, and a thousand times less withGermania,Britain, and the land of theGetae andBastarnae. Their want of knowledge is also great in regard toItaly, theAdriatic, theEuxine, and the countries north of these. Possibly this last remark may be regarded as captious, sinceEratosthenes states, that as to distant countries, he has merely given the admeasurements as he finds them supplied by others, without vouching for their accuracy, although he sometimes adds whether the route indicated is more or less in a right line. We should not therefore subject to a too rigorous examination distances as to which no one is agreed, after the mannerHipparchus does, both in regard to the places already mentioned, and also to those of whichEratosthenes has given the distance fromHyrcania toBactria and the countries beyond, and those fromColchis to the Sea ofHyrcania. These are points where we should not scrutinize him so narrowly as [when he describes] places situated in the heart of our continent, or others equally well known; and even these should be regarded from a geographical rather than a geometrical point of view.Hipparchus, at the end of the second book of his Commentaries on the Geography ofEratosthenes, having found fault with certain statements relative toEthiopia, tells us at the commencement of the third, that his strictures, though to a certain point geographical, will be mathematical for the most part. As for myself, I cannot find any geography there. To me it seems entirely mathematical; butEratosthenes himself set the example; for he frequently runs into scientific speculations, having little to do with the subject in hand, and which result in vague and inexact conclusions. Thus he is a mathematician in geography, and in mathematics a geographer; and so lies open to the attacks of both parties. In this third book, both he andTimosthenes get such severe justice, that there seems nothing left for us to do;Hipparchus is quite enough.

§ 2.2.1  WE will now proceed to examine the statements made byPosidonius in his Treatise on the Ocean. This Treatise contains much geographical information, sometimes given in a manner conformable to the subject, at others too mathematical. It will not, therefore, be amiss to look into some of his statements, both now and afterwards, as opportunity occurs, taking care to confine ourselves within bounds. He deals simply with geography, when he tells us that the earth is spheroidal and the universe too, and admits the necessary consequences of this hypothesis, one of which is, that the earth contains five zones.

§ 2.2.2  Posidonius informs us thatParmenides was the first to make this division of the earth into five zones, but that he almost doubled the size of the torrid zone, which is situated between the tropics, by bringing it beyond these into the temperate zones. But according toAristotle the torrid zone is contained between the tropics, the temperate zones occupying the whole space between the tropics and the arctic circles. Both of these divisionsPosidonius justly condemns, for the torrid zone is properly the space rendered uninhabitable by the heat. Whereas more than half of the space between the tropics is inhabited, as we may judge by theEthiopians who dwell aboveEgypt. The equator divides the whole of this space into two equal parts. Now fromSyene, which is the limit of the summer tropic, toMeroe, there are 5000 stadia, and thence to the parallel of the Cinnamon region, where the torrid zone commences, 3000 stadia. The whole of this distance has been measured, and it may be gone over either by sea or land; the remaining portion to the equator is, if we adopt the measure of the earth supplied byEratosthenes, 8800 stadia. Therefore, as 16,800 is to 8800, so is the space comprised between the tropics to the breadth of the torrid zone. If of the more recent measurements we prefer those which diminish the size of the earth, such as that adopted byPosidonius, which is about 180,000 stadia, the torrid zone will still only occupy half, or rather more than half, of the space comprised between the tropics; but never an equal space. [Respecting the system ofAristotle,Posidonius farther says, ] "Since it is not every latitude which has Arctic Circles, and even those which do possess them have not the same, how can any one determine by them the bounds of the temperate zones, which are immutable?" Nothing however is proved [againstAristotle] from the fact that there are not Arctic Circles for every latitude, since they exist for all the inhabitants of the temperate zone, on whose account alone the zone receives its name of temperate. But the objection that the Arctic Circles do not remain the same for every latitude, but shift their places, is excellent.

§ 2.2.3  Posidonius, who himself divides the earth into zones, tells us that "five is the number best suited for the explanation of the celestial appearances, two of these are periscii, which reach from the poles to the point where the tropics serve for Arctic Circles; two more are heteroscii, which extend from the former to the inhabitants of the tropics, and one between the tropics, which is called amrphiscius, but for matters relative to the earth, it is convenient to suppose two other narrow zones placed under the tropics, and divided by then into two halves, over which [every year] for the space of a fortnight, the sun is vertical." These zones are remarkable for being extremely arid and sandy, producing no vegetation with the exception of silphium, and a parched grain somewhat resembling wheat. This is caused by there being no mountains to attract the clouds and produce rain, nor any rivers flowing through the country. The consequence is that the various species are born with woolly hair, crumpled horns, protruding lips, and wide nostrils; their extremities being as, it were gnarled. Within these zones also dwell theIchthyophagi. He further remarks, that these peculiarities are quite sufficient to distinguish the zones in question: those which are farther south having a more salubrious atmosphere, and being more fruitful and better supplied with water.

§ 2.3.1  POLYBIUS supposes six zones: two situated between the poles and the arctic circles; two between the arctic circles and the tropics; and two between the tropics which are divided by the equator. However, it appears to me that the division into five zones accords best both with the order of external nature and geography. With external nature, as respects the celestial phenomena, and the temperature of the atmosphere. With respect to the celestial phenomena, as thePeriscii and Amphiscii are thereby divided in the best possible manner, and it also forms an excellent line of separation in regard to those who behold the stars from an opposite point of view. With respect to the temperature of the atmosphere, inasmuch as looked at in connexion with the sun, there are three main divisions, which influence in a remarkable degree both plants, animals, and every other animated thing, existing either in the air, or exposed to it, namely, excess of heat, want of heat, and a moderate supply of heat. In the division into [five] zones, each of these is correctly distinguished. The two frigid zones indicate the want of heat, being alike in the temperature of their atmosphere; the temperate zones possess a moderate heat, and the remaining, or torrid zone, is remarkable for its excess of heat. The propriety of this division in regard to geography is equally apparent; the object of this science being to determine the limits of that one of the temperate zones which we inhabit. To the east and west, it is true, the boundaries are formed by the sea, but to the north and south they are indicated by the atmosphere; which in the middle is of a grateful temperature both to animals and plants, but on either side is rendered intemperate either through excess or defect of heat. To manifest this threefold difference, the division of the globe into five zones becomes necessary. In fact, the division of the globe, by means of the equator, into two hemispheres, the one northern, wherein we dwell, and the other southern, points to this threefold division, for the regions next the equator and torrid zone are uninhabitable on account of the heat, those next the poles on account of the cold, but those in the middle are mild, and fitted for the habitation of man.Posidonius, in placing two zones under the tropics, pays no regard to the reasons which influenced the division into five zones, nor is his division equally appropriate. It is no more than if he were to form his division into zones merely according to the [countries inhabited] by different nations, calling one the Ethiopian, another theScythian andKeltic, and a third the Intermediate zone.

§ 2.3.2  Polybius, indeed, is wrong in bounding certain of his zones by the arctic circles, namely, the two which lie under them, and the two between these and the tropics. The impropriety of using shifting points to mark the limits of those which are fixed has been remarked before; and we have likewise objected to the plan of making the tropics the boundary of the torrid zone. However, in dividing the torrid zone into two parts [Polybius] seems to have been influenced by no inconsiderable reason, the same which led us to regard the whole earth as properly divided by the equator into two hemispheres, north and south. We at once see that by means of this division the torrid zone is divided into two parts, thus establishing a kind of uniformity; each hemisphere consisting of three entire zones, respectively similar to each other. Thus this partition will admit of a division into six zones, but the other does not allow of it at all. Supposing you cut the earth into two portions by a line drawn through the poles, you can find no sufficient cause for dividing the eastern and western hemispheres into six zones; on the other hand, five would be preferable. For since both the portions of the torrid zone, divided by the equator, are similar and contiguous to each other, it would seem out of place and superfluous to separate them; whereas the temperate and frigid zones respectively resemble each other, although lying apart. Wherefore, supposing the whole earth to consist of these two hemispheres, it is sufficient to divide them into five zones. If there be a temperate region under the equator, asEratosthenes asserts, and is admitted byPolybius, (who adds, that it is the most elevated part of the earth, and consequently subject to the drenching rains occasioned by the monsoons bringing up from the north innumerable clouds, which discharge themselves on the highest lands,) it would be better to suppose this a third narrow temperate zone, than to extend the two temperate zones within the circles of the tropics. This supposition is supported by the statements ofPosidonius, that the course of the sun, whether in the ecliptic, or from east to west, appears most rapid in tie region [of which we are speaking], because the rotations of that luminary are performed with a speed increased in proportion to the greater size of the circle.

§ 2.3.3  Posidonius blamesPolybius for asserting that the region of the earth, situated under the equator, is the highest, since a spherical body being equal all round, no part can be described as high; and as to mountainous districts, there are none under the equator, it is on the contrary a flat country, about the same level as the sea; as for the rains which swell theNile, they descend from the mountains ofEthiopia. Although advancing this, he afterwards seems to adopt the other opinion, for he says that he fancies there may be mountains under the equator, around which the clouds assembling from both of the temperate zones, produce violent rains. Here is one manifest contradiction; again, in stating that the land under the equator is mountainous, another contradiction appears. For they say that the ocean is confluent, how then can they place mountains in the midst of it? unless they mean to say that there are islands. However, whether such be the fact does not lie within the province of geography to determine, the inquiry would better be left to him who makes the ocean in particular his study.

§ 2.3.4  Posidonius, in speaking of those who have sailed round Africa, tells us thatHerodotus was of opinion that some of those sent out byDarius actually performed this enterprise; and thatHeraclides ofPontus, in a certain dialogue, introduces one of theMagi presenting himself toGelon, and declaring that he had performed this voyage; but he remarks that this wants proof. He also narrates how a certainEudoxus ofCyzicus, sent with sacrifices and oblations to the Corean games, travelled intoEgypt in the reign ofEuergetes II.; and being a learned man, and much interested in the peculiarities of different countries, he made interest with the king and his ministers on the subject, but especially for exploring theNile. It chanced that a certainIndian was brought to the king by the [coast]-guard of theArabian Gulf. They reported that they had found him in a ship, alone, and half dead: but that they neither knew who he was, nor where he came from, as he spoke a language they could not understand. He was placed in the hands of preceptors appointed to teach him the Greek language. On acquiring which, he related how he had started from the coasts ofIndia, but lost his course, and reachedEgypt alone, all his companions having perished with hunger; but that if he were restored to his country he would point out to those sent with him by the king, the route by sea toIndia.Eudoxus was of the number thus sent. He set sail with a good supply of presents, and brought back with him in exchange aromatics and precious stones, some of which theIndians collect from amongst the pebbles of the rivers, others they dig out of the earth, where they have been formed by the moisture, as crystals are formed with us. [He fancied that he had made his fortune], however, he was greatly deceived, forEuergetes took possession of the whole treasure. On the death of that prince, his widow,Cleopatra, assumed the reins of government, andEudoxus was again despatched with a richer cargo than before. On his journey back, he was carried by the winds aboveEthiopia, and being thrown on certain [unknown] regions, he conciliated the inhabitants by presents of grain, wine, and cakes of pressed figs, articles which they were without; receiving in exchange a supply of water, and guides for the journey. He also wrote down several words of their language, and having found the end of a prow, with ahorse carved on it, which he was told formed part of the wreck of a vessel coming from the west, he took it with him, and proceeded on his homeward course. He arrived safely inEgypt, where no longerCleopatra, but her son, ruled; but he was again stripped of every thing on the accusation of having appropriated to his own uses a large portion of the merchandise sent out. However, he carried the prow into the market-place, and exhibited it to the pilots, who recognised it as being come fromGades. The merchants [of that place] employing large vessels, but the lesser traders small ships, which they stylehorses, from the figures of that animal borne on the prow, and in which they go out fishing aroundMaurusia, as far as the Lixus. Some of the pilots professed to recognise the prow as that of a vessel which had sailed beyond the river Lixus, but had not returned. From thisEudoxus drew the conclusion, that it was possible to circumnavigateLibya; he therefore returned home, and having collected together the whole of his substance, set out on his travels. First he visitedDicaearchia, and thenMarseilles, and afterwards traversed the whole coast as far asGades. Declaring his enterprise everywhere as he journeyed, he gathered money sufficient to equip a great ship, and two boats, resembling those used bypirates. On board these he placed singing girls, physicians, and artisans of various kinds, and launching into open sea, was carried towardsIndia by steady westerly winds. However, they who accompanied him becoming wearied with the voyage, steered their course towards land, but much against his will, as he dreaded the force of the ebb and flow. What he feared actually occurred. The ship grounded, but gently, so that it did not break up at once, but fell to pieces gradually, the goods and much of the timber of the ship being saved. With these he built a third vessel, closely resembling a ship of fifty oars, and continuing his voyage, came amongst a people who spoke the same language as that some words of which he had on a former occasion committed to writing. He further discovered, that they were men of the same stock as those otherEthiopians, and also resembled those of the kingdom of Bogus. However, he abandoned his [intended] voyage toIndia, and returned home. On his voyage back he observed an uninhabited island. well watered and wooded, and carefully noted its position. Having reachedMaurusia in safety, he disposed of his vessels, and travelled by land to the court of Bogus. He recommended that sovereign to undertake an expedition thither. This, however, was prevented on account of the fear of the [king's] advisers, lest the district should chance to expose then to treachery, by making known a route by which foreigners might come to attack them.Eudoxus, however, became aware, that although it was given out that he was himself to be sent on this proposed expedition, the real intent was to abandon him on some desert island. He therefore fled to the Roman territory, and passed thence intoIberia. Again, he equipped two vessels, one round and the other long, furnished with fifty oars, the latter framed for voyaging in the high seas. the other for coasting along the shores. He placed on board agricultural implements, seed, and builders, and hastened on the same voyage, determined, if it should prove too long, to winter on the island he had before observed, sow his seed. and leaving reaped the harvest, complete the expedition he had intended from the beginning.

§ 2.3.5  "Thus far," saysPosidonius, "I have followed the history ofEudoxus. What happened afterwards is probably known to the people ofGades andIberia;" "but," says he, "all these things only demonstrate more clearly the fact, that the inhabited earth is entirely surrounded by the ocean." "By no continent fettered in, But boundless in its flow, and free from soil."Posidonius is certainly a most strange writer; he considers that the voyage of theMagus, related byHeraclides, wants sufficient evidence, and also the account given byHerodotus of those sent out [to explore] byDarius. But this Bergaean nonsense, either the coinage of his own brain, or of some other story-teller, in whom he trusts, he pretends to be worthy of our belief. But in the first place, what is there credible in this tale of theIndian missing his way? TheArabian Gulf, which resembles a river, is narrow, and in length is from 5000 to 10,000 stadia up to its mouth, where it is narrowest of all. It is not likely that theIndians in their voyage out would have entered this Gulf by mistake. The extreme narrowness of the mouth must have warned them of their error. And if they entered it voluntarily, then there was no excuse for introducing the pretext of mistake and uncertain winds. And how did they suffer all of themselves but one to perish through hunger? And how was it that this survivor was able to manage the ship, which could not have been a small one either, fitted as it was for traversing such vast seas? What must have been his aptitude in learning the language of the country, and thus being able to persuade the king of his competence, as leader of the expedition? And how came it thatEuergetes was in want of such guides, so many being already acquainted with this sea? How was it that he who was sent by the inhabitants ofCyzicus to carry libations and sacrifices, should forsake his city and sail forIndia? How was it that so great an affair was intrusted to him? And how came it that on his return, after being deprived of every thing contrary to expectation, and disgraced, a yet larger cargo of goods was intrusted to him? And when he had again returned intoEthiopia, what cause induced him to write down the words, or to inquire whence came the portion of the prow of the boat? For to learn that it was a ship of some sailing from the west, would have been no information to him, as he himself would have to sail from the west on his voyage back. When, on his return toAlexandria, he was detected in having appropriated to himself much of the merchandise, how came it that he was not punished, but allowed to go about interrogating the pilots, and exhibiting his bit of prow? And that one of these fellows actually recognised the relic, is it not delicious!Eudoxus too believed it, this is still richer; and inspired by the hope, hastens home, and then starts on a voyage beyond thePillars of Hercules! But he could never have leftAlexandria without a passport, still less after having stolen the royal property. To set sail on the sly was impossible, as the port and every other exit was kept by a numerous guard, which still exists, as we very well know who have lived inAlexandria for a long time, although it is not so strict since the Romans have had possession, but under the kings the guards were infinitely more alert. But allowing that he reachedGades, that he there constructed ships, and sailed thence with quite a royal fleet, when his vessel was shattered, by what means was he able to construct a third boat in a desert land? And when, being again on his voyage, he found that theEthiopians of the West spoke the same language as those of the East, how came it that he, so proud of his travelling propensities, forgot the completion of his voyage, when he must have had so good an expectation that there was but little now left unexplored, but relinquishing these prospects, set his mind on the expedition being undertaken by Bogus? How did he become acquainted with the snare spread for him by that king? And what advantage would have accrued to Bogus by making away with the man, rather than by dismissing him? WhenEudoxus learned the plot against himself, what means had he to escape to safer quarters? It is true that not one of these situations was actually impossible, but still they were difficult circumstances, such as one rarely escapes from by any prosperous fortune. However, he always came off with good luck, notwithstanding he was never out of danger. Besides this, how did it happen, that having escaped from Bogus, he was not afraid to sail round Africa a second time, with all the requisites for taking up his abode on the island? All this too closely resembles the falsehoods ofPytheas,Euhemerus, andAntiphanes. They however may be pardoned; for their only aim was that of the juggler. But who can forgive a demonstrator and philosopher, and one too striving to be at the head of their order? it is really too bad!

§ 2.3.6  However, he is right in attributing to earthquakes and other similar causes, which we also have enumerated, the risings, slips, and changes which at various periods come over the earth. He did well, too, in citing the opinion ofPlato, "that the tradition concerning the Island ofAtlantis might be received as something more than a mere fiction, it having been related bySolon on the authority of theEgyptian priests, that this island, almost as large as a continent, was formerly in existence, although now it had disappeared."Posidonius thinks it better to quote this than to say, "He who brought it into existence can also cause it to disappear, as the poet did the wall of theAchivi." He (Posidonius) is also of opinion that the emigration of theCimbrians and other kindred races from their native territory, was gradual, and occasioned by the inundation of the sea, and by no means a sudden movement. He supposes that the length of the inhabited earth is about 70,000 stadia, being the half of the whole circle on which it is taken; so that, says he, starting from the west, one might, aided by a continual east wind, reachIndia in so many thousand stadia.

§ 2.3.7  Next he undertakes to find fault with those who gave to the continents their present division, instead of marking them out by lines drawn parallel to the equator, by which means the different animals, plants, and temperatures would have been distinguished, according as they approached the frigid or the torrid zones; so that each continent would have formed a kind of zone. Afterwards, however, he overturns and gives up altogether this view, bestowing every commendation on the existing system, and thus making his argument altogether worthless and of no avail. In fact, the various arrangements [of a country] are not the result of premeditation, any more than the diversities of nations or languages; they all depend on circumstances and chance. Arts, forms of government, and modes of life, arising from certain [internal] springs, flourish under whatever climate they may be situated; climate, however, has its influence, and therefore while some peculiarites are due to the nature of the country, others are the result of institutions and education. It is not owing to the nature of the country, but rather to their education, that theAthenians cultivate eloquence, while theLacedemonians do not; nor yet theThebans, who are nearer still. Neither are theBabylonians andEgyptians philosophers by nature, but by reason of their institutions and education. In like manner the excellence ofhorses,oxen, and other animals, results not alone from the places where they dwell, but also, from their breeding.Posidonius confounds all these distinctions. In praising the division of the continents as it now stands, he advances as an argument the difference between theIndians and theEthiopians ofLibya, the former being more robust, and less dried by the heat of the climate. It is on this account thatHomer, who includes them all under the title ofEthiopians, describes them as being separated into two divisions, "These eastward situate, those toward the west." [Od. i, 23. [Crates], to support his hypothesis, supposes another inhabited earth, of whichHomer certainly knew nothing; and says that the passage ought to be read thus, "towards the descending sun," viz. when having passed the meridian, it begins to decline.

§ 2.3.8  First, then, theEthiopians nextEgypt are actually separated into two divisions; one part being inAsia, the other inLibya, otherwise there is no distinction between them. But it was not on this account thatHomer divided theEthiopians, nor yet because he was acquainted with the physical superiority of theIndians, (for it is not probable thatHomer had the slightest idea of theIndians, since, according to the assertion ofEudoxus,Euergetes was both ignorant ofIndia, and of the voyage thither,) but his division rather resulted from the cause we formerly mentioned. We have shown that as for the alteration ofCrates, it makes no difference whether it be read so or not.Posidonius, however, says that it does make a difference, and would be better altered into "towards the descending [sun]." But in what can this be said to differ from "towards the west," since the whole section of the hemisphere west of the meridian is styled "the west," not only the mere semicircle of the horizon. This is manifested by the following expression ofAratus, "Where the extremities of the west and east blend together." Phaenom. v. 61. However, if the reading ofPosidonius be preferable to that ofCrates, any one may likewise claim for it a superiority over that ofAristarchus. So much forPosidonius. There are, however, many particulars relating to Geography, which we shall bring under discussion; others relating to Physics, which must be examined elsewhere, or altogether disregarded; for he is much too fond of imitatingAristotle's propensity for diving into causes, a subject which we [Stoics] scrupulously avoid, simply because of the extreme darkness in which all causes are enveloped.

§ 2.4.1  POLYBIUS, in his Chorography of Europe, tells us that it is not his intention to examine the writings of the ancient geographers, but the statements of those who have criticised them, such asDicaearchus,Eratosthenes, (who was the last of those who [in his time] had laboured on geography,) andPytheas, by whom many have been deceived. It is this last writer who states that he travelled all overBritain on foot, and that the island is above 40,000 stadia in circumference. It is likewise he who describesThule and other neighbouring places, where, according to him, neither earth, water, nor air exist, separately, but a sort of concretion of all these, resembling marine sponge, in which the earth, the sea, and all things were suspended, thus forming, as it were, a link to unite the whole together. It can neither be travelled over nor sailed through. As for the substance, he affirms that he has beheld it with his own eyes; the rest, he reports on the authority of others. So much for the statements ofPytheas, who tells us, besides, that after he had returned thence, he traversed the whole coasts of Europe fromGades to theTanais.

§ 2.4.2  Polybius asks, "How is it possible that a private individual, and one too in narrow circumstances, could ever have performed such vast expeditions by sea and land? And how couldEratosthenes, who hesitates whether he may rely on his statements in general, place such entire confidence in what that writer narrates concerningBritain,Gades, andIberia?" says he, "it would have been better hadEratosthenes trusted to theMessenian rather than to this writer. The former merely pretends to have sailed into one [unknown] country, viz.Panchaea, but the latter, that he has visited the whole of the north of Europe as far as the ends of the earth; which statement, even had it been made byMercury, we should not have believed. NeverthelessEratosthenes, who termsEuhemerus aBergaean, gives credit toPytheas, although evenDicaearchus would not believe him." This argument, "although evenDicaearchus would not believe him," is ridiculous, just as ifEratosthenes ought to take for his standard a writer whomPolybius is himself for ever complaining of. The ignorance ofEratosthenes respecting the western and northern portions of Europe, we have before remarked. But both he andDicaearchus must be pardoned for this, as neither of them were personally familiar with those localities. But how can one excusePolybius andPosidonius? especiallyPolybius, who treats as mere hearsay whatEratosthenes andDicaearchus report concerning the distances of various places; and many other matters, about which, though he blames them, he is not himself free from error.Dicaearchus states that there are 10,000 stadia from thePeloponnesus to thePillars, and something above this number from thePeloponnesus to the recess of theAdriatic. He supposes 3000 stadia between thePeloponnesus and theStrait of Sicily; thus there would remain 7000 between theStrait of Sicily and thePillars. "I will not inquire," saysPolybius, "whether the statement concerning the 3000 stadia is correct or not, but 7000 stadia is not the correct measure [from theStrait of Messina to thePillars of Hercules], whether taken along the sea-shore, or right across the sea. The coast closely resembles an obtuse angle, one side reaching to theStrait of Sicily, the other to thePillars, the vertex beingNarbonne. Now let a triangle be constructed, having for its base a right line drawn through the sea, and its sides forming the aforementioned angle. The side reaching from theStrait of Sicily toNarbonne is above 11,200 stadia, while the other is below 8000. Now the greatest distance from Europe toLibya, across theTyrrhenian sea, is not above 3000 stadia, and across the Sea ofSardinia it is less still. But supposing that it too is 3000 stadia add to this 2000 stadia, the depth of the bay atNarbonne as a perpendicular from the vertex to the base of the obtuse-angled triangle. It will, then, be clear even to the geometrical powers of a child, that the entire coast from theStrait of Sicily to thePillars, does not exceed by more than 500 stadia the right line drawn across the sea; adding to these the 3000 stadia from thePeloponnesus to theStrait of Sicily, the whole taken together will give a straight line above double the length assigned byDicaearchus; and, according to his system, you must add in addition to these the stadia at the recess of theAdriatic."

§ 2.4.3  True, dearPolybius, (one might say,) this error [ofDicaearchus] is manifested by the proof which you yourself have given when you inform us that from thePeloponnesus toLeucas there are 700 stadia; from thence toCorcyra the same number; and the same number again fromCorcyra to theCeraunian Mountains; and from theCeraunian Mountains toIapygia, following the coast ofIllyria on the right, 6150 stadia. But the statement ofDicaearchus, that the distance from theStrait of Sicily to thePillars is 7000 stadia, and also your view of the matter, are both of them equally incorrect. For almost every one is agreed that the distance measured straight across the sea is 12,000 stadia, and this coincides with the received calculation of the length of the inhabited earth, which is estimated at above 70,000 stadia; the western portion of this from theGulf of Issos to the extreme western point ofIberia is little less than 30,000 stadia, and is thus calculated: from theGulf of Issos toRhodes 5000 stadia; from thence to CapeSalmonium, which forms the eastern extremity ofCrete, 1000; the length ofCrete toCriu-metopon above 2000; thence to CapePachynus inSicily 4500, and fromPachynus to theStrait of Sicily above 1000 stadia; the run from theStrait to thePillars 12,000 and lastly, from thePillars to the extremity of the said promontory ofIberia, about 3000 stadia. In addition to this, the perpendicular is not correct, supposing it true thatNarbonne lies under almost the same parallel asMarseilles, and that this latter place is under the same parallel asByzantium; which is the opinion ofHipparchus. Now the line drawn across the sea lies under the same parallel as the Strait [of thePillars] andRhodes; and the distance fromRhodes toByzantium, which both lie under the same meridian, is estimated at about 5000 stadia; to which the above-mentioned perpendicular ought to be equal. But since they say that from the recess of the Galatic Gulf, the greatest distance across the sea from Europe toLibya is 5000 stadia, it seems to me that either there is some error in this statement, or that at this pointLibya must incline very much to the north, and so come under the same parallel as thePillars.Polybius is likewise mistaken in telling us that this said perpendicular terminates close toSardinia; for instead of being lose toSardinia, it is far west thereof, having almost the whole of the sea ofLiguria between it and that island. Besides this he makes the length of the sea-coast too great; but this [error] is not so considerable [as the two preceding].

§ 2.4.4  After thisPolybius proceeds to set right the mistakes of'Eratosthenes. In this he is sometimes successful; at others his corrections are for the worse. For example,Eratosthenes gives 300 stadia fromIthaca toCorcyra;Polybius makes it above 900. FromEpidamnus toThessalonicaEratosthenes allows 900 stadia;Polybius says above 2000 [303km, about 1650 stades as crow flies]. In these instances he is correct. But whereEratosthenes states that fromMarseilles to thePillars there are 7000 stadia, and from thePyrenees [to the same place] 6000, andPolybius alters this to more than 9000 fromMarseilles, and little less than 8000 from thePyrenees, he is quite mistaken, and not so near to the truth asEratosthenes. For all are now agreed that, barring the indirectness of the roads, the whole length ofIberia is not more than 6000 stadia from thePyrenees to its western limits; notwithstandingPolybius gives 8000 stadia for the length of the riverTagus, from its source to its outlets, and this in a straight line without any reference to its sinuosities, which in fact never enter into the geographical estimate, although the sources of theTagus are above 1000 stadia from thePyrenees. His remark is quite correct, thatEratosthenes knew little aboutIberia, and on this account sometimes makes conflicting statements concerning it. He tells us, for example, that the portion of this country situated on the seacoast as far asGades is inhabited by Galatae, who possess western Europe as far asGades; nevertheless, in his account ofIberia he seems quite to have forgotten this, and makes no mention of these Galatae whatever.

§ 2.4.5  Again, however,Polybius makes an incorrect assertion, in stating that the whole length of Europe is unequal to that of Africa andAsia taken together. He tells us "that the entrance at thePillars corresponds in direction to the equinoctial west, and that theTanais flows from the summer rising, consequently the length of Europe is less than that ofAsia and Africa taken together by the space between the summer rising and the equinoctial rising, sinceAsia occupies the eastern portion of the northern semicircle. Now, in addition to the obscurity whichPolybius throws over subjects which might have been simply stated, it is false that the riverTanais flows from the summer rising. For all who are acquainted with these localities inform us that this river flows from the north into theMaeotis, so that the mouth of the river lies under the same meridian as that of theMaeotis; and so in fact does the whole river as far as is known.

§ 2.4.6  Equally unworthy of credit is the statement of those who tell us, that theTanais rises in the vicinity of theDanube, and flows from the west; they do not remember that between these are theTyras [Dniester], theDnieper, and theHypanis [Bug], all great rivers, which flow [into theEuxine Sea]; one runs parallel to theDanube, the other two to theTanais. Now if at the present day we are ignorant of the sources both of theTyras, and also of theDnieper andHypanis, the regions farther north must certainly be still less known. It is therefore a fictitious and idle assertion, that theTanais crosses these rivers, and then turns northward on its way to discharge itself into theMaeotis, it being well known that the outlets to this river are in the most northern and eastern portions of the lake. No less idle is the statement which has also been advanced. that theTanais, after crossing theCaucasus, flows northward and then turns towards theMaeotis. No one, however, [with the exception ofPolybius, ] made this river flow from the east If such were its course, our best geographers would never have told us that its direction was contrary to that of theNile, and, so to speak, diametrically opposite thereto, as if the course of both rivers lay under the same meridian.

§ 2.4.7  Further, the length of the inhabited earth is measured on a line parallel with the equator, as it is in this direction that its greatest length lies: in the same way with respect to each of the continents, we must take their length as it lies between two meridians. The measure of these lengths consists of a certain number of stadia, which we obtain either by going over the places themselves, or roads or ways parallel thereto.Polybius abandons this method, and adopts the new way of taking the segment of the northern semicircle comprised between the summer rising and the equinoctial rising. But no one ought to calculate by variable rules or measures in determining the length of fixed distances: nor yet should he make use of the phenomena of the heavens, which appear different when observed from different points, for distances which have their length determined by themselves and remain unchanged. The length of a country never varies, but depends upon itself; whereas, the equinoctial rising and setting, and the summer and winter rising and setting, depend not on themselves, but on our position [with respect to them]. As we shift from place to place, the equinoctial rising and setting, and the winter and summer rising and setting, shift with us; but the length of a continent always remains the same. To make theTanais and theNile the bounds of these continents, is nothing out of the way, but it is something strange to employ for this purpose the equinoctial rising and the summer rising.

§ 2.4.8  Of the many promontories formed by Europe, a better description is given byPolybius than byEratosthenes; but even his is not sufficient.Eratosthenes only names three; one at thePillars of Hercules, whereIberia is situated; a second at theStrait of Sicily, and containingItaly; the third terminated by the Cape ofMalea, comprising all the countries situated between theAdriatic, theEuxine, and theTanais. The two former of thesePolybius describes in the same manner asEratosthenes, but the third, which is equally terminated by the Cape ofMalea and CapeSounion, [he makes to] comprehend the whole of Greece,Illyria, and some portion ofThrace. [He supposes] a fourth, containing the ThracianChersonesus and the countries contiguous to the Strait, betwixtSestos andAbydos. This is occupied by theThracians. Also a fifth, about the KimmerianBosphorus and the mouth of theMaeotis. Let us allow [toPolybius] his two former [promontories], they are clearly distinguished by unmistakeable bays; the first by the bay betweenCalpe and theSacred Promontory whereGades is situated, as also by the sea between thePillars andSicily; the second by the latter sea and theAdriatic, although it may be objected that the extremity ofIapygia, being a promontory in itself, causesItaly to have a double cape. But as for the remaining [promontories ofPolybius], they are plainly much more irregular, and composed of many parts, and require some other division. So likewise his plan of dividing [Europe] into six parts, similar to that of the promontories, is liable to objection. However, we will set to rights each of these errors separately, as we meet with them, as well as the other blunders into which he has fallen in his description of Europe, and the journey round Africa. For the present we think that we have sufficiently dwelt on those of our predecessors whom we have thought proper to introduce as testimonies in our behalf, that both in the matter of correction and addition we had ample cause to undertake the present work.

§ 2.5.1  AFTER these criticisms on the writers who have preceded us, we must now confine our attention to the fulfilment of our promise. We start with a maxim we laid down at the commencement, that whoever undertakes to write a Chorography, should receive as axioms certain physical and mathematical propositions, and frame the rest of his work in accordance with, and in full reliance on, these principles. We have already stated [our opinion], that neither builder nor architect could build house or city properly and as it ought to be, unless acquainted with the climax of the place, its position in respect to celestial appearances, its shape, magnitude, degree of heat and cold, and similar facts; much less should he [be without such information] who undertakes to describe the situation of the various regions of the inhabited earth. Represent to the mind on one and the same plane-surfaceIberia andIndia with the intermediate countries, and define likewise the west, the east, and the south, which are common to every country. To a man already acquainted with the arrangement and motions of the heavens, and aware that in reality the surface of the earth is spherical, although here for the sake of illustration represented as a plane, this will give a sufficiently exact idea of the geographical [position of the various countries], but not to one who is unacquainted with those matters. The tourist travelling over vast plains like those ofBabylon, or journeying by sea, may fancy that the whole country stretched before, behind, and on either side of him is a plane-surface; he may be unacquainted with the counterindications of the celestial phenomena, and with the motions and appearance of the sun and stars, in respect to us. But such facts as these should ever be present to the mind of those who compose Geographies The traveller, whether by sea or land, is directed by certain common appearances, which answer equally for the direction both of the unlearned and of the man of the world. Ignorant of astronomy, and unacquainted with the varied aspect of the heavens, he beholds the sun rise and set, and attain the meridian, but without considering how this takes place. Such knowledge could not aid the object he has in view, any more than to know whether the country he chances to be in may be under the same latitude as his own or not. Even should he bestow a slight attention to the subject, on all mathematical points he will adopt the opinions of the place; and every country has certain mistaken views of these matters. But it is not for any particular nation, nor for the man of the world who cares nothing for abstract mathematics, still less is it for the reaper or ditcher, that the geographer labours; but it is for him who is convinced that the earth is such as mathematicians declare it to be, and who admits every other fact resulting from this hypothesis. He requests that those who approach him shall have already settled this in their minds as a fact, that they may be able to lend their whole attention to other points. He will advance nothing which is not a consequence of these primary facts; therefore those who hear him, if they have a knowledge of mathematics, will readily be able to turn his instructions to account; for those who are destitute of this information he does not pretend to expound Geography.

§ 2.5.2  Those who write on the science of Geography should trust entirely for the arrangement of the subject they are engaged on to the geometers, who have measured the whole earth; they in their turn to astronomers; and these again to natural philosophers. Now natural philosophy is one of the perfect sciences. The "perfect sciences" they define as those which, depending on no external hypothesis, have their origin, and the evidence of their propositions, in themselves. Here are a few of the facts established by natural philosophers. The earth and heavens are spheroidal. The tendency of all bodies having weight, is to a centre. Further, the earth being spheroidal, and having the same centre as the heavens, is motionless, as well as the axis which passes through both it and the heavens. The heavens turn round both the earth and its axis, from east to west. The fixed stars turn round with it, at the same rate as the whole. These fixed stars follow in their course parallel circles; the principal of which are, the equator, the two tropics, and the arctic circles. While the planets, the sun, and the moon, describe certain oblique circles comprehended within the zodiac. Admitting these points in whole or in part, astronomers proceed to treat of other matters, [such as] the motions [of the stars], their revolutions, eclipses, size, relative distance, and a thousand similar particulars. On their side, geometers, when measuring the size of the entire earth, avail themselves of the data furnished by the natural philosopher and astronomer; and the geographer on his part makes use of those of the geometer.

§ 2.5.3  The heavens and the earth must be supposed to be divided each into five zones, and the celestial zones to possess the same names as those below. The motives for such a division into zones we have already detailed. These zones may be distinguished by circles drawn parallel to the equator, on either side of it. Two of these will separate the torrid from the temperate zones, and the remaining two, the temperate from the frigid. To each celestial circle there shall be one corresponding on earth, and bearing the same name, and likewise zone for zone. The [two] zones capable of being inhabited, are styled temperate. The remaining [three] are uninhabitable, one on account of the heat, the others because of the extreme cold. The same is the case with regard to the tropical, and also to the arctic circles, in respect of those countries for which arctic circles can be said to exist. Circles on the earth are supposed, corresponding to those in the heavens, and bearing the same name, one for one. As the whole heaven is separated into two parts by its equator, it follows that the earth must, by its equator, be similarly divided. The two hemispheres, both celestial and terrestrial, are distinguished into north and south. Likewise the torrid zone, which is divided into two halves by the equator, is distinguished as having a northern and southern side. Hence it is evident that of the two temperate zones, one should be called northern, the other southern, according to the hemisphere to which it belongs. The northern hemisphere is that containing the temperate zone, in which looking from east to west, you will have the pole on your right hand, and the equator on the left, or, in which, looking south, the west will be on the right hand, and the east on the left. The southern hemisphere is exactly the contrary to this. It is clear that we are in one or other of these hemispheres, namely, the north; we cannot be in both: "Broad rivers roll, and awful floods between, But chief the ocean." [Od. xi.] 156, 157. And next is the torrid zone. But neither is there any ocean in the midst of the earth wherein we dwell, dividing the whole thereof, nor yet have we any torrid region. Nor is there any portion of it to be found in which the climata are opposite to those which have been described as characterizing the northern temperate zone.

§ 2.5.4  Assuming these data, and availing himself likewise of astronomical observations, by which the position of every place is properly determined, whether with respect to the circles parallel to the equator, or to those which cut these latter at right angles, in the direction of the poles, the geometer measures the region in which he dwells, and [judges of the extent of] others by comparing the distance [between the corresponding celestial signs]. By this means he discovers the distance from the equator to the pole, which is a quarter of the largest circle of the earth; having obtained this, he has only to multiply by four, the result is the [measure of the] perimeter of the globe. In the same manner as he who takes the measures of the earth, borrows the foundation of his calculations from the astronomer, who himself is indebted to the natural philosopher, so in like manner the geographer adopts certain facts laid down as established by the geometer, before setting forth his description of the earth we inhabit; its size, form, nature, and the proportion it bears to the whole earth. These latter points are the peculiar business of the geographer. He will next enter on a particular description of every thing deserving notice, whether on land or sea; he will likewise point out whatever has been improperly stated by those who have preceded him, especially by those who are regarded as chief authorities in these matters.

§ 2.5.5  Let it be supposed that the earth and sea together form a spheroidal body, and preserve one and the same level in all the seas. For though some portions of the earth may be higher, yet this bears so small a relation to the size of the whole mass, as need not be noticed. The spheroid in consequence is not so minutely exact as one might be made by the aid of a turner's instrument, or as would answer the definition of a geometer, still in general appearance, and looked at roughly, it is a spheroid. Let the earth be supposed to consist of five zones, with (1.) the equatorial circle described round it, (2.) another parallel to this, and defining the frigid zone of the northern hemisphere, and (3.) a circle passing through the poles, and cutting the two preceding circles at right angles. The northern hemisphere contains two quarters of the earth, which are bounded by the equator and the circle passing through the poles. Each of these [quarters] should be supposed to contain a four-sided district, its northern side being composed of one half of the parallel next the pole; its southern, by the half of the equator; and its remaining sides, by [two] segments of the circle drawn through the poles, opposite to each other, and equal in length. In one of these quadrilaterals (which of them is of no consequence) the earth that we inhabit is situated, surrounded by sea, and similar to an island. This, as we said before, is evident both to our senses and to our reason. But should any one doubt thereof, it makes no difference so far as Geography is concerned, whether you suppose the portion of the earth we inhabit to be an island, or only admit what we know from experience, viz. that whether you start from the east or west, you may sail all round it. Certain intermediate spaces may have been left [unexplored], but these are as likely to be occupied by sea, as uninhabited lands. The object of the geographer is to describe known countries; those which are unknown he passes over equally with those beyond the limits of the inhabited earth. It will therefore be sufficient for describing the contour of the island we have been speaking of, if we join by a right line the utmost points which, up to this time, have been explored by voyagers along the coast on either side.

§ 2.5.6  Let it be supposed that this island is contained in one of the above quadrilaterals; we must obtain its apparent magnitude by subtracting our hemisphere from the whole extent of the earth, from this take the half, and from this again the quadrilateral, in which we state our earth to be situated. We may judge also by analogy of the figure of the whole earth, by supposing that it accords with those parts with which we are acquainted. Now as the portion of the northern hemisphere, between the equator and the parallel next the [north] pole, resembles a vertebre or joint of the back-bone in shape, and as the circle which passes through the pole divides at the same time the hemisphere and the vertebre into two halves, thus forming the quadrilateral; it is clear that this quadrilateral to which theAtlantic is adjacent, is but the half of the vertebre; while at the same time the inhabited earth, which is an island in this, and shaped like a chlamys or soldier's cloak, occupies less than the half of the quadrilateral. This is evident from geometry, also from the extent of the surrounding sea, which covers the extremities of the continents on either side, compressing them into a smaller figure, and thirdly, by the greatest length and breadth [of the earth itself]. The length being 70,000 stadia, enclosed almost entirely by a sea, impossible to navigate owing to its wildness and vast extent, and the breadth 30,000 stadia, bounded by regions rendered uninhabitable on account either of their intense heat or cold. That portion of the quadrilateral which is unfitted for habitation on account of the heat, contains in breadth 8800 stadia, and in its greatest length 126,000 stadia, which is equal to one half of the equator, and larger than one half the inhabited earth; and what is left is still more.

§ 2.5.7  These calculations are nearly synonymous with those furnished byHipparchus, who tells us, that supposing the size of the globe as stated byEratosthenes to be correct, we can then subtract from it the extent of the inhabited earth, since in noting the celestial appearances [as they are seen] in different countries, it is not of much importance whether we make use of this measure, or that furnished by later writers. Now as the whole circle of the equator according toEratosthenes contains 252,000 stadia, the quarter of this would be 63,000, that is, the space from the equator to the pole contains fifteen of the sixty divisions into which the equator itself is divided. There are four [divisions] between the equator and the summer tropic or parallel passing throughSyene. The distances for each locality are calculated by the astronomical observations. It is evident thatSyene is under the tropic, from the fact that during the summer solstice the gnomon at mid-day casts no shadow there. As for the meridian ofSyene, it follows very nearly the course of theNile fromMeroe toAlexandria, a distance of about 10,000 stadia.Syene itself is situated about mid-way between these places, consequently from thence toMeroe is a distance of 5000 stadia. Advancing 3000 stadia southward in a right line, we come to lands unfitted for habitation on account of the heat. Consequently the parallel which bounds these places, and which is the same as that of the Cinnamon Country, is to be regarded as the boundary and commencement of the habitable earth on the south. If, then, 3000 stadia be added to the 5000 betweenSyene andMeroe, there will be altogether 8000 stadia [fromSyene] to the [southern] extremity of the habitable earth. But fromSyene to the equator there are 16,800 stadia, (for such is the amount of the four-sixtieths, each sixtieth being equivalent to 4200 stadia,) and consequently from the [southern] boundaries of the habitable earth to the equator there are 8800 stadia, and fromAlexandria 21,800. Again, every one is agreed that the voyage fromAlexandria toRhodes, and thence byCaria andIonia to theTroad,Byzantium, and theDnieper, is in a straight line with the course of theNile. Taking therefore these distances, which have been ascertained by voyages, we have only to find out how far beyond theDnieper the land is habitable, (being careful always to continue in the same straight line,) and we shall arrive at a knowledge of the northern boundaries of our earth. Beyond theDnieper dwell theRoxolani, the last of theScythians with which we are acquainted; they are nevertheless more south than the farthest nations we know of beyondBritain. Beyond theseRoxolani the country is uninhabitable on account of the severity of the climate. TheSauromati who live around theMaeotis, and the otherScythians as far as theScythians of the East, dwell farther south.

§ 2.5.8  It is true thatPytheas ofMarseilles affirms that the farthest country north of theBritish islands isThule; for which place he says the summer tropic and the arctic circle is all one. But he records no other particulars concerning it; [he does not say] whetherThule is an island, or whether it continues habitable up to the point where the summer tropic becomes one with the arctic circle. For myself, I fancy that the northern boundaries of the habitable earth are greatly south of this. Modern writers tell us of nothing beyondIerne, which lies just north ofBritain, where the people live miserably and like savages on account of the severity of the cold. It is here in my opinion the bounds of the habitable earth ought to be fixed. If on the one hand the parallels ofByzantium andMarseilles are the same, asHipparchus asserts on the faith ofPytheas, (for he says that atByzantium the gnomon indicates the same amount of shadow asPytheas gives forMarseilles,) and at the same time the parallel of theDnieper is distant fromByzantium about 3800 stadia, it follows, if we take into consideration the distance betweenMarseilles andBritain, that the circle which passes over theDnieper traversesBritain as well. But the truth is thatPytheas, who so frequently misleads people, deceives in this instance too. It is generally admitted that a line drawn from thePillars of Hercules, and passing over theStrait [ofMessina ],Athens, andRhodes, would lie under the same parallel of latitude. It is likewise admitted, that the line in passing from thePillars to theStrait of Sicily divides the Mediterranean through the midst. Navigators tell us that the greatest distance fromKeltica toLibya, starting from the bottom of the Galatic Bay, is 5000 stadia, and that this is likewise the greatest breadth of the Mediterranean. Consequently from the said line to the bottom of the bay is 2500 stadia; but toMarseilles the distance is rather less, in consequence of that city being more to the south than the bottom of the bay. But since fromRhodes toByzantium is about 4900 stadia, it follows thatByzantium must be far north ofMarseilles. The distance from this latter city toBritain is about the same as fromByzantium to theDnieper. How far it may be fromBritain to the island ofIerne is not known. As to whether beyond it there may still be habitable lands, it is not our business to inquire, as we stated before. It is sufficient for our science to determine this in the same manner that we did the southern boundaries. We there fixed the bounds of the habitable earth at 3000 stadia south ofMeroe (not that these were its exact limits, but because they were sufficiently near); so in this instance they should be placed about the same number of stadia north ofBritain, certainly not more than 4000. It would not serve any political purpose to be well acquainted with these distant places and the people who inhabit them; especially if they are islands whose inhabitants can neither injure us, nor yet benefit us by their commerce. The Romans might easily have conqueredBritain, but they did not care to do so, as they perceived there was nothing to fear from the inhabitants, (they not being powerful enough to attack us,) and that they would gain nothing by occupying the land. Even now it appears that we gain more by the customs they pay, than we could raise by tribute, after deducting the wages of the soldiers necessary for guarding the island and exacting the taxes. And the other islands adjacent to this would be still more unproductive.

§ 2.5.9  If, then, to the distance betweenRhodes and theDnieper be added four thousand stadia north of the latter place, the whole would come to 12,700 stadia; and since fromRhodes to the southern limit of the habitable earth there are 16,600 stadia, its total breadth from north to south would be under 30,000 stadia. Its length from west to east is stated at 70,000 stadia, the distance being measured from the extremities ofIberia to those ofIndia, partly over the land and partly across the sea. That this length is contained within the quadrilateral aforesaid, is proved by the proportion borne by these parallels to the equator. Thus the length of the habitable earth is above twice its breadth. It has been compared in figure to a chlamys, or soldier's cloak, because if every part be carefully examined, it will be found that its breadth is greatly diminished towards the extremities, especially in the west.

§ 2.5.10  We have now been tracing upon a spherical surface the region which we state to be occupied by the habitable earth; and whoever would represent the real earth as near as possible by artificial means, should make a globe like that ofCrates, and upon this describe the quadrilateral within which his chart of geography is to be placed. For this purpose, however, a large globe is necessary, since the section mentioned, though but a very small portion of the entire sphere, must be capable of properly containing all the regions of the habitable earth, and presenting an accurate view of them to all those who wish to consult it. Any one who is able will certainly do well to obtain such a globe. But it should have a diameter of not less than ten feet: those who cannot obtain a globe of this size, or one nearly as large, had better draw their chart on a planesurface, of not less than seven feet. Draw straight lines, some parallel, for the parallels [of latitude], and others at right angles to these; we may easily imagine how the eye can transfer the figure and extent [of these lines] from a plane-surface to one that is spherical. What we have just observed of the circles in general, may be said with equal truth touching the oblique circles. On the globe it is true that the meridians of each country passing the pole have a tendency to unite in a single point, nevertheless on the planesurface of the map, there would be no advantage if the right lines alone which should represent the meridians were drawn slightly to converge. The necessity for such a proceeding would scarcely ever be really felt. Even on our globe itself the tendency of those meridians (which are transferred to the map as right lines) to converge is not much, nor any thing near so obvious as their circular tendency.

§ 2.5.11  In what follows we shall suppose the chart drawn on a plane-surface; and our descriptions shall consist of what we ourselves have observed in our travels by land and sea, and of what we conceive to be credible in the statements and writings of others. For ourselves, in a westerly direction we have travelled fromArmenia to that part of Tyrrhenia which is over againstSardinia; and southward, from theEuxine to the frontiers ofEthiopia. Of all the writers on Geography, not one can be mentioned who has travelled over a wider extent of the countries described than we have. Some may have gone farther to the west, but then they have never been so far east as we have; again, others may have been farther east, but not so far west; and the same with respect to north and south. However, in the main, both we and they have availed ourselves of the reports of others, from which to describe the form, the size, and the other peculiarities of the country, what they are and how many, in the same way that the mind forms its conceptions from the information of the senses. The figure, colour, and size of an apple, its scent, feel to the touch, and its flavour, are particulars communicated by the senses, from which the mind forms its conception of an apple. So in large figures, the senses observe the various parts, while the mind combines into one conception what is thus seen. And in like manner, men eager after knowledge, trusting to those who have been to various places, and to [the descriptions of] travellers in this or that country, gather into one sketch a view of the whole habitable earth. In the same way, the generals perform every thing, nevertheless, they are not present every where, but most of their success depends on others, since they are obliged to trust to messengers, and issue their commands in accordance with the reports of others. To pretend that those only can know who have themselves seen, is to deprive hearing of all confidence, which, after all, is a better servant of knowledge than sight itself.

§ 2.5.12  Writers of the present day can describe with more certainty [than formerly] theBritons, the Germans, and the dwellers on either side of theDanube, theGetae, theTyrigetae, theBastarnae, the tribes dwelling by theCaucasus, such as theAlbanians andIberians. We are besides possessed of a description ofHyrcania andBactriana in the Histories ofParthia written by such men asApollodorus ofArtemita, who leave detailed the boundaries [of those countries] with greater accuracy than other geographers. The entrance of a Roman army intoArabia Felix under the command of my friend and companionAelius Gallus, and the traffic of theAlexandrian merchants whose vessels pass up theNile andArabian Gulf toIndia, have rendered us much better acquainted with these countries than our predecessors were. I was withGallus at the time he was prefect ofEgypt, and accompanied him as far asSyene and the frontiers ofEthiopia, and I found that about one hundred and twenty ships sail from Myos-hormos toIndia, although, in the time of thePtolemies, scarcely any one would venture on this voyage and the commerce with the Indies.

§ 2.5.13  Our first and most imperative duty then, both in respect to science and to the necessities of the man of business, is to undertake to lay down the projection of the different countries on the chart in as clear a style as possible, and to signify at the same time the relation and proportion they bear to the whole earth. For such is the geographer's peculiar province. It belongs to another science to give an exact description of the whole earth, and of the entire vertebre of either zone, and as to whether the vertebre in the opposite quarter of the earth is inhabited. That such is the case is most probable, but not that it is inhabited by the same race of men as dwell with us. And it must therefore be regarded as another habitable earth. We however have only to describe our own.

§ 2.5.14  In its figure the habitable earth resembles a chlamys, or soldier's cloak, the greatest breadth of which would be indicated by a line drawn in the direction of theNile, commencing from the parallel of the Cinnamon Country, and the Island of theEgyptian Exiles, and terminating at the parallel ofIerna; and its length by a line drawn from the west at right angles to the former, passing by thePillars of Hercules and theStrait of Sicily toRhodes and theGulf of Issos, then proceeding along the chain of theTaurus, which dividesAsia, and terminating in the Eastern Ocean, betweenIndia and theScythians dwelling beyondBactriana. We must therefore fancy to ourselves a parallelogram, and within it a chlamys-shaped figure, described in such a manner that the length of the one figure may correspond to the length and size of the other, and likewise breadth to breadth. The habitable earth will therefore be represented by this kind of chlamys. We have before said that its breadth is marked out by parallels bounding its sides, and separating on either side the portions that are habitable from those that are not. On the north [these parallels] pass overIerna, and on the side of the torrid zone over the Cinnamon Country. These lines being produced east and west to the opposite extremities of the habitable earth, form, when joined by the perpendiculars falling from their extremities, a kind of parallelogram. That within this the habitable earth is contained is evident, since neither its greatest breadth nor length project beyond. That in configuration it resembles a chlamys is also clear, from the fact that at either end of its length, the extremities taper to a point. Owing to the encroachments of the sea, it also loses something in breadth. This we know from those who have sailed round its eastern and western points. They inform us that the island calledTaprobana is much to the south ofIndia, but that it is nevertheless inhabited, and is situated opposite to the island of theEgyptians and the Cinnamon Country, as the temperature of their atmospheres is similar. On the other side the country about the embouchure of theHyrcanian Sea is farther north than the farthestScythians who dwell beyondIndia, andIerna still more so. It is likewise stated of the country beyond thePillars of Hercules, that the most western point of the habitable earth is the promontory of theIberians named theSacred Promontory. It lies nearly in a line withGades, thePillars of Hercules, theStrait of Sicily, andRhodes; for they say that the horologes accord, as also the periodical winds, and the duration of the longest nights and days, which consist of fourteen and a half equinoctial hours. From the coast ofGades andIberia ......... is said to have been formerly observed.Posidonius relates, that from the top of a high house in a town about 400 stadia distant from the places mentioned, he perceived a star which he believed to beCanopus, both in consequence of the testimony of those who having proceeded a little to the south ofIberia affirmed that they could perceive it, and also of the tradition preserved atCnidus; for the observatory ofEudoxus, from whence he is reported to have viewedCanopus, is not much higher than these houses; andCnidus is under the same parallel asRhodes, which is likewise that ofGades and its sea-coast.

§ 2.5.15  Sailing thence,Libya lies to the south. Its most western portions project a little beyondGades; it afterwards forms a narrow promontory receding towards the east and south, and becoming slightly broader, till it touches upon the westernEthiopians, who are the last of the nations situated belowCarthage, and adjoin the parallel of the Cinnamon Country. They, on the contrary, who sail from theSacred Promontory, towards theArtabri, journey northwards, havingLusitania on the right hand. The remaining portion forms an obtuse angle towards the east as far as the extremities of thePyrenees which terminate at the ocean. Northward and opposite to this are the western coasts ofBritain. Northward and opposite to theArtabri are the islands denominatedCassiterides, situated in the high seas, but under nearly the same latitude asBritain. From this it appears to what a degree the extremities of the habitable earth are narrowed by the surrounding sea.

§ 2.5.16  Such being the configuration of the whole earth, it will be convenient to take two straight lines, cutting each other at right angles, and running the one through its greatest length, and the other through its breadth. The former of these lines will represent one of the parallels, and the latter one of the meridians. Afterwards we must imagine other lines parallel to either of these respectively, and dividing both the land and sea with which we are acquainted. By this means the form of the habitable earth will appear more clearly to be such as we have described it; likewise the extent of the various lines, whether traced through its length or breadth, and the latitudes [of places], will also be more clearly distinguished, whether north or south, as also [the longitudes] whether east or west. However, these right lines should be drawn through places that are known. Two have already been thus fixed upon, I mean the two middle [lines] running through its length and breadth, which have been already explained, and by means of these the others may easily be determined. These lines will serve us as marks to distinguish countries situated under the same parallel, and otherwise to determine different positions both in respect to the other portions of the earth, and also of the celestial appearances.

§ 2.5.17  The ocean it is which principally divides the earth into various countries, and moulds its form. It creates bays, seas, straits, isthmuses, peninsulas, and capes; while rivers and mountains serve to the same purpose. It is by these means that continents, nations, and the position of cities are capable of being clearly distinguished, together with those various other details of which a chorographical chart is full. Amongst these latter are the multitude of islands scattered throughout the seas, and along every coast; each of them distinguished by some good or bad quality, by certain advantages or disadvantages, due either to nature or to art. The natural advantages [of a place] should always be mentioned, since they are permanent. Advantages which are adventitious are liable to change, although the majority of those which have continued for any length of time should not be passed over, nor even those which, although but recent, have yet acquired some note and celebrity. For those which continue, come to be regarded by posterity not as works of art, but as the natural advantages of the place; these therefore it is evident we must notice. True it is, that to many a city we may apply the reflection ofDemosthenes onOlynthus and its neighbouring towns: "So completely have they vanished, that no one who should now visit their sites could say that they had ever been inhabited!" Still we are gratified by visiting these and similar localities, being desirous of beholding the traces of such celebrated places, and the tombs of famous men. In like manner we should record laws and forms of government no longer in existence, since these are serviceable to have in mind, equally with the remembrance of actions, whether for the sake of imitating or avoiding the like.

§ 2.5.18  Continuing our former sketch, we now state that the earth which we inhabit contains numerous gulfs, formed by the exterior sea or ocean which surrounds it. Of these there are four principal. The northern, called theCaspian, by others designated theHyrcanian Sea, thePersian andArabian Gulfs, formed by the [Southern] Sea, the one being nearly opposite to theCaspian, the other to theEuxine; the fourth, which in size is much more considerable than the others, is called the Internal and Our Sea. It commences in the west at the Strait of thePillars of Hercules, and continues in an easterly direction, but with varying breadth. Farther in, it becomes divided, and terminates in two gulfs; that on the left being called theEuxine Sea, while the other consists of the seas ofEgypt,Pamphylia, andIssos. All these gulfs formed by the exterior sea, have a narrow entrance; those of theArabian Gulf, however, and thePillars of Hercules are smaller than the rest. The land which surrounds these, as before remarked, consists of three divisions. Of these, the configuration of Europe is the most irregular.Libya, on the contrary, is the most regular; whileAsia holds a middle place between the two. In all of these continents, the regularity or irregularity of form relates merely to the interior coasts; the exterior, with the exception of the gulfs be fore mentioned, is unindented, and, as I have stated, resembles a chlamys in its form; any slight differences being of course overlooked, as in large matters what is insignificant passes for nothing. Since in geographical descriptions we not only aim at portraying the configuration and extent of various places, but also their common boundaries, we will remark here, as we have done before, that the coasts of the Internal Sea present a greater variety in their appearance than those of the Exterior [Ocean]; the former is also much better known, its climate is more temperate, and more civilized cities and nations are here than there. We are also anxious to be informed where the form of government, the arts, and whatever else ministers to intelligence, produce the greatest results. Interest will always lead us to where the relations of commerce and society are most easily established, and these are advantages to be found where government is administered, or rather where it is well administered. In each of these particulars, as before remarked, Our Sea possesses great advantages, and here therefore we will begin our description.

§ 2.5.19  This gulf, as before stated, commences at the Strait of thePillars; this at its narrowest part is said to be 70 stadia. Having sailed down a distance of 120 stadia, the shores widen considerably, especially to the left, and you behold a vast sea, bounded on the right by the shore ofLibya as far asCarthage, and on the opposite side by those ofIberia andKeltica as far asNarbonne andMarseilles, thence by theLigurian, and finally by theItalian coast to theStrait of Sicily. The eastern side of this sea is formed bySicily and the straits on either side of it. That nextItaly being 7 stadia [in breadth], and that nextCarthage 1500 stadia. The line drawn from thePillars to the lesser strait of 7 stadia, forms part of the line toRhodes and theTaurus, and intersects the sea under discussion about its middle; this line is said to be 12,000 stadia, which is accordingly the length of the sea. Its greatest breadth is about 5000 stadia, and extends from the Galatic Gulf, betweenMarseilles andNarbonne, to the opposite coast ofLibya. The portion of the sea which washesLibya is called the Libyan Sea; that surrounding the land opposite is designated by the respective names of theIberian, theLigurian, and theSardinian Seas, while the remaining portion as far asSicily is named theTyrrhenian sea. All along the coast between theTyrrhenian andLigurian Seas, there are numerous islands, the largest of which areSardinia andCyrnus, always exceptingSicily, which is larger and more fertile than any of our islands. The remainder are much smaller. Of this number are, in the high sea,Pandataria andPontia, and close to the shoreAethalia,Planasia,Pithecussa,Prochyta,Capriae,Leucosia, and many others On the other side of theLigurian shore, and along the rest of the coast as far as thePillars, there are but few islands; theGymnasiae andEbusus are of this number. There are likewise but few islands along the coasts ofLibya andSicily. We may mention howeverCossura,Aegimurus, and theLipari Islands, likewise called the Islands ofAeolus.

§ 2.5.20  AfterSicily and the straits on either side of it, there are other seas, for instance, that opposite theSyrtes and theCyrenaic, the Syrtes themselves, and the sea formerly called theAusonian, but which, as it flows into and forms part of the Sea ofSicily, is now included under the latter name. The sea opposite to the Syrtes and theCyrenaic is called the Libyan Sea; it extends as far as the Sea ofEgypt. The LesserSyrtes is about 1600 stadia in circumference. On either side of its mouth lie the islands ofMeninx andKerkina. The GreaterSyrtes is (according toEratosthenes) 5000 stadia in circuit, and in depth 1800, from theHesperides toAutomala, and the frontier which separates theCyrenaic from the rest ofLibya. According to others, its circumference is only 4000 stadia, its depth 1500 stadia, and the breadth at its mouth the same. The Sea ofSicily washesItaly, from theStrait ofRhegium toLocris, and also the eastern coast ofSicily fromMessene toSyracuse andPachynus. On the eastern side it reaches to the promontories ofCrete, surrounds the greater part ofPeloponnesus, and fills theGulf of Corinth. On the north it advances to theIapygian Promontory, the mouth of theIonian Sea, the southern parts ofEpirus, as far as theAmbracic Gulf, and the continuation of the coast which forms theCorinthian Gulf, near thePeloponnesus. TheIonian Sea forms part of what we now call theAdriatic.Illyria forms its right side, andItaly as far as the recess whereAquileia is situated, the left. TheAdriatic stretches north and west; it is long and narrow, being in length about 6000 stadia, and its greatest breadth 1200. There are many islands situated here opposite the coasts ofIllyria, such as theAbsyrtides, Cyrictica, and theLibyrnides, alsoIssa,Tragurium, theBlack Corcyra, andPharos. Opposite toItaly are the Islands ofDiomede. The Sea ofSicily is said to be 4500 stadia fromPachynus toCrete, and the same distance toTaenarus inLaconia. From the extremities ofIapygia to the bottom of theGulf of Corinth the distance is less than 3000 stadia, while fromIapygia toLibya it is more than 4000. In this sea are the Islands ofCorcyra andSybota, opposite the coasts ofEpirus; and beyond these, opposite theGulf of Corinth,Cephallenia,Ithaca,Zacynthus, and theEchinades.

§ 2.5.21  Next to the Sea ofSicily, are theCretan,Saronic, andMyrtoan Seas, comprised betweenCrete,Argia, andAttica. Their greatest breadth, measured fromAttica, is 1200 stadia, and their length not quite double the distance. Within are included the Islands ofCythera,Calauria,Aigina,Salamis, and certain of theCyclades. Adjacent to these are theAegean Sea, the Gulf ofMelas, theHellespont, theIcarian andCarpathian Seas, as far asRhodes,Crete,Cnidus, and the commencement ofAsia. [In these seas] are theCyclades, theSporades, and the islands oppositeCaria,Ionia, andAeolia, as far as theTroad, namely,Cos,Samos,Chios,Lesbos, andTenedos; likewise on the Grecian side as far asMacedonia and the borders ofThrace,Euboea,Scyros,Peparethus,Lemnos,Thasos,Imbros,Samothrace, and numerous others, of which it is our intention to speak in detail. The length of this sea is about 4000 stadia, or rather more, its breadth about 2000. It is surrounded by the coast ofAsia above mentioned, and by those of Greece fromSounion northwards to theThermaic Gulf and the Gulfs ofMacedonia, and as far as the ThracianChersonesus.

§ 2.5.22  Here too is the strait, seven stadia in length, which is betweenSestos andAbydos, and through which theAegean andHellespont communicate with another sea to the north, named thePropontis, and this again with another called theEuxine. This latter is, so to speak, a double sea, for towards its middle are two projecting promontories, one to the north, on the side of Europe, and the other opposite from the coast ofAsia, which leave only a narrow passage between them, and thus form two great seas. The European promontory is namedCriu-metopon; that ofAsia,Carambis. They are distant from each other about 2500 stadia. The length of the western portion of this sea fromByzantium to the outlets of theDnieper is 3800 stadia, its breadth 2000. Here is situated the Island ofLeuca. The eastern portion is oblong and terminates in the narrow recess in whichDioscurias is situated. In length it is 5000 stadia, or rather more, and in breadth about 3000. The entire circumference of theEuxine is about 25,000 stadia. Some have compared the shape of its circumference to aScythian bow when bent, the string representing the southern portions of theEuxine, (viz. the coast, from its mouth to the recess in whichDioscurias is situated; for, with the exception ofCarambis, the sinuosities of the shore are but trifling, so that it may be justly compared to a straight line,) and the remainder [of the circumference representing] the wood of the bow with its double curve, the uppermost very much rounded, the lower more in a straight line. So this sea forms two gulfs, the western much more rounded than the other.

§ 2.5.23  To the north of the eastern Gulf of thePontus, is the LakeMaeotis, whose perimeter is 9000 stadia or rather more. It communicates with theEuxine by means of the CimmerianBosphorus, and theEuxine with thePropontis by the ThracianBosphorus, for such is the name given to the Strait ofByzantium, which is four stadia in breadth. The length of thePropontis from theTroad toByzantium is stated to be 1500 stadia. Its breadth is about the same. It is in this sea that the Island of theCyziceni is situated, with the other islands around it.

§ 2.5.24  Such and so great is the extent of theAegean Sea towards the north. Again, starting fromRhodes, the [Mediterranean] forms the seas ofEgypt,Pamphylia, andIssus, extending in an easterly direction fromCilicia toIssus, a distance of 5000 stadia, along the coasts ofLycia,Pamphylia, and the whole ofCilicia. From thenceSyria,Phoenicia, andEgypt surround the sea to the south and west as far asAlexandria. The Island ofCyprus is situated in the Gulfs ofIssos andPamphylia, close to the Sea ofEgypt. The passage betweenRhodes andAlexandria from north [to south] is about 4000 stadia; sailing round the coasts it is double this distance.Eratosthenes informs us that, although the above is the distance according to some mariners, others avow distinctly that it amounts to 5000 stadia; while he himself, from observations of the shadows indicated by the gnomon, calculates it at 3750. That part of the Mediterranean Sea which washes the coasts ofCilicia andPamphylia together with the right side of theEuxine, thePropontis, and the sea-coast beyond this as far asPamphylia, form a kind of extensive Chersonesus, the isthmus of which is also large, and reaches from the sea nearTarsus to the city ofAmisus, and thence toThemiscyra, the plain of theAmazons. In fact the whole region within this line as far asCaria andIonia, and the nations dwelling on this side theHalys, is entirely surrounded by theAegean and the aforementioned parts of the Mediterranean andEuxine Seas. This is what we callAsia properly, although the whole continent bears the same name.

§ 2.5.25  To speak shortly, the southernmost point of Our Sea is the recess of the GreaterSyrtes; next to thisAlexandria inEgypt, and the mouths of theNile; while the most northerly is the mouth of theDnieper, or if theMaeotis be considered to belong to theEuxine, (and it certainly does appear to form a part of it,) the mouth of theTanais. The Strait at thePillars is the most westerly point, and the most easterly is the said recess, in whichDioscurias is situated; and not, asEratosthenes falsely states, theGulf of Issos, which is under the same meridian asAmisus andThemiscyra, and, if you will have it so,Sidene as far asPharnacia. Proceeding thence in an easterly direction toDioscurias, the distance by sea is above 3000 stadia, as will be seen more plainly in my detailed account of those countries. Such then is the Mediterranean.

§ 2.5.26  We must now describe the countries which surround it; and here we will begin from the same point, whence we commenced our description of the sea itself. Entering the Strait at thePillars,Libya, as far as the riverNile, is on the right hand, and to the left, on the other side of the Strait, is Europe, as far as theTanais.Asia bounds both these continents. We will commence with Europe, both because its figure is more varied, and also because it is the quarter most favourable to the mental and social ennoblement of man, and produces a greater portion of comforts than the other continents. Now the whole of Europe is habitable with the exception of a small part, which cannot be dwelt in, on account of the severity of the cold, and which borders on theHamaxoeci, who dwell by theTanais,Maeotis, andDnieper. The wintry and mountainous parts of the habitable earth would seem to afford by nature but a miserable means of existence; nevertheless, by good management, places scarcely inhabited by any but robbers, may be got into condition. Thus the Greeks, though dwelling amidst rocks and mountains, live in comfort, owing to their economy in government and the arts, and all the other appliances of life. Thus too the Romans, after subduing numerous nations who were leading a savage life, either induced by the rockiness of their countries, or want of ports, or severity of the cold, or for other reasons scarcely habitable, have taught the arts of commerce to many who were formerly in total ignorance, and spread civilization amongst the most savage. Where the climate is equable and mild, nature herself does much towards the production of these advantages. As in such favoured regions every thing inclines to peace, so those which are sterile generate bravery and a disposition to war. These two races receive mutual advantages from each other, the one aiding by their arms, the other by their husbandry, arts, and institutions. Harm must result to both when failing to act in concert, but the advantage will lie on the side of those accustomed to arms, except in instances where they are overpowered by multitudes. This continent is very much favoured in this respect, being interspersed with plains and mountains, so that every where the foundations of husbandry, civilization, and hardihood lie side by side. The number of those who cultivate the arts of peace, is, however, the most numerous, which preponderance over the whole is mainly due to the influence of the government, first of the Greeks, and afterwards of theMacedonians and Romans. Europe has thus within itself resources both for war [and peace]. It is amply supplied with warriors, and also with men fitted for the labours of agriculture, and the life of the towns. It is likewise distinguished for producing in perfection those fruits of the earth necessary to life, and all the useful metals. Perfumes and precious stones must be imported from abroad, but as far as the comfort of life is concerned, the want or the possession of these can make no difference. The country likewise abounds incattle, while of wild beasts the number is but small. Such is the general nature of this continent.

§ 2.5.27  We will now describe separately the various countries into which it is divided. The first of these on the west isIberia, which resembles the hide of anox [spread out]; the eastern portions, which correspond to the neck, adjoining the neighbouring country of Gaul. The two countries are divided on this side by the chain of mountains called thePyrenees; on all its other sides it is surrounded by sea; on the south, as far as thePillars, by Our Sea; and thence to the northern extremity of thePyrenees by theAtlantic. The greatest length of this country is about 6000 stadia, its breadth 5000.

§ 2.5.28  East of this isKeltica, which extends as far as theRhine. Its northern side is washed by the entire of theBritish Channel, for this island lies opposite and parallel to it throughout, extending as much as 5000 stadia in length. Its eastern side is bounded by the riverRhine, whose stream runs parallel with thePyrenees; and its southern side commencing from theRhine, [is bounded] partly by theAlps, and partly by Our Sea; where what is called the Galatic Gulf runs in, and on this are situated the far-famed cities ofMarseilles andNarbonne. Right opposite to the Gulf on the other side of the land, lies another Gulf, called by the same name, Galatic, looking towards the north andBritain. It is here that the breadth ofKeltica is the narrowest, being contracted into an isthmus less than 3000 stadia, but more than 2000. Within this region there is a mountain ridge, named MountCemmenus, which runs nearly at right angles to thePyrenees, and terminates in the central plains ofKeltica. TheAlps, which are a very lofty range of mountains, form a curved line, the convex side of which is turned towards the plains ofKeltica, mentioned before, and MountCemmenus, and the concave towardsLiguria andItaly. TheAlps are inhabited by numerous nations, but allKeltic with the exception of theLigurians, and these, though of a different race, closely resemble them in their manner of life. They inhabit that portion of theAlps which is next theApennines, and also a part of theApennines themselves. This latter mountain ridge traverses the whole length ofItaly from north to south, and terminates at theStrait of Sicily.

§ 2.5.29  The first parts ofItaly are the plains situated under theAlps, as far as the recess of theAdriatic and the neighbouring places. The parts beyond form a narrow and long slip, resembling a peninsula, traversed, as I have said, throughout its length by theApennines; its length is 7000 stadia, but its breadth is very unequal. The seas which form the peninsula ofItaly are, theTyrrhenian sea, which commences from theLigurian, theAusonian, and theAdriatic.

§ 2.5.30  AfterItaly andKeltica, the remainder of Europe extends towards the east, and is divided into two by theDanube. This river flows from west to east, and discharges itself into theEuxine Sea, leaving on its left the entire ofGermania commencing from theRhine, as well as the whole of theGetae, theTyrigetae, theBastarni, and theSauromati, as far as the riverTanais, and the LakeMaeotis, on its right being the whole ofThrace andIllyria, and in fine the rest of Greece. Fronting Europe lie the islands which we have mentioned. Without thePillars,Gadeira, theCassiterides, and theBritannic Isles. Within thePillars are theGymnesian Islands, the other little islands of thePhoenicians, theMarseillais, and theLigurians; those frontingItaly as far as the islands ofAeolus andSicily, and the whole of those alongEpirus and Greece, as far asMacedonia and the ThracianChersonesus.

§ 2.5.31  From theTanais and theMaeotis commences [Asia] on this side theTaurus; beyond these is [Asia] beyond theTaurus. For since this continent is divided into two by the chain of theTaurus, which extends from the extremities ofPamphylia to the shores of the Eastern Sea, inhabited by theIndians and neighbouringScythians, the Greeks naturally called that part of the continent situated north of these mountains [Asia] on this side theTaurus, and that on the south [Asia] beyond theTaurus. Consequently the parts adjacent to theMaeotis andTanais are on this side theTaurus. The first of these is the territory between theCaspian Sea and theEuxine, bounded on one side by theTanais, the Exterior Ocean, and the Sea ofHyrcania; on the other by the isthmus where it is narrowest from the recess of theEuxine to theCaspian. Secondly, but still on this side theTaurus, are the countries above the Sea ofHyrcania as far as theIndians andScythians, who dwell along the said sea andMount Imaus. These countries are possessed on the one side by theMaeotae, and the people dwelling between the Sea ofHyrcania and theEuxine as far as theCaucasus, theIberians andAlbanians, viz. theSauromatians,Scythians, Achtaeans,Zygi, andHeniochi: on the other side beyond the Sea ofHyrcania, by theScythians,Hyrcanians,Parthians,Bactrians,Sogdians, and the other nations ofIndia farther towards the north. To the south, partly by the Sea ofHyrcania, and partly by the whole isthmus which separates this sea from theEuxine, is situated the greater part ofArmenia,Colchis, the whole ofCappadocia as far as theEuxine, and theTibaranic nations. Further [west] is the country designated on this side theHalys, containing on the side of theEuxine andPropontis thePaphlagonians,Bithynians,Mysians, andPhrygia on theHellespont, which comprehends theTroad; and on the side of theAegean and adjacent seasAeolia,Ionia,Caria, andLycia. Inland is thePhrygia which contains that portion of Gallo-Graecia styledGalatia,Phrygia Epictetus, theLycaonians, and theLydians.

§ 2.5.32  Next these on this side theTaurus are the mountaineers ofParopamisus, and various tribes ofParthians,Medes,Armenians,Cilicians, with "theLycaonians," andPisidians. After these mountaineers come the people dwelling beyond theTaurus. First amongst these isIndia, a nation greater and more flourishing than any other; they extend as far as the Eastern Sea and the southern part of theAtlantic. In the most southerly part of this sea opposite toIndia is situated the island ofTaprobana, which is not less thanBritain. BeyondIndia to the west, and leaving the mountains [of theTaurus] on the right, is a vast region, miserably inhabited, on account of the sterility of its soil, by men of different races, who are absolutely in a savage state. They are namedArians, and extend from the mountains toGedrosia andCarmania. Beyond these towards the sea are thePersians, the Susians, and theBabylonians, situated along thePersian Gulf, besides several smaller neighbouring states. On the side of the mountains and amidst the mountains are theParthians, theMedes, theArmenians, and the nations adjoining these, together withMesopotamia. BeyondMesopotamia are the countries on this side theEuphrates; viz. the whole ofArabiaFelix, bounded by the entireArabian andPersian Gulfs, together with the country of theScenitae and Phylarchi, who are situated along theEuphrates and inSyria. Beyond theArabian Gulf and as far as theNile dwell theEthiopians andArabians, and next these theEgyptians, Syrians, andCilicians, both those styled Trachiotae and others besides, and last of all thePamphylians.

§ 2.5.33  AfterAsia comesLibya, which adjoinsEgypt andEthiopia. The coast next us, fromAlexandria almost to thePillars, is in a straight line, with the exception of theSyrtes, the sinuosities of some moderately sized bays, and the projection of the promontories by which they are formed. The side next the ocean fromEthiopia up to a certain point is almost parallel to the former; but after this the southern portions become narrowed into a sharp peak, extending a little beyond thePillars of Hercules, and giving to the country something the figure of a trapezium. Its appearance, both by the accounts of other writers, and also the description given to ourselves byCnaeus Piso, who was governor of this province, is that of a panther's skin, being dotted over with habitations surrounded by parched and desert land: these habitations theEgyptians callAuases. This continent offers besides several other peculiarities, which may be said to divide it into three distinct portions. Most of the coast next us is very fertile, more especially about theCyrenaic and the parts aboutCarthage, as far asMaurusia and thePillars of Hercules. Next the ocean it is likewise tolerably fitted for the habitation of man; but not so the centre of the country, which produces silphium; this for the most part is barren, rugged, and sandy; and the same is the case with regard to the whole ofAsia lying under the same right line which traversesEthiopia, theTroglodytic,Arabia, and the part ofGedrosia occupied by theIchthyophagi. The people inhabitingLibya are for the most part unknown to us, as it has rarely been entered, either by armies or adventurers. But few of its inhabitants from the farther parts come amongst us, and their accounts are both incomplete and not to be relied on. The sum of what they say is as follows. Those which are most southern are calledEthiopians. North of these the principal nations are theGaramantes, thePharusians, and theNigritae. Still farther north are theGaetuli. Close to the sea, and adjoining it nextEgypt, and as far as theCyrenaic, dwell theMarmaridae. Above theCyrenaic and theSyrtes are thePsylli andNasamones, and certain of theGaetuli; and after them theAsbystae andByzacii, as far asCarthage.Carthage is vast. Adjoining it are theNumidae ;of these people the tribes best known to us are called theMasylies and theMasuaesylii. The most westerly are theMaurusians. The whole land, fromCarthage to thePillars of Hercules, is fertile. Nevertheless it abounds in wild beasts no less than the interior; and it does not seem improbable that the cause why the name of Nomades, or Wanderers, was bestowed on certain of these people originated in their not being able anciently to devote themselves to husbandry on account of the wild beasts. At the present day, when they are well skilled in hunting, and are besides assisted by the Romans in their rage for the spectacle of fights with beasts, they are both masters of the beasts and of husbandry. This finishes what we have to say on the continents.

§ 2.5.34  It now remains for us to speak of the climata. Of these too we shall give but a general description, commencing with those lines which we have denominated elementary, namely, those which determine the greatest length and breadth of the [habitable earth], but especially its breadth. To enter fully into this subject is the duty of astronomers. This has been done byHipparchus, who has noted down (as he says) the differences of the heavenly appearances for every degree of that quarter of the globe in which our habitable earth is situated, namely, from the equator to the north pole. What is beyond our habitable earth it is not however the business of the geographer to consider. Nor yet even in regard to the various parts of the habitable earth must too minute and numerous differences be noticed, since to the man of the world they are perplexing; it will suffice to give the most striking and simple of the statements ofHipparchus. Assuming, as he does himself after the assertion ofEratosthenes, that the circumference of the earth is 252,000 stadia, the differences of the [celestial] phenomena will not be great for each [degree] within the limits between which the habitable earth is contained. Supposing we cut the grand circle of the earth into 360 divisions, each of these divisions will consist of 700 stadia. This is the calculation adopted by [Hipparchus] to fix the distances, which [as we said] should be taken under the before-mentioned meridian ofMeroe. He commences at the regions situated under the equator, and stopping from time to time at every 700 stadia along the whole length of the meridian above mentioned, proceeds to describe the celestial phenomena as they appear from each. But the equator is not the place for us to start from. For even if there be there a habitable region, as some suppose, it forms a habitable earth to itself, a narrow slip enclosed by the regions uninhabitable on account of the heat; and can be no part of our habitable earth. Now the geographer should attend to none but our own habitable earth, which is confined by certain boundaries; on the south by the parallel which passes over the Cinnamon Country; on the north by that which passes overIerna. But keeping in mind the scheme of our geography, we have no occasion to mark all the places comprehended within this distance, nor yet all the celestial phenomena. We must however commence, asHipparchus does, with the southern regions.

§ 2.5.35  He tells us that the people who dwell under the parallel of the Cinnamon Country, which he places at 3000 stadia south ofMeroe, and 8800 [north] of the equator, live nearly at equal distances between the equator and the summer tropic which passes bySyene; forSyene is 5000 stadia [north] ofMeroe. They are the first for whom the whole [constellation] of the Lesser Bear is comprised within the Artic Circle, and to whom it is always visible. For the bright and most southern star, at the tip of the tail, is here contained within the Arctic Circle, and appears to touch the horizon. TheArabian Gulf lies eastward parallel to the said meridian. Its egress into the Exterior Ocean is [in the same latitude as] the Cinnamon Country, the place where anciently they used to hunt the elephants. The parallel of the Cinnamon Country on the one side passes a little south ofTaprobana, or perhaps over its southern extremity; and on the other side over the most southern parts ofLibya.

§ 2.5.36  AtMeroe andPtolemais in theTroglodytic the longest day consists of thirteen equinoctial hours. These cities are at nearly equal distances between the equator andAlexandria, the preponderance on the side of the equator being only 1800 stadia. The parallel ofMeroe passes on one side over unknown countries, and on the other over the extremities ofIndia. AtSyene, and atBerenice, which is situated on theArabian Gulf and in theTroglodytice, at the summer solstice the sun is vertical, and the longest day consists of thirteen equinoctial hours and a half, and the whole of the Greater Bear appears within the Arctic Circle, with the exception of his thighs, the tip of his tail, and one of the stars composing his body. The parallel ofSyene traverses on one side the portion ofGedrosia occupied by theIchthyophagi, andIndia; and on the other side the countries situated south ofCyrene by rather less than 5000 stadia.

§ 2.5.37  In all the countries situated between the tropic and the equatorial circle, the shadows fall [alternately] on either side, north and south. In those which are north ofSyene and beyond the summer tropic the shadows at mid-day fall to the north. The former are called amphiscii, the latter heteroscii. There is also another method of determining what places are under the tropic, which we spoke of in our observations on the zones. The soil is sandy, arid, and produces nothing but silphium, while more to the south the land is well irrigated and fertile.

§ 2.5.38  In the countries situated about 400 stadia south of the parallel ofAlexandria andCyrene, where the longest day consists of fourteen equinoctial hours,Arcturus passes the zenith, slightly declining towards the south. AtAlexandria at the time of the equinox the proportion which the gnomon bears to the shadow is as five to seven. Thus they are south ofCarthage 1300 stadia, that is, admitting that inCarthage at the time of the equinox the proportion which the gnomon bears to the shadow is as eleven to seven. This parallel on the one side passes byCyrene and the regions 900 stadia south ofCarthage as far as the midst ofMaurusia; and on the other side throughEgypt,Coelosyria, UpperSyria,Babylonia,Susiana,Persia,Carmania, UpperGedrosia, andIndia.

§ 2.5.39  AtPtolemais inPhoenicia, and atSidon andTyre, the longest day consists of fourteen hours and a quarter. These cities are north ofAlexandria by about 1600 stadia, and north ofCarthage about 700. In thePeloponnesus, and about the middle ofRhodes, atXanthus inLycia, or a little to the south of this place, and at 400 stadia south ofSyracuse, the longest day consists of fourteen and a half equinoctial hours. These places are distant fromAlexandria 3640 stadia. . . . This parallel, according toEratosthenes, passes throughCaria,Lycaonia,Cataonia,Media, theCaspian Gates, andIndia next theCaucasus.

§ 2.5.40  In the parts of theTroad nextAlexandria inAmphipolis,Apollonia inEpirus, the countries just south ofRome and north ofNeapolis, the longest day consists of fifteen hours. This parallel is distant from that ofAlexandria inEgypt 7000 stadia to the north, above 28,800 stadia north of the equator, and 3400 stadia from the parallel ofRhodes; it is south ofByzantium,Nicaae, andMarseilles 1500 stadia. The parallel ofLysimachia is a little to the north, and according toEratosthenes passes throughMysia,Paphlagonia,Sinope,Hyrcania, andBactra.

§ 2.5.41  AboutByzantium the longest day consists of fifteen and a quarter equinoctial hours; the proportion borne by the gnomon to the shadow at the summer solstice, is as 120 to 42, minus one-fifth. These places are distant from the middle ofRhodes about 4900 stadia, and 30,300 from the equator. Sailing into theEuxine and advancing 1400 stadia to the north, the longest day is found to consist of fifteen and a half equinoctial hours. These places are equi-distant between the pole and equatorial circle; the arctic circle is at their zenith, the star in the neck ofCassiopeia is within this circle, the star forming the right elbow ofPerseus being a little more to the north.

§ 2.5.42  In regions 3800 stadia north ofByzantium the longest day consists of sixteen equinoctial hours; the constellationCassiopeia being brought within the arctic circle. These regions are situated around [the mouth of] theDnieper and the southern parts of theMaeotis, at a distance from the equator of 34,100 stadia; and the northern part of the horizon during almost all the summer nights is illuminated by the light of the sun; a certain degree of light continuing from sunset to sunrise. For the summer tropic is distant from the horizon only the half and the twelfth part of a sign [of the zodiac], and this therefore is the greatest distance of the sun below the horizon at midnight. With us when the sun is at this distance from the horizon before sunrise and after sunset, the atmosphere is enlightened to the east and west respectively. In the winter the sun when at the highest is nine cubits above the horizon. These places, according toEratosthenes, are distant fromMeroe rather more than 23,000 stadia, for he says that [from the parallel ofMeroe] to theHellespont there are 18,000 stadia, and thence to theDnieper 5000 more. In regions distant 6300 stadia fromByzantium, and north of theMaeotis, the sun during the winter time is, when highest, six cubits [above the horizon]. The longest day consists of seventeen hours.

§ 2.5.43  The countries beyond this which border upon the regions uninhabitable on account of their cold, have no interest to the geographer. He who desires to learn about them, and the celestial phenomena whichHipparchus has described, but which we pass over as being too much in detail for our present undertaking, must seek for them in that author. The statements ofPosidonius concerning the periscii, the amphiscii, and the heteroscii are likewise too detailed. Still we must touch on these points sufficiently to explain his view, and to point out how far such matters are serviceable in geography, and how far not. The terms made use of refer to the shadows cast from the sun. The sun appears to the senses to describe a circle parallel to that of the earth. Of those people for whom each revolution of the earth produces a day and a night, the sun being carried first over, then under, the earth, some are denominated amphiscii, others heteroscii. The amphiscii are the inhabitants of countries in which when a gnomon is placed perpendicularly on a plane surface, the shadow which it casts at mid-day, falls first to one side then to the other, as the sun illumines first this side, then that. This however only occurs in places situated between the tropics. The heteroscii are those amongst whom the shadow always falls to the north, as with us; or to the south, as amongst those who inhabit the other temperate zone. This occurs in all those regions where the arctic circle is less than the tropic. Where however it becomes the same as or greater than the tropic, this shows the commencement of the periscii, who extend thence to the pole. In regions where the sun remains above the horizon during an entire revolution of the earth, the shadow must evidently have turned in a complete circle round the gnomon. On this account he named them periscii. However they have nought to do with geography, inasmuch as the regions are not habitable on account of the cold, as we stated in our review ofPytheas. Nor is there any use in determining the size of this uninhabitable region, [it is enough to have established] that those countries, having the tropic for their arctic circle, are situated beneath the circle which is described by the pole of the zodiac in the diurnal] revolution of the earth, and that the distance between the equator and the tropic equals four-sixtieths of the great circle [of the earth].

§ 3.1.1  HAVING thus given a general view of Geography, it will now be proper to describe each separate country in detail, as we engaged to do. We fancy that the method which we have adopted in the division of our subject, up to this point, has been correct; and we now re-commence with Europe and the various countries into which it is divided, on the same principles as formerly, and induced by the same reasons.

§ 3.1.2  The first division of this continent towards the west isIberia, as we before stated. The greater part of this country is but little fitted for habitation; consisting chiefly of mountains, woods, and plains covered with a light meagre soil, the irrigation of which is likewise uncertain The part next the north, which borders on the ocean, is extremely cold, and besides its rugged character, has no communication or intercourse with other [countries], and thus to dwell there is attended with peculiar hardship. Such is the character of this portion; on the other hand, almost the whole of the south is fertile, especially what is beyond thePillars [ofHercules]. This however will be shown more in detail, but we must first describe the figure and extent [of the country].

§ 3.1.3  In shape it resembles a hide stretched out in length from west to east, the forepart towards the east, its breadth being from north to south. Its length is about 6000 stadia; the greatest breadth is 5000; while there are parts considerably less than 3000, particularly in the vicinity of thePyrenees, which form the eastern side. This chain of mountains stretches without interruption from north to south, and dividesKeltica fromIberia. The breadth both ofKeltica andIberia is irregular, the narrowest part in both of them from the Mediterranean to the [Atlantic] Ocean being near thePyrenees, particularly on either side of that chain; this gives rise to gulfs both on the side of the Ocean, and also of the Mediterranean; the largest of these are denominated theKeltic or Galatic Gulfs, and they render the [Keltic] isthmus narrower than that ofIberia. ThePyrenees form the eastern side ofIberia, and the Mediterranean the southern from thePyrenees to thePillars of Hercules, thence the exterior [ocean] as far as theSacred Promontory. The third or western side runs nearly parallel to thePyrenees from theSacred Promontory to the promontory of theArtabri, called [Cape]Nerium. The fourth side extends hence to the northern extremity of thePyrenees.

§ 3.1.4  We will now commence our detailed account, beginning from theSacred Promontory. This is the most western point not only of Europe, but of the whole habitable earth. For the habitable earth is bounded to the west by two continents, namely, the extremities of Europe andLibya, which are inhabited respectively by theIberians and theMaurusians. But theIberian extremity, at the promontory we have mentioned, juts out beyond the other as much as 1500 stadia. The region adjacent to this cape they call in theLatin tongue Cuneum, which signifies a wedge. The promontory which projects into the sea,Artemidorus (who states that he has himself been at the place) compares to a ship; three little islands, [he says, ] each having a small harbour, contribute to give it this form; the former island resembling the beak of the ship, and the two latter the beams on each side of the ship's bows. [He adds] that there is no sanctuary ofHercules shown there, asEphorus falsely states, nor yet any altar [to him] nor to any other divinity; but in many parts there are three or four stones placed together, which are turned by all travellers who arrive there, in accordance with a certain local custom, and are changed in position by such as turn them incorrectly. It is not lawful to offer sacrifice there, nor yet to approach the place during the night, for it is said that then the gods take up their abode at the place. Those who go thither to view it stay at a neighbouring village over-night, and proceed to the place on the morrow, carrying water with them, as there is none to be procured there.

§ 3.1.5  It is quite possible that these things are so, and we ought not to disbelieve them. Not so however with regard to the other common and vulgar reports; forPosidonius tells us the common people say that in the countries next the ocean the sun appears larger as he sets, and makes a noise resembling the sound of hot metal in cold water, as though the sea were hissing as the sun was submerged in its depths. The statement [ofArtemidorus] is also false, that night follows immediately on the setting of the sun: it does not follow immediately, although certainly the interval is short, as in other great seas. For when he sets behind mountains the agency of the false light continues the day for a long period; over the sea the twilight is shorter, still darkness does not immediately supervene. The same thing may be remarked in large plains. The image of the sun is enlarged on the seas at its rising as well as at its setting, because at these times a larger mass of exhalations rises from the humid element; and the eye looking through these exhalations, sees images refracted into larger forms, as observed through tubes. The same thing happens when the setting sun or moon is seen through a dry and thin cloud, when those bodies likewise appear reddish.Posidonius tells us that, having himself passed thirty days atGades, during which time he carefully observed the setting of the sun, he is convinced of the falsity ofArtemidorus's account. This latter writer tells us, that at the time of its setting the sun appears a hundred times larger than its ordinary size, and that night immediately succeeds. If we attend to his account, we cannot believe that he himself remarked this phenomenon at theSacred Promontory, for he tells us that no one can approach during the night; therefore they cannot approach at sunset, since night immediately supervenes thereupon. Neither did he observe it from any other part of the coast washed by the ocean, forGades is upon the ocean, and bothPosidonius and many others testify that there such is not the case.

§ 3.1.6  The sea-coast next theSacred Promontory forms on one side the commencement of the western coast of Spain as far as the outlet of the riverTagus; and on the other forms the southern coast as far as the outlet of another river, named theAna. Both of these rivers descend from the eastern parts [of Spain]; but the former, which is much larger than the other, pursues a straight course towards the west, while theAna bends its course towards the south. They enclose an extent of country peopled for the most part byKelts and certainLusitanians, whom the Romans caused to settle here from the opposite side of theTagus. Higher up, the country is inhabited by theCarpetani, theOretani, and a large number ofVettones. This district is moderately fertile, but that which is beyond it to the east and south, does not give place in superiority to any part of the habitable earth with which it may be compared, in the excellence of its productions both of land and sea. This is the country through which the riverBaetis flows. This river takes its rise from the same parts as theAna and theTagus, and is between these two in size. Like theAna, the commencement of its course flows towards the west, but it afterwards turns to the south, and discharges itself at the same side of the coast as that river. From this river the country has received the name ofBaetica; it is calledTurdetania by the inhabitants, who are themselves denominatedTurdetani, andTurduli. Some think these two names refer to one nation, while others believe that they designate two distinct people. Of this latter opinion isPolybius, who imagines that theTurduli dwell more to the north than theTurdetani. At the present day however there does not appear to be any distinction between them. These people are esteemed to be the most intelligent of all theIberians; they have an alphabet, and possess ancient writings, poems, and metrical laws six thousand years old, as they say. The otherIberians are likewise furnished with an alphabet, although not of the same form, nor do they speak the same language. Their country, which is on this side theAna, extends eastward as far asOretania, and southward along the sea-coast from the outlets of theAna to thePillars. But it is necessary that I should enter into further particulars concerning this and the neighbouring places, in order to illustrate their excellence and fertility.

§ 3.1.7  Between this coast, where theBaetis andAna discharge themselves, and the extremities ofMaurusia, theAtlantic Ocean forms the strait at thePillars [ofHercules] by which it is connected with the Mediterranean. Here is situatedCalpe, the mountain of theIberians who are denominatedBastetani, by othersBastuli. Its circumference is not large, but it is so high and steep as to resemble an island in the distance. Sailing from the Mediterranean into theAtlantic, it is left on the right hand. At a distance of 40 stadia from this [mountain] is the considerable and ancient city ofCarteia, formerly a marine arsenal of theIberians. Some assert that it was founded byHercules; of this number isTimosthenes, who tells us it was anciently called Heraclaea, and that vast walls and ship-sheds are still shown.

§ 3.1.8  Next to these isMellaria, where they make salted provisions. After this the city and river ofBelo. Here the merchandise and salted provisions forTingis inMaurusia are principally shipped. There was a city named Zelis near toTingis, but the Romans transferred it to the opposite coast [of Spain], and having placed there in addition some of the inhabitants ofTingis, and sent over also some of their own people, they then gave to the city the name ofJulia Joza. Beyond this isGadeira, an island separated fromTurdetania by a narrow strait, and distant fromCalpe about 750 stadia, or, as others say, 800. This island has nothing to distinguish it above others, but owing to the boldness of its people in their expeditions by sea, and their friendship with the Romans, has attained to that pitch of good fortune, that although situated at the farthest extremities of the earth, it possesses a greater celebrity than any other island. But we will describe it when we come to speak of the other islands.

§ 3.1.9  Next after [Cadiz ] is the port ofMenestheus, and the estuary near toAsta andNebrissa. These estuaries are valleys filled by the sea during its flood-tides, up which you may sail into the interior, and to the cities built on them, in the same way as you sail up a river. Immediately after are the two outlets of theBaetis. The island embraced by these mouths has a coast of a hundred stadia, or rather more according to others. Hereabouts is the Oracle ofMenestheus, and the tower ofCaepio, built upon a rock and washed on all sides by the sea. This is an admirable work, resembling thePharos, and constructed for the safety of vessels. For the mud carried out by the river forms shallows, and sunken rocks are also scattered before it, so that a beacon was greatly needed. Thence sailing up the river is the city ofEbura and the sanctuary of Phosphorus, which they call Lux Dubia. You then pass up the other estuaries; and after these the riverAna, which has also two mouths, up either of which you may sail. Lastly, beyond is theSacred Promontory, distant fromGadeira less than 2000 stadia. Some say that from theSacred Promontory to the mouth of theAna there are 60 miles; thence to the mouth of theBaetis 100; and from this latter place toGadeira 70.

§ 3.2.1  TURDETANIA lies above the coast on this side theAna, and is intersected by the riverBaetis. It is bounded on the west and north by the riverAna; on the east by certain of theCarpetani and theOretani; on the south by those of theBastetani who inhabit the narrow slip of coast betweenCalpe andGadeira, and by the sea beyond as far as theAna. TheBastetani whom I have mentioned, together with the people on the other side theAna, and many of the places adjacent, belong toTurdetania. The size of this country in its length and breadth does not exceed two thousand stadia, still it contains a vast number of towns; two hundred, it is said. Those best known are situated on the rivers, estuaries, and sea; but the two which have acquired the greatest name and importance are,Corduba, founded byMarcellus, and the city of theGaditanians. The latter for its naval importance, and its alliance with the Romans; and the former on account of its fertility and extent, a considerable portion of theBaetis flowing by it; in addition to this it has been from its commencement inhabited by picked men, whether natives or Romans; and it was the first colony planted by the Romans in these parts. After this city and that of theGaditanians,Hispalis is the most noted. This also is a Roman colony. Commerce is still carried on here, although at the present moment the city ofBaetis though not so finely built, is outshining it, on account of the honour it has received from the soldiers ofCaesar taking up their quarters there.

§ 3.2.2  After these areItalica, andIlipa, situated on theBaetis; farther on areAstygis,Carmo, andObulco; and besides these are the places where the sons ofPompey were defeated,Munda,Ategua,Urso,Tukkis,Julia, and Aegua. None of these places are far fromCorduba.Munda is in some sort regarded as the metropolis of the whole district. This place is distant fromCarteia 1400 stadia, and it was here thatCnaeus fled after his defeat, and sailing thence landed on a rocky height overlooking the sea, where he was murdered. His brotherSextus, having escaped fromCorduba, after carrying on the war for a short time in Spain, caused a revolt inSicily. Flying thence intoAsia he was seized atMiletus by the generals ofAntony, and executed. Amongst theKelts the most famous place isConistorgis. Upon the estuaries isAsta, in which theGaditani mostly hold their assemblies; it is opposite the sea-port of the island, at a distance of not more than 100 stadia.

§ 3.2.3  A vast number of people dwell along theBaetis; and you may sail up it almost 1200 stadia from the sea toCorduba, and the places a little higher up. The banks and little islets of this river are cultivated with the greatest diligence. The eye is also delighted with groves and gardens, which in this district are met with in the highest perfection. As far asHispalis, which is a distance of not less than 500 stadia, the river is navigable for ships of considerable size; but for the cities higher up, as far asIlipas, smaller vessels are employed, and thence toCorduba river-boats. These are now constructed of planks joined together, but they were formerly made out of a single trunk. Above this toCastlon the river is no longer navigable. A chain of mountains, rich in metal, runs parallel to theBaetis, approaching the river sometimes more, sometimes less, towards the north. There is much silver found in the parts aboutIlipas andSisapo, both in that which is called the old town and the new. There are copper and gold about theCotinae. These mountains are on the left as you sail up the river; on the right there is a vast and elevated plain, fertile, full of large trees, and containing excellent pasturage. TheAna is likewise navigable, but not for vessels equally large, nor yet so far up. It is also bordered by mountains containing metal, and extends as far as theTagus. Districts which contain metals must, of necessity, be rugged and poor, as indeed are those adjoiningCarpetania, and still more those next theKeltiberians. The same is the case withBaeturia, the plains of which, bordering on theAna, are arid.

§ 3.2.4  Turdetania, on the other hand, is marvellously fertile, and abounds in every species of produce. The value of its productions is doubled by means of exportation, the surplus products finding a ready sale amongst the numerous ship-owners. This results from its rivers and estuaries, which, as we have said, resemble rivers, and by which you may sail from the sea to the inland towns, not only in small, but even in large-sized skiffs. For the whole country above the coast, and situated between theSacred Promontory and thePillars, consists of an extended plain. Here in many places are hollows running inland from the sea, which resemble moderately-sized ravines or the beds of rivers, and extend for many stadia. These are filled by the approach of the sea at high tide, and may be navigated as easily, or even more so than rivers. They are navigated much the same as rivers the sea, meeting with no obstacle, enters like the flow of a river at flood-tide. The sea comes in here with greater force than in the other places; for being forced from the wide ocean into the narrow strait, formed by the coast ofMaurusia andIberia, it experiences recoils, and thus is borne full into the retiring parts of the land. Some of these shallows are left dry as the tide ebbs, while others are never destitute of water; others again contain islands, of this kind are the estuaries between theSacred Promontory and thePillars, where the tide comes in with more violence than at other places. Such a tide is of considerable advantage to sailors, since it makes the estuaries both fuller and more spacious, frequently swelling them to a breadth of eight stadia, so that the whole land, so to speak, is rendered navigable, thus giving wonderful facility both for the export and import of merchandise. Nevertheless there is some inconvenience. For in the navigation of the rivers, the sailors run considerable danger both in ascending and descending, owing to the violence with which the flood-tide encounters the current of the stream as it flows down. The ebb-tides are likewise the cause of much damage in these estuaries, for resulting as they do from the same cause as the flood-tides, they are frequently so rapid as to leave the vessel on dry land; and herds in passing over to the islands that are in these estuaries are sometimes drowned [in the passage] and sometimes surprised in the islands, and endeavouring to cross back again to the continent, are unable, and perish in the attempt. They say that certain of thecattle, having narrowly observed what takes place, wait till the sea has retired, and then cross over to the main-land.

§ 3.2.5  The men [of the country], being well acquainted with the nature of these places, and that the estuaries would very well answer the same purpose as rivers, founded cities and other settlements along them the same as along rivers. Of this number areAsta,Nebrissa,Onoba,Ossonoba,Maenoba, besides many others. The canals which have been cut in various directions are also found useful in the traffic which is carried on between place and place, both amongst the people themselves and with foreigners. The conflux of water at the flood-tides is also valuable, as rendering navigable the isthmuses which separate the different pieces of water, thus making it possible to ferry over from the rivers into the estuaries, and from the estuaries into the rivers. Their trade is wholly carried on withItaly andRome. The navigation is excellent as far as thePillars, (excepting perhaps some little difficulties at the Strait,) and equally so on the Mediterranean, where the voyages are very calm, especially to those who keep the high seas. This is a great advantage to merchant-vessels. The winds on the high seas blow regularly; and peace reigns there now, thepirates having been put down, so that in every respect the voyage is facile.Posidonius tells us he observed the singular phenomenon in his journey fromIberia, that in this sea, as far as the Gulf ofSardinia, the south-east winds blow periodically. And on this account he strove in vain for three whole months to reachItaly, being driven about by the winds against theGymnesian islands,Sardinia, and the opposite coasts ofLibya.

§ 3.2.6  Large quantities of corn and wine are exported fromTurdetania, besides much oil, which is of the first quality; also wax, honey, pitch, large quantities of the kermesberry, and vermilion not inferior to that ofSinope. The country furnishes the timber for their shipbuilding. They have likewise mineral salt, and not a few salt streams. A considerable quantity of salted fish is exported, not only from hence, but also from the remainder of the coast beyond thePillars, equal to that ofPontus. Formerly they exported large quantities of garments, but they now send the [unmanufactured] wool, which is superior even to that of theCoraxi, and remarkable for its beauty. Rams for the purpose of covering fetch a talent. The stuffs manufactured by theSaltiatae are of incomparable texture. There is a superabundance ofcattle, and a great variety of game: while, on the other hand, of destructive animals there are scarcely any, with the exception of certain little hares which burrow in the ground, and are called by some leberides. These creatures destroy both seeds and trees by gnawing their roots. They are met with throughout almost the whole ofIberia, and extend toMarseilles, infesting likewise the islands. It is said that formerly the inhabitants of theGymnesian islands sent a deputation to the Romans soliciting that a new land might be given them, as they were quite driven out of their country by these animals, being no longer able to stand against their vast multitudes. It is possible that people should be obliged to have recourse to such an expedient for help in waging war in so great an extremity, which however but seldom happens, and is a plague produced by some pestilential state of the atmosphere, which at other times has producedserpents andrats in like abundance; but for the ordinary increase of these little hares, many ways of hunting have been devised, amongst others by wildcats from Africa, trained for the purpose. Having muzzled these, they turn them into the holes, when they either drag out the animals they find there with their claws, or compel them to fly to the surface of the earth, where they are taken by people standing by for that purpose. The large amount of the exports fromTurdetania is evinced by the size and number of their ships. Merchant vessels of the greatest size sail thence toDicaearchia andOstia, a Roman port; they are in number nearly equal to those which arrive fromLibya.

§ 3.2.7  Such is the wealth of the inland part ofTurdetania, and its maritime portions are found fully to equal it in the richness of their sea-productions. In fact, oysters and every variety of shell-fish, remarkable both for their number and size, are found along the whole of the exterior sea, but here in particular. It is probable that the flow and ebb tides, which are particularly strong here, contribute both to their quantity and size, on count of the great number of pools and standing waters which they form. The same is the case with regard to all kinds of cetacea, narwhals, whales, and physeteri, which when they blow [up the water from their snouts] appear to observers from a distance to resemble a cloud shaped like a column. The congers are quite monstrous, far surpassing in size those of our [sea]; so are the lampreys, and many other fish of the same kind. It is said that inCarteia there are kerukae and cuttle-fish which would contain as much as ten cotylae. In the parts more exterior there are lampreys and congers weighing 80 minae, and polypesa talent, also teuthidae two cubits in length, with other fish in proportion. Shoals of rich fattunny are driven hither from the sea-coast beyond. They feed on the fruit of a species of stunted oak, which grows at the bottom of the sea, and produces very large acorns. The same oaks grow in large numbers throughout the land ofIberia, their roots are of the same size as those of the full-grown oak, although the tree itself never attains the height of a low shrub. So great is the quantity of fruit which it produces, that at the season when they are ripe, the whole coast on either side of thePillars is covered with acorns which have been thrown up by the tides: the quantity however is always less on this side thePillars [than on the other].Polybius states that these acorns are ejected [by the sea] as far as [the shores of]Latium, unless, he adds,Sardo and the neighbouring districts also produce them. Thetunny-fish become gradually thinner, owing to the failure of their food, as they approach thePillars from the outer sea. This fish, in fact, may be regarded as a kind of sea-hog, being fond of the acorn, and growing marvellously fat upon it; and whenever acorns are abundant,tunny-fish are abundant likewise.

§ 3.2.8  Of the various riches of the aforenamed country, not the least is its wealth in metals: this every one will particularly esteem and admire. Of metals, in fact, the whole country of theIberians is full, although it is not equally fertile and flourishing throughout, especially in those parts where the metals most abound. It is seldom that any place is blessed with both these advantages, and likewise seldom that the different kinds of metals abound in one small territory.Turdetania, however, and the surrounding districts surpass so entirely in this respect, that however you may wish, words cannot convey their excellence. Gold, silver, copper, and iron, equal in amount and of similar quality, not having been hitherto discovered in any other part of the world. Gold is not only dug from the mines, but likewise collected; sand containing gold being washed down by the rivers and torrents. It is frequently met with in arid districts, but here the gold is not visible to the sight, whereas in those which are overflowed the grains of gold are seen glittering. On this account they cause water to flow over the arid places in order to make the grains shine; they also dig pits, and make use of other contrivances for washing the sand, and separating the gold from it; so that at the present day more gold is procured by washing than by digging it from the mines. TheGalatae affirm that the mines along the Kemmenus mountains and their side of thePyrenees are superior; but most people prefer those on this side. They say that sometimes amongst the grains of gold lumps have been found weighing half a pound, these they call paloe; they need but little refining. They also say that in splitting open stones they find small lumps, resembling paps. And that when they have melted the gold, and purified it by means of a kind of aluminous earth, the residue left is electrum. This, which contains a mixture of silver and gold, being again subjected to the fire, the silver is separated and the gold left [pure]; for this metal is easily dissipated and fat, and on this account gold is most easily melted by straw, the flame of which is soft, and bearing a similarity [to the gold], causes it easily to dissolve: whereas coal, besides wasting a great deal, melts it too much by reason of its vehemence, and carries it off [in vapour]. In the beds of the rivers the sand is either collected and washed in boats close by, or else a pit is dug to which the earth is carried and there washed. The furnaces for silver are constructed lofty, in order that the vapour, which is dense and pestilent, may be raised and carried off. Certain of the copper mines are called gold mines, which would seem to show that formerly gold was dug from them.

§ 3.2.9  Posidonius, in praising the amount and excellence of the metals, cannot refrain from his accustomed rhetoric, and becomes quite enthusiastic in exaggeration. He tells us we are not to disbelieve the fable, that formerly the forests having been set on fire, the earth, which was loaded with silver and gold, melted, and threw up these metals to the surface, forasmuch as every mountain and wooded hill seemed to be heaped up with money by a lavish fortune. Altogether (he remarks) any one seeing these places, could only describe them as the inexhaustible treasuries of nature, or the unfailing exchequer of some potentate; for not only, he tells us, is this land rich itself, but riches abound beneath it. So that amongst these people the subterraneous regions should not be regarded as the realms ofPluto, but ofPlutus. Such is the flourished style in which he speaks on this subject, that you would fancy his turgid language had been dug from a mine itself. Discoursing on the diligence of the miners, he applies to them the remark [ofDemetrius Phalareus, who, speaking of the silver mines ofAttica, said that the men there dug with as much energy as if they thought they could grub upPlutus himself. He compares with these the activity and diligence of theTurdetani, who are in the habit of cutting tortuous and deep tunnels, and draining the streams which they frequently encounter by means ofEgyptian screws. As for the rest, they are quite different from theAttic miners, whose mining (he remarks) may be justly compared to that enigma, What I have taken up I have not kept, and what I have got I have thrown away. Whereas theTurdetanians make a good profit, since a fourth part of the ore which they extract from the copper mines is [pure] copper, while from the silver mines one person has taken as much as aEuboean talent. He says that tin is not found upon the surface, as authors commonly relate, but that it is dug up; and that it is produced both in places among the barbarians who dwell beyond theLusitanians and in the islandsCassiterides; and that from theBritannic Islands it is carried toMarseilles. Amongst theArtabri, who are the last of theLusitanians towards the north and west, he tells us that the earth is powdered with silver, tin, and white gold, that is, mixed with silver, the earth having been brought down by the rivers: this the women scrape up with spades, and wash in sieves, woven after the fashion of baskets. Such is the substance of what [Posidonius] tells us concerning the mines [ofIberia].

§ 3.2.10  Polybius, speaking of the silver mines ofNew Carthage, tells us that they are extremely large, distant from the city about 20 stadia, and occupy a circuit of 400 stadia, that there are 40,000 men regularly engaged in them, and that they yield daily to the Roman people [a revenue of] 25,000 drachmae. The rest of the process I pass over, as it is too long, but as for the silver ore collected, he tells us that it is broken up, and sifted through sieves over water; that what remains is to be again broken, and the water having been strained off, it is to be sifted and broken a third time. The dregs which remain after the fifth time are to be melted, and the lead being poured off, the silver is obtained pure. These silver mines still exist; however they are no longer the property of the state, neither these nor those elsewhere, but are possessed by private individuals. The gold mines, on the contrary, nearly all belong to the state. Both atCastlon and other places there are singular lead mines worked. They contain a small proportion of silver, but not sufficient to pay for the expense of refining.

§ 3.2.11  Not far fromCastlon is the mountain in which they report that the [river]Baetis takes its rise. They call it silver mountain on account of the silver mines which it contains.Polybius asserts that both theAna and this river have their sources inKeltiberia, notwithstanding they are separated from each other by a distance of 900 stadia; [this we are to attribute to] theKeltiberians having increased in power, and having consequently conferred their name on the surrounding country. It appears the ancients knew theBaetis under the name of theTartessus, andGades with the neighbouring islands under that ofErythia; and it is thought that we should understand in this sense the words ofStesichorus concerning the pastoral poetGeryon, that he was born "almost opposite to the renownedErythia, in a rocky cave near to the abundant springs of the silver-bedded riverTartessus." They say that on the piece of land enclosed between the two outlets of this river there formerly stood a city named, like the river,Tartessus, and that the district was calledTartessis, which theTurduli now inhabit.Eratosthenes likewise tells us that the [country] near toCalpe was calledTartessis, and alsoErythia the Fortunate Island. ThisArtemidorus contradicts, and says that it is as false as his other statements, that theSacred Promontory is distant fromGades five days' sail, when in fact they are [distant from each other] not more than 1700 stadia. Likewise that the tide ceased at this point, whereas it passes round the whole circuit of the habitable earth. That it is easier to pass from the northern parts ofIberia intoKeltica, than to proceed thither by sea; with many other things which he asserted on the faith of that charlatanPytheas.

§ 3.2.12  Our poet [Homer] being very explicit, and possessing great experience, gives one cause to believe that he was not unfamiliar with these localities. Of this any one may be convinced who will examine carefully what has been written on these points, both the incorrect [comments], and likewise those which are better and more truthful. One amongst these incorrect ideas is, that he considered [Tartessis] to be the farthest country towards the west, where, as he himself expresses it, "The radiant sun in ocean sank, Drawing night after him o'er all the earth." Iliad viii. 485. Now, since it is evident that night is ominous, and near toHades, andHades toTartarus, it seems probable that [Homer], having heard ofTartessus, took thence the name ofTartarus to distinguish the farthest of the places beneath the earth, also embellishing it with fable in virtue of the poetic licence. In the same way, knowing that theCimmerians dwelt in northern and dismal territories near to theBosphorus, he located them in the vicinity ofHades; perhaps also on account of the common hatred of theIonians against this people. For they say that in the time ofHomer, or a little before, theCimmerians made an incursion as far asAeolia andIonia. Always drawing his fables from certain real facts, hisPlanetae are modelled on theCyaneae. He describes them as dangerous rocks, as they tell us the Cyaneaean rocks are, [and] on which account [in fact] they are calledSymplegades. He adds to this [the account of]Jason's navigating through the midst of them. The Straits of thePillars andSicily, likewise, suggested to him the fable of thePlanetae. Thus, even according to the worst comments, from the fiction ofTartarus any one might gather thatHomer was acquainted with the regions aboutTartessus.

§ 3.2.13  Of these facts, notwithstanding, there are better proofs. For instance, the expeditions ofHercules and thePhoenicians to this country were evidence to him of the wealth and luxury of the people. They fell so entirely under the dominion of thePhoenicians, that at the present day almost the whole of the cities ofTurdetania and the neighbouring places are inhabited by them. It also seems to me that the expedition ofUlysses hither, as it took place and was recorded, was the foundation both of hisOdyssey andIliad, which he framed upon facts collected into a poem, and embellished as usual with poetical mythology. It is not only inItaly,Sicily, and a few other places that vestiges of these [events] occur; even inIberia a city is shown namedOdysseia, also a sanctuary ofMinerva, and a myriad other traces both of the wandering ofUlysses and also of other survivors of theTrojan War, which was equally fatal to the vanquished and those who tookTroy. These latter in fact gained aCadmean victory, for their homes were destroyed, and the portion of booty which fell to each was exceedingly minute. Consequently not only those who had survived the perils [of their country], but the Greeks as well, betook themselves topiracy, the former because they had been pillaged of every thing; the latter, on account of the shame which each one anticipated to himself: "The shame That must attend us, after absence long Returning unsuccessful, who can bear?" Iliad ii. 298. In the same way is related the wandering ofAeneas, ofAntenor, and of theHeneti; likewise ofDiomedes, ofMenelaus, ofUlysses, and of many others. Hence the poet, knowing of similar expeditions to the extremities ofIberia, and having heard of its wealth and other excellencies, (which thePhoenicians had made known,) feigned this to be the region of the Blessed, and the Plain ofElysium, whereProteus informsMenelaus that he is to depart to: "But far hence the gods Will send thee toElysium, and the earth's Extremest bounds; thereRhadamanthus dwells, The golden-haired, and there the human kind Enjoy the easiest life; no snow is there, No biting winter, and no drenching shower, But zephyr always gently from the sea Breathes on them to refresh the happy race." [Od. iv. 563.] Now the purity of the air, and the gentle breathing of the zephyr, are both applicable to this country, as well as the softness of the climate, its position in the west, and its place at the extremities of the earth, where, as we have said, he feigned thatHades was. By couplingRhadamanthus with it, he signifies that the place was near toMinos, of whom he says, "There saw IMinos, offspring famed ofJove; His golden sceptre in his hand, he sat Judge of the dead." [Od. xi. 567.]. Similar to these are the fables related by later poets; such, for instance, as the expeditions after theoxen ofGeryon, and the golden apples of theHesperides, theIslands of the Blessed they speak of, which we know are still pointed out to us not far distant from the extremities ofMaurusia, and opposite toGades.

§ 3.2.14  I repeat that thePhoenicians were the discoverers [of these countries], for they possessed the better part ofIberia andLibya before the time ofHomer, and continued masters of those places until their empire was overthrown by the Romans. This also is an evidence of the wealth ofIberia: in the expedition of theCarthaginians under Barcas, they found, according to historians, that the people ofTurdetania used silver goblets and casks. One might guess too that it was on account of this great opulence that the men of the country, and their chiefs in particular, were styled long-lived. WhereforeAnacreon thus sings, "Neither would I desire the horn ofAmalthea, nor to reign overTartessus one hundred and fifty years."Herodotus too has preserved the name of the king, whom he callsArganthonius. The passage ofAnacreon must therefore either be understood [of this king], or some other like him; or else more generally thus, "nor to reign for a lengthened period inTartessus." Some writers are of opinion thatTartessus is the presentCarteia.

§ 3.2.15  TheTurdetani not only enjoy a salubrious climate, but their manners are polished and urbane, as also are those of the people ofKeltica, by reason of their vicinity [to theTurdetani], or, according toPolybius, on account of their being of the same stock, but not to so great a degree, for they live for the most part scattered in villages. TheTurdetani, on the other hand, especially those who dwell about theBaetis, have so entirely adopted the Roman mode of life, as even to have forgotten their own language. They have for the most part becomeLatins, and received Roman colonists; so that a short time only is wanted before they will be all Romans. The very names of many of the towns at present, such asPax Augusta amongst theKeltici,Augusta-Emerita amongst theTurduli,Caesaraugusta amongst theKeltiberians and certain other colonies, are proof of the change of manners I have spoken of. Those of theIberians who adopt these new modes of life are styled togati. Amongst their number are theKeltiberians, who formerly were regarded as the most uncivilized of them all. So much for these.

§ 3.3.1  STARTING again from theSacred Promontory, and continuing along the other side of the coast, we come to the gulf near theTagus, afterwardsCape Barbarium, and near to this the outlets of theTagus, which may be reached by sailing in a straight course for a distance of 10 stadia. Here are estuaries, one of them more than 400 stadia from the said tower, on a part of whichLaccaea is situated. The breadth of the mouth of theTagus is about 20 stadia, its depth is so great as to be capable of navigation by vessels of the greatest burden. At the flood-tide theTagus forms two estuaries in the plains which lie above it, so that the plain is inundated and rendered navigable for a distance of 150 stadia. In the upper estuary an island is formed about 30 stadia in length, and nearly equal in breadth, which is fertile, and has excellent vines. The island lies near toMoro, a city happily situated on a mountain close to the river, and about 500 stadia from the sea. The country surrounding it is very fine, and the ascent [of theTagus] for a considerable way practicable for vessels of a large size, the remainder is performed in riverboats. AboveMoro it is navigable for a yet longer distance.Brutus, surnamed the Gallician, made use of this city as a military station, when fighting against theLusitanians, whom he subdued. On the sides of the river he fortifiedOlysipo, in order that the passage up the river and the carriage of necessaries might be preserved unimpeded. These therefore are the finest cities near theTagus. The river contains much fish, and is full of oysters. It takes its rise amongst theKeltiberians, and flows through the [country of the]Vettones,Carpetani, andLusitani, towards the west; to a certain distance it runs parallel with theAna andBaetis, but parts from them as they decline towards the southern coast.

§ 3.3.2  Of those who dwell above the aforesaid mountains, theOretani are the most southern, extending in part as far as the sea-coast on this side thePillars. Next these towards the north are theCarpetani, then theVettones andVaccaei, through whose [country] theDouro flows as it passes Acontia, a city of theVaccaei. TheGallicians are the last, and inhabit for the most part a mountainous country: on this account they were the most difficult to subdue, and furnished his surname to the conqueror of theLusitanians; in fact, at the present day the greater part of theLusitanians are beginning to call themselvesGallicians. The finest cities ofOretania areCastulo andOria.

§ 3.3.3  North of theTagus isLusitania, the principal of the nations ofIberia, and the one which has most frequently encountered the arms of the Romans. On the southern side this country is bounded by theTagus, on the west and north by the ocean, on the east by the well-known nations of theCarpetani, theVettones, theVaccaei, theGallicians, and by others not worthy to be mentioned on account of their insignificance and obscurity. On the other hand, certain historians of the present day give the name ofLusitanians to all of these nations. To the east theGallicians border on the nation of theAstures andKeltiberians, the others [border] on theKeltiberians. In lengthLusitania is 3000 stadia; its breadth, which is comprised between the eastern side and the opposite seacoast, is much less. The eastern part is mountainous and rugged, while the country beyond, as far as the sea, consists entirely of plains, with the exception of a few inconsiderable mountains. On this accountPosidonius remarks thatAristotle was not correct in supposing that the ebb and flow of the tide was occasioned by the sea-coast ofIberia andMaurusia. ForAristotle asserted that the tides of the sea were caused by the extremities of the land being mountainous and rugged, and therefore both receiving the wave violently and also casting it back. WhereasPosidonius truly remarks that they are for the most part low and sandy.

§ 3.3.4  The country which we are describing is fertile, and irrigated by rivers both large and small, all of which flow from the eastern parts parallel with theTagus: most of them are navigable and full of gold dust. After theTagus, the most noted rivers are theMounda and the Vacua, which are navigable but for a short distance. After these is theDourios, which flows from afar byNumantia, and many other colonies of theKeltiberians andVaccaei; it is capable of being navigated in large vessels for a distance of nearly 800 stadia. Besides these there are other rivers, after which is the [river] ofLethe, which some call theLimaea, others the Belio, it likewise rises amongst theKeltiberians andVaccaei. After this is the Baenis (some call it theMinius), by far the largest river ofLusitania, being navigable for a distance of 800 stadia.Posidonius says this too rises amongst theCantabrians. An island lies before its outlet, and two moles affording anchorage for vessels. A natural advantage [of this country] well deserving of commendation is, that the banks of the rivers are so lofty as to be capable of containing the entire of the water raised by the high tides of the sea, without either being overfilled, or overflowing the plains. This was the limit ofBrutus's expedition. Beyond there are many other rivers parallel to those I have named.

§ 3.3.5  TheArtabri are the last of the people [on this coast]. They inhabit the promontory calledNerium, which is the boundary [ofIberia] on its western and northern sides. Around it dwell theKeltici, a kindred race to those who are situated along theAna. They say that these latter, together with theTurduli, having undertaken an expedition thither, quarrelled after they had crossed the riverLima, and, besides the sedition, their leader having also died, they remained scattered there, and from this circumstance the river was called theLethe. TheArtabri have besides many cities established round the Gulf, which mariners and those familiar with the places designate as the Port of theArtabri. At the present day theArtabri are denominated theArotrebae. About thirty different nations occupy the country between theTagus and theArtabri. Notwithstanding the fertility of the country in corn,cattle, gold, silver, and numerous other similar productions, the majority of its inhabitants, neglecting to gain their subsistence from the ground, passed their lives in pillage and continual warfare, both between themselves and their neighbours, whom they used to cross theTagus [to plunder]. To this the Romans at length put a stop by subduing them, and changing many of their cities into villages, besides colonizing some of them better. The mountaineers, as was natural, were the first to commence this lawless mode of life: for living but scantily, and possessing little, they coveted the goods of others, who being obliged to repulse them, of necessity relinquished their proper employments, and instead of pursuing agriculture took up arms. Thus it happened that their country, being neglected, became barren notwithstanding its natural advantages, and inhabited by bandits.

§ 3.3.6  TheLusitanians are reported to be clever in laying ambushes, sharp, swift of foot, light, and easily disciplined as soldiers. The small shield they make use of is two feet in diameter, its outer surface concave, and suspended by leather thongs; it neither has rings nor handles. They have in addition a poignard or dagger. Their corselets are for the most part made of linen; a few have chain-coats and helmets with triple crests, but the others use helmets composed of sinews. The infantry wear greaves, each man is furnished with a number of javelins; some also use spears pointed with brass. They report that some of those who dwell near to the riverDouro imitate theLacedemonians in anointing their bodies with oil, using hot air-baths made of heated stones, bathing in cold water, and taking but one tidy and frugal meal a day. TheLusitanians are frequent in the performance of sacrifice; they examine the entrails, but without cutting them out of the body; they also examine the veins of the side, and practise augury by the touch. They likewise divine by the entrails of captive enemies, whom they first cover with a military cloak, and when stricken under the entrails by the haruspex, they draw their first auguries from the fall [of the victim]. They cut off the right hands of their prisoners, and consecrate them to the gods.

§ 3.3.7  All the mountaineers are frugal, their beverage is water, they sleep on the ground, and wear a profuse quantity of long hair after the fashion of women, which they bind around the forehead when they go to battle. They subsist principally on the flesh of thegoat, which animal they sacrifice toMars, as also prisoners taken in war, andhorses. They likewise offer hecatombs of each kind after the manner of the Greeks, described byPindar, "To sacrifice a hundred of every [species]." They practise gymnastic exercises, both as heavy-armed soldiers, and cavalry, also boxing, running, skirmishing, and fighting in bands. For two-thirds of the year the mountaineers feed on the acorn, which they dry, bruise, and afterwards grind and make into a kind of bread, which may be stored up for a long period. They also use beer; wine is very scarce, and what is made they speedily consume in feasting with their relatives. In place of oil they use butter. Their meals they take sitting, on seats put up round the walls, and they take place on these according to their age and rank. The supper is carried round, and whilst drinking they dance to the sound of the flute and trumpet, springing up and sinking upon the knees. InBastetania the women dance promiscuously with the men, each holding the other's hand. They all dress in black, the majority of them in cloaks called saga, in which they sleep on beds of straw. They make use of wooden vessels like theKelts. The women wear dresses and embroidered garments. Instead of money, those who dwell far in the interior exchange merchandise, or give pieces of silver cut off from plates of that metal. Those condemned to death are executed by stoning; parricides are put to death without the frontiers or the cities. They marry according to the customs of the Greeks. Their sick they expose upon the highways, in the same way as theEgyptians did anciently, in the hope that some one who has experienced the malady may be able to give them advice. Up to the time of [the expedition of]Brutus they made use of vessels constructed of skins for crossing the lagoons formed by the tides; they now have them formed out of the single trunk of a tree, but these are scarce. Their salt is purple, but becomes white by pounding. The life of the mountaineers is such as I have described, I mean those bordering the northern side ofIberia, theGallicians, theAsturians, and theCantabrians, as far as theVascons and thePyrenees. The mode of life amongst all these is similar. But I am reluctant to fill my page with their names, and would fain escape the disagreeable task of writing them, unless perchance thePleutauri, theBardyetae, theAllotriges, and other names still worse and more out of the way than these might be grateful to the ear of some one.

§ 3.3.8  The rough and savage manners of these people is not alone owing to their wars, but likewise to their isolated position, it being a long distance to reach them, whether by sea or land. Thus the difficulty of communication has deprived them both of generosity of manners and of courtesy. At the present time, however, they suffer less from this both on account of their being at peace and the intermixture of Romans. Wherever these [influences] are not so much experienced people are harsher and more savage. It is probable that this ruggedness of character is increased by the barrenness of the mountains and some of the places which they inhabit. At the present day, as I have remarked, all warfare is put an end to,Augustus Caesar having subdued theCantabrians and the neighbouring nations, amongst whom the system of pillage was mainly carried on in our day. So that at the present time, instead of plundering the allies of the Romans, theConiaci and those who dwell by the sources of theEbro, with the exception of theTuisi, bear arms for the Romans.Tiberius, who succeededAugustus Caesar, carried out his intention of placing a military force of three legions in these parts, by which means he has not only preserved peace, but introduced amongst some of them a civil polity.

§ 3.4.1  WHAT remains [to be described] ofIberia, is the seacoast of the Mediterranean from thePillars to thePyrenees, and the whole of the inland country which lies above. The breadth of this is irregular, its length a little above 4000 stadia. It has been remarked that the sea-coast is above 2000 stadia, and they say that from MountCalpe, which is near thePillars, toNew Carthage, there are 2200 stadia. This coast is inhabited by theBastetani, also called theBastuli, and in part by theOretani. Thence to theEbro the distance is nearly as great. This [region] is inhabited by theEdetani. On this side theEbro to thePyrenees and theTrophies ofPompey there are 1600 stadia. It is peopled by a small portion of theEdetani, and the rest by a people named theIndicetes, divided into four cantons.

§ 3.4.2  Commencing our particular description fromCalpe, there is [first] the mountain-chain ofBastetania and theOretani. This is covered with thick woods and gigantic trees, and separates the sea-coast from the interior. In many places it also contains gold and other mines. The first city along the coast isMalaca, which is about as far distant fromCalpe asCalpe is fromGades. It is a market for the nomad tribes from the opposite coast, and there are great stores of salt-fish there. Some suppose it to be the same asMaenaca, which tradition reports to be the farthest west of the cities of thePhocaei; but this is not the case, forMaenaca, which was situated at a greater distance fromCalpe, is in ruins, and preserves traces of having been a Grecian city, whereasMalaca is nearer, andPhoenician in its configuration. Next in order is the city of theExitani, from which the salted fish bearing that name takes its appellation.

§ 3.4.3  After these comesAbdera, founded likewise by thePhoenicians. Above these places, in the mountains, the city ofOdysseia is shown, containing a sanctuary ofAthena, according to the testimony ofPosidonius,Artemidorus, andAsclepiades theMyrlean, a man who taught literature inTurdetania, and published a description of the nations dwelling there. He says that in the sanctuary ofAthena were hung up spears and prows of vessels, monuments of the wanderings ofUlysses. That some of those who followedTeucer in his expedition settled among theGallicians; and that two cities were there, the one called Hellenes, the other Amphilochi; butAmphilochus having died, his followers wandered into the interior. He adds, that it is said, that some of the followers ofHercules, and certain also of the inhabitants ofMessene, settled inIberia. Both he and others assert that a portion ofCantabria was occupied byLaconians. Here is the city named Opsicella, founded by Ocela, who passed intoItaly withAntenor and his children. Some believe the account of the merchants ofGades, asserted byArtemidorus, that inLibya there are people living aboveMaurusia, near to the WesternEthiopians, namedLotophagi, because they feed on the leaves and root of the lotus without wanting to drink; for they possess [no drink], being without water. These people they say extend as far as the regions aboveCyrene. There are others also calledLotophagi, who inhabitMeninx, one of the islands situated opposite the LesserSyrtes.

§ 3.4.4  No one should be surprised that the poet, in his fiction descriptive of the wanderings ofUlysses, should have located the majority of the scenes which he narrates without thePillars, in theAtlantic. For historical events of a similar character did actually occur near to the places, so that the other circumstances which he feigned did not make his fiction incredible; nor [should any one be surprised] if certain persons, putting faith in the historical accuracy and extensive knowledge of the poet, should have attempted to explain the poem ofHomer on scientific principles; a proceeding undertaken byCrates ofMallos, and some others. On the other hand, there have been those who have treated the undertaking ofHomer so contemptuously, as not only to deny any such knowledge to the poet, as though he were a ditcher or reaper, but have stigmatized as fools those who commented on his writings. And not one either of the grammarians, or of those skilled in the mathematics, has dared to undertake their defence, or to set right any mistakes in what they have advanced, or any thing else; although it seems to me possible both to prove correct much that they have said, and also to set right other points, especially where they have been misled by putting faith inPytheas, who was ignorant of the countries situated along the ocean, both to the west and north. But we must let these matters pass, as they require a particular and lengthened discussion.

§ 3.4.5  The settlement of the Grecians amongst these barbarous nations may be regarded as the result of the division of these latter into small tribes and sovereignties, having on account of their moroseness no union amongst themselves, and therefore powerless against attacks from without. This moroseness is remarkably prevalent amongst theIberians, who are besides crafty in their manner, devoid of sincerity, insidious, and predatory in their mode of life; they are bold in little adventures, but never undertake any thing of magnitude, inasmuch as they have never formed any extended power or confederacy. If they had had but the will to assist each other, neither could theCarthaginians by making an incursion have so easily deprived them of the greater part of their country, nor before them theTyrians, then theKelts, now called theKeltiberians and Berones, nor after these the brigandViriathus, andSertorius, nor any others who desired power. On this account the Romans, having carried the war intoIberia, lost much time by reason of the number of different sovereignties, having to conquer first one, then another; in fact, it occupied nearly two centuries, or even longer, before they had subdued the whole. — I return to my description.

§ 3.4.6  AfterAbdera isNew Carthage, founded byAsdrubal, who succeeded Barcas, the father ofHannibal. It is by far the most powerful city of this country, being impregnable, and furnished with a noble wall, harbours, and a lake, besides the silver mines already mentioned. The places in the vicinity have an abundance of salted fish, and it is besides the great emporium of the sea merchandise for the interior, and likewise for the merchandise from the interior for exportation. About midway along the coast between this city and theEbro, we meet with the outlet of the riverSucro, and a city bearing the same name. It rises in a mountain belonging to the chain which overlooksMalaca, and the regions aroundCarthage, and may be forded on foot; it is nearly parallel to theEbro, but not quite so far distant fromCarthage as from theEbro. Between theSucro andCarthage are three small towns of the people ofMarseilles, not far from the river. Of these the best known isHemeroscopium. On the promontory there is a sanctuary toDiana ofEphesus, held in great veneration.Sertorius used it as an arsenal, convenient to the sea, both on account of its being fortified and fitted forpiratical uses, and because it is visible from a great distance to vessels approaching. It is calledDianium, fromDiana. Near to it are some fine iron-works, and two small islands, Planesia and Plumbaria, with a sea-water lake lying above, of 400 stadia in circumference. Next is the island ofHercules, near toCarthage, and called Scombraria, on account of the mackerel taken there, from which the finest garum is made. It is distant 24 stadia fromCarthage. On the other side of theSucro, going towards the outlet of theEbro, isSaguntum, founded by theZacynthians. The destruction of this city byHannibal, contrary to his treaties with the Romans, kindled the second Punic war. Near to it are the cities of Cherronesus, Oleastrum, and Cartalia, and the colony ofDertossa, on the very passage of theEbro. TheEbro takes its source amongst theCantabrians; it flows through an extended plain towards the south, running parallel with thePyrenees.

§ 3.4.7  The first city between the windings of theEbro and the extremities of thePyrenees, near to where theTrophies ofPompey are erected, isTarraco; it has no harbour, but is situated on a bay, and possessed of many other advantages. At the present day it is as well peopled asCarthage; for it is admirably suited for the stay of the prefects, and is as it were the metropolis, not only of [the country lying] on this side theEbro, but also of a great part of what lies beyond. The near vicinity of theGymnesian Islands, andEbusus, which are all of considerable importance, are sufficient to inform one of the felicitous position of the city.Eratosthenes tells us that it has a naval station, butArtemidorus contradicts this, and affirms that it scarcely possesses an anchorage.

§ 3.4.8  The whole coast from thePillars up to this place wants harbours, but all the way from here toEmporium, the countries of theLeetani, theLartolaeetae, and others, are both furnished with excellent harbours and fertile.Emporium was founded by the people ofMarseilles, and is about 4000 stadia distant from thePyrenees, and the confines ofIberia andKeltica. This is a very fine region, and possesses good ports. Here also isRhode, a small town of theEmporitae, but some say it was founded by theRhodians. Both here and inEmporium they reverence theEphesianDiana. The cause of this we will explain when we come to speak ofMassalia. in former times theEmporitae dwelt on a small island opposite, now called the old city, but at the present day they inhabit the mainland. The city is double, being divided by a wall, for in past times some of theIndiceti dwelt close by, who, although they had a separate polity to themselves, desired, for the sake of safety, to be shut in by a common enclosure with the Greeks; but at the same time that this enclosure should be two-fold, being divided through its middle by a wall. In time, however, they came to have but one government, a mixture of Barbarian and Greek laws; a result which has taken place in many other [states].

§ 3.4.9  A river flows near to it, which has its sources in thePyrenees; its outlet forms a port for theEmporitae, who are skilful workers in flax. Of the interior of their country some parts are fertile, others covered with spartum, a rush which flourishes in marshes, and is entirely useless: they call this the Iugarium Plain. There are some who inhabit thePyrenean mountains as far as theTrophies ofPompey, on the route which leads fromItaly into UlteriorIberia, and particularly intoBaetica. This road runs sometimes close to the sea, sometimes at a distance therefrom, particularly in the western parts. From theTrophies ofPompey it leads toTarraco, through the Iugarium Plain, theBetteres, and the plain called in theLatin tongue [the plain] ofMarathon, on account of the quantity of fennel growing there. FromTarraco [the road runs] towards the passage of theEbro at the city ofDertossa; from thence having traversed the city ofSaguntum, and Setabis, it follows a course more and more distant from the sea, till it approaches the Plain of Spartarium, which signifies the Plain of Rushes. This is a vast arid plain, producing the species of rush from which cords are made, and which are exported to all parts, but particularly toItaly. Formerly the road passed on through the midst of the plain, and [the city of] Egelastae, which was both difficult and long, but they have now constructed a new road close to the sea, which merely touches upon the Plain of Rushes, and leads to the same places as the former, [viz.]Castlon, andObulco, through which runs the road toCorduba andGades, the two greatest emporia [ofIberia].Obulco is distant about 300 stadia fromCorduba. Historians report thatCaesar came fromRome toObulco, and to his army there, within the space of twenty-seven days, when about to fight the battle ofMunda.

§ 3.4.10  Such is the whole sea-coast from thePillars to the confines of theIberians andKelts. The interior of the country lying above, and included between the mountains of thePyrenees and the northern side [ofIberia], as far as theAstures, is principally divided by two mountain chains; the one of these is parallel to thePyrenees, and takes its commencement from the country of theCantabri, terminating at the Mediterranean. This is called the Idubeda. The second, springing from the middle [of this first], runs towards the west, inclining however to the south and the sea-coast towards thePillars. At the commencement it consists of bare hills, but after traversing the Plain of Spartarium, falls in with the forest lying aboveCarthage, and the regions roundMalaca. It is namedOrospeda. The riverEbro flows between thePyrenees and Idubeda, and parallel to both these mountains. It is fed by the rivers and other waters carried down from [the mountains]. Situated on theEbro is the city ofCaesar Augusta, and the colony ofCelsa, where there is a stone bridge across the river. This country is inhabited by many nations, the best known being that of theIaccetani. Commencing at the foot of thePyrenees, it widens out into the plains, and reaches to the districts aroundIlerda andOsca, [cities] of theIlergetes not far distant from theEbro. It was in these cities, and inCalaguris, a city of theVascons, as well as those ofTarraco andHemeroscopium, situated on the coast, thatSertorius sustained the last efforts of the war, after being ejected from the country of theKeltiberians. He died atOsca, and it was near toIlerda thatAfranius andPetreius,Pompey's generals, were afterwards defeated by divusCaesar.Ilerda is distant 160 stadia from theEbro, which is on its west, about 460 fromTarraco, which is on the south, and 540 fromOsca, which lies to the north. Passing through these places fromTarraco to the extremities of theVascons who dwell by the ocean, nearPompelon and the city of Oeaso situated on the ocean, the route extends 2400 stadia, to the very frontiers ofAquitaine andIberia. It was in the country of theIaccetani thatSertorius fought againstPompey, and here afterwardsSextus,Pompey's son, fought against the generals ofCaesar. The nation of theVascons, in which isPompelon, orPompey's city, lies north of Iaccetania.

§ 3.4.11  The side of thePyrenees nextIberia is covered with forests containing numerous kinds of trees and evergreens, whilst the side nextKeltica is bare: in the midst [the mountains] enclose valleys admirably fitted for the habitation of man. These are mainly possessed by theKerretani, a people of theIberians. The hams they cure are excellent, fully equal to those of theCantabrians, and they realize no inconsiderable profit to the inhabitants.

§ 3.4.12  Immediately after passing Idubeda, you enter onKeltiberia, a large and irregular country. It is for the most part rugged, and watered by rivers, being traversed by theAna, theTagus, and many other of the rivers which flow into the western sea, but have their sources inKeltiberia. Of their number is theDouro, which flows byNumantia andSerguntia. TheBaetis rises inOrospeda, and after passing throughOretania, entersBaetica. TheBerones inhabit the districts north of theKeltiberians, and are neighbours of theConisciCantabrians. They likewise had their origin in theKeltic expedition. Their city isVaria, situated near to the passage of theEbro. They are adjacent to theBardyitae, now called theBardyli. To the west [of theKeltiberians] are certain of theAstures,Gallicians, andVaccaei, besidesVettones andCarpetani. On the south are theOretani, and the other inhabitants ofOrospeda, bothBastetani andEdetani, and to the east is Idubeda.

§ 3.4.13  Of the four divisions into which theKeltiberians are separated, the most powerful are theAruaci, situated to the east and south, near to theCarpetani and the sources of theTagus. Their most renowned city isNumantia. They showed their valour in the war of twenty years, waged by theKeltiberians against the Romans; for many armies of the Romans, together with their generals, were destroyed; and in the end theNumantians, besieged within their city, endured the famine with constancy, till, reduced to a very small number, they were compelled to surrender the place. TheLusones are also situated to the east, and likewise border on the sources of theTagus.Segeda andPallantia are cities of theAruaci.Numantia is distant fromCaesar Augusta, situated as we have said upon theEbro, about 800 stadia. Near toSegobriga andBilbilis, likewise cities of theKeltiberians, was fought the battle betweenMetellus andSertorius.Polybius, describing the people and countries of theVaccaei andKeltiberians, enumerates Segesama andIntercatia amongst their other cities.Posidonius tells us thatMarcus Marcellus exacted ofKeltiberia a tribute of 600 talents, which proves that theKeltiberians were a numerous and wealthy people, notwithstanding the little fertility of their country.Polybius narrates thatTiberius Gracchus destroyed 300 cities of theKeltiberians. ThisPosidonius ridicules, and asserts that to flatterGracchus,Polybius described as cities the towers such as are exhibited in the triumphal processions. This is not incredible; for both generals and historians easily fall into this species of deception, by exaggerating their doings. Those who assert thatIberia contained more than a thousand cities, seem to me to have been carried away in a similar manner, and to have denominated as cities what were merely large villages; since, from its very nature, this country is incapable of maintaining so many cities, on account of its sterility, wildness, and its out-of-the-way position. Nor, with the exception of those who dwell along the shores of the Mediterranean, is any such statement confirmed by the mode of life or actions of the inhabitants. The inhabitants of the villages, who constitute the majority of theIberians, are quite uncivilized. Even the cities cannot very easily refine the manners [of their inhabitants], as the neighbouring woods are full of robbers, waiting only an opportunity to inflict injury on the citizens.

§ 3.4.14  Beyond theKeltiberians to the south are the inhabitants ofOrospeda and the country about theSucro, theSidetani, [who extend] as far asCarthage, and theBastetani andOretani, [who extend] almost as far asMalaca.

§ 3.4.15  All theIberians, so to speak, were peltastae, furnished with light arms for the purposes of robbery, and, as we described theLusitanians, using the javelin, the sling, and the sword. They have some cavalry interspersed amongst the foot-soldiers, thehorses are trained to traverse the mountains, and to sink down on their knees at the word of command, in case of necessity.Iberia produces abundance of antelopes and wildhorses. In many places the lakes are stocked. They have fowl, swans, and birds of similar kind, and vast numbers of bustards. Beavers are found in the rivers, but the castor does not possess the same virtue as that from theEuxine, the drug from that place having peculiar properties of its own, as is the case in many other instances. ThusPosidonius tells us that theCyprian copper alone produces the cadmian stone, copperas-water, and oxide of copper. He likewise informs us of the singular fact, that inIberia thecrows are not black; and that thehorses ofKeltiberia which are spotted, lose that colour when they pass into UlteriorIberia. He compares them to theParthianhorses, for indeed they are superior to all other breeds, both in fleetness and their ease in speedy travelling.

§ 3.4.16  Iberia produces a large quantity of roots used in dyeing. In olives, vines, figs, and every kind of similar fruit trees, theIberian coast next the Mediterranean abounds, they are likewise plentiful beyond. Of the coasts next the ocean, that towards the north is destitute of them, on account of the cold, and the remaining portion generally on account of the apathy of the men, and because they do not lead a civilized life, but pass their days in poverty, only acting on the animal impulse, and living most corruptly. They do not attend to ease or luxury, unless any one considers it can add to the happiness of their lives to wash themselves and their wives in stale urine kept in tanks, and to rinse their teeth with it, which they say is the custom both with theCantabrians and their neighbours. This practice, as well as that of sleeping on the ground, is common both among theIberians andKelts. Some say that theGallicians are atheists, but that theKeltiberians, and their neighbours to the north, [sacrifice] to a nameless god, every full moon, at night, before their doors, the whole family passing the night in dancing and festival. TheVettones, the first time they came to a Roman camp, and saw certain of the officers walking up and down the roads for the mere pleasure of walking, supposed that they were mad, and offered to show them the way to their tents. For they thought, when not fighting, one should remain quietly seated at ease.

§ 3.4.17  WhatArtemidorus relates concerning the adornment of certain of their women, must likewise be attributed to their barbarous customs. He says that they wear iron collars havingcrows fixed to them which bend over the head, and fall forward considerably over the forehead. When they wish they draw their veil over thesecrows, so as to shade the whole face: this they consider an ornament. Others wear a tympanium surrounding the occiput, and fitting tight to the head as far as the ears, turning over [and increasing] little by little in height and breadth. Others again make bald the front of the head, in order to display the forehead to greater advantage. Some twist their flowing hair round a small style, a foot high, and afterwards cover it with a black veil. Of singularities like these many have been observed and recorded as to all theIberian nations in common, but particularly those towards the north not only concerning their bravery, but likewise their cruelty and brutal madness. For in the war against theCantabrians, mothers have slain their children sooner than suffer them to be captured; and a young boy, having obtained a sword, slew, at the command of his father, both his parents and brothers, who had been made prisoners and were bound, and a woman those who had been taken together with her. A man being invited by a party of drunken [soldiers] to their feast, threw himself into a fire. These feelings are common both to theKeltic, Thracian, andScythian nations, as well as the valour not only of their men, but likewise of their women. These till the ground, and after parturition, having put their husbands instead of themselves to bed, they wait upon them. Frequently in their employment they wash and swathe their infants, sitting down by some stream.Posidonius tells us that inLiguria, his host Charmoleon, a man who came fromMarseilles, related to him, that having hired some men and women to dig his land, one of the women was seized with the pains of labour, and going to a little distance from where they were at work, she brought forth, and returned immediately to her work, for fear she might lose her pay. He observed that she was evidently working in considerable pain, but was not aware of the cause till towards evening, when he ascertained it, and sent her away, having given her her wages. She then carried her infant to a small spring, and having washed it, wrapped it up in as good swaddling clothes as she could get, and made the best of her way home.

§ 3.4.18  Another practice, not restricted to theIberians alone, is for two to mount on onehorse, so that in the event of a conflict, one may be there to fight on foot. Neither are they the only sufferers in being tormented with vast swarms ofmice, from which pestilential diseases have frequently ensued. This occurred to the Romans inCantabria, so that they caused it to be proclaimed, that whoever would catch themice should receive rewards according to the number taken, and [even with this] they were scarcely preserved, as they were suffering besides from want of corn and other necessaries, it being difficult to get supplies of corn fromAquitaine on account of the rugged nature of the country. It is a proof of the ferocity of theCantabrians, that a number of them having been taken prisoners and fixed to the cross, they chanted songs of triumph. Instances such as these are proofs of the ferocity of their manners. There are others which, although not showing them to be polished, are certainly not brutish. For example, amongst theCantabrians, the men give dowries to their wives, and the daughters are left heirs, but they procure wives for their brothers. These things indicate a degree of power in the woman, although they are no proof of advanced civilization. It is also a custom with theIberians to furnish themselves with a poison, which kills without pain, and which they procure from a herb resembling parsley. This they hold in readiness in case of misfortune, and to devote themselves for those whose cause they have joined, thus dying for their sake.

§ 3.4.19  Some, as I have said, state that this country is separated into four divisions; others, into five. It is not easy to state any thing precisely on these points, both on account of the changes which the places have undergone, and by reason of their obscurity. In well-known and notable countries both the migrations are known, and the divisions of the land, and the changes of their names, and every thing else of the same kind. Such matters being the common topics with everybody, and especially with the Greeks, who are more talkative than any other people. But in barbarous and out-of-the-way countries, and such as are cut up into small divisions, and lie scattered, the remembrance of such occurrences is not nearly so certain, nor yet so full. If these countries are far removed from the Greeks [our] ignorance is increased. For although the Roman historians imitate the Greeks, they fall far short of them. What they relate is taken from the Greeks, very little being the result of their own ardour in acquiring information. So that whenever any thing has been omitted by the former there is not much supplied by the latter. Add to this, that the names most celebrated are generally Grecian. Formerly the name ofIberia was given to the whole country between theRhone and the isthmus formed by the two Galatic gulfs; whereas now they make thePyrenees its boundary, and call it indifferentlyIberia orHispania; others have restrictedIberia to the country on this side theEbro. Still earlier it bore the name of theIgletes, who inhabited but a small district, according toAsclepiades theMyrlean. The Romans call the whole indifferentlyIberia andHispania, but designate one portion of it Ulterior, and the otherCiterior. However, at different periods they have divided it differently, according to its political aspect at various times.

§ 3.4.20  At the present time some of the provinces having been assigned to the people and senate of the Romans, and the others to the emperor,Baetica appertains to the people, and a praetor has been sent into the country, having under him a quaestor and a lieutenant. Its eastern boundary has been fixed near toCastlon. The remainder belongs to the emperor, who deputes two lieutenants, a praetor, and a consul. The praetor with a lieutenant administers justice amongst theLusitanians, who are situated nextBaetica, and extend as far as the outlets of the riverDouro, for at the present time this district is calledLusitania by the inhabitants. Here is [the city of]Augusta Emerita. What remains, which is [indeed] the greater part ofIberia, is governed by the consul, who has under him a respectable force, consisting of about three legions, with three lieutenants, one of whom with two legions guards the whole country north of theDouro, the inhabitants of which formerly were styledLusitanians, but are now calledGallicians. The northern mountains, together with theAsturian andCantabrian, border on these. The river Melsus flows through the country of theAsturians, and at a little distance is the city of Nougat, close to an estuary formed by the ocean, which separates theAsturians from theCantabrians. The second lieutenant with the remaining legion governs the adjoining district as far as thePyrenees. The third oversees the midland district, and governs the cities inhabited by the togati, whom we have before alluded to as inclined to peace, and who have adopted the refined manners and mode of life of theItalians, together with the toga. These are theKeltiberians, and those who dwell on either side of theEbro, as far as the sea-coast. The consul passes the winter in the maritime districts, mostly administering justice either in [the city of]Carthage, orTarraco. During the summer he travels through the country, observing whatever may need reform. There are also the procurators of the emperor, men of the equestrian rank, who distribute the pay to the soldiers for their maintenance.

§ 3.5.1  OF the islands which are situated in front ofIberia, two named thePityussae, and two theGymnasiae, (also called the Baleares,) are situated on the sea-coast betweenTarraco and [the river]Sucro, on whichSaguntum is built. ThePityussae are situated farther in the high seas and more to the West than theGymnasiae. One of thePityussae is called Ebusus, having a city of the same name. This island is 400 stadia in circumference, and nearly equal in its breadth and length. The other, [named]Orpheus, is situated near to this, but is desert, and much smaller. The larger of theGymnasiae contains two cities,Palma, andPolentia; the latter lying towards the east, the former towards the west. The length of this island is scarcely less than 600 stadia, its breadth 200; althoughArtemidorus asserts it is twice this size both in breadth and length. The smaller island is about [2]70 stadia distant fromPolentia; in size it is far surpassed by the larger island, but in excellence it is by no means inferior, for both of them are very fertile, and furnished with harbours. At the mouths of these however there are rocks rising but a little out of the water, which renders attention necessary in entering them. The fertility of these places inclines the inhabitants to peace, as also the people ofEbusus. But certain malefactors, though few in number, having associated with thepirates in those seas, they all got a bad name, andMetellus, surnamedBalearicus, marched against them. He it was who built the cities. But owing to the great fertility of the country, these people have always had enemies plotting against them. Although naturally disposed to peace, they bear the reputation of being most excellent slingers, which art they have been proficient in since the time that thePhoenicians possessed the islands. It is said that these were the first who introduced amongst the men [of theBaleares] the custom of wearing tunics with wide borders. They were accustomed to go into battle naked, having a shield covered withgoat-skin in their hand, and a javelin hardened by fire at the point, very rarely with an iron tip, and wearing round the head three slings of black rush, hair, or sinew. The long sling they use for hitting at far distances, the short one for near marks, and the middle one for those between. From childhood they were so thoroughly practised in the use of slings, that bread was never distributed to the children till they had won it by the sling. On this accountMetellus, when he was approaching the islands, spread pelts over the decks as a shelter from the slings. He introduced into the country 3000 Roman colonists from Spain.

§ 3.5.2  In addition to the fruitfulness of the land, noxious animals are rarely to be met with. Even the rabbits, they say, were not indigenous, but that a male and female having been introduced by some one from the opposite continent, from thence the whole stock sprung, which formerly was so great a nuisance that even houses and trees were overturned, [being undermined] by their warrens, and the inhabitants were compelled, as we have related, to resort for refuge to the Romans. However, at the present day the facility with which these animals are taken, prevents them from doing injury, consequently those who possess land cultivate it with advantage. These [islands] are on this side of what are called thePillars of Hercules.

§ 3.5.3  Near to them are two small islands, one of which is called the Island ofJuno: some call these thePillars. Beyond thePillars isGades, concerning which all that we have hitherto remarked is, that it is distant fromCalpe about 750 stadia, and is situated near to the outlet of theBaetis. Notwithstanding there is much can be said about it. For its inhabitants equip the greatest number of ships, and the largest in size, both for our sea, and the exterior [ocean], although the island they inhabit is by no means large, nor yet do they possess much of the mainland, nor are masters of other islands. They dwell for the most part on the sea, only a few staying at home or passing their time inRome. Still, in amount of population, their city does not seem to be surpassed by any with the exception ofRome. I have heard that in a census taken within our own times, there were enumerated five hundred citizens ofGades of the equestrian order, a number equalled by none of theItalian cities excepting that of thePatavini. However, notwithstanding their vast number, its inhabitants possess an island, in length not much above 100 stadia, and in some places only one stadium in breadth. Originally the city in which they dwelt was extremely small, butBalbus theGaditanian, who received the honours of a triumph, added another to it which they call the New Town. These two form the city of Didyme, which is not above twenty stadia in circumference. In it, however, they are not pressed for room, because few live at home, the majority passing their lives on the sea, some too dwelling on the opposite continent, and particularly on a little island adjacent on account of its excellence. They have such a liking for this place as almost to have made it a rival city to Didyme. However, few in comparison inhabit either this or the sea-port whichBalbus constructed for them on the opposite continent. Their city is situated in the western parts of the island. Near to it is the sanctuary ofSaturn, which terminates [Gades to the west], and is opposite the smaller island. The sanctuary ofHercules is on the other side, to the east, where the island approaches nearest to the mainland, being only separated therefrom by a strait of a stadium [in breadth]. They say that this sanctuary is twelve miles from the city, thus making the number of miles and the number of [Hercules'] labours equal: but this is too great, being almost equal to the length of the island. Now the length of the island runs from west to east.

§ 3.5.4  Pherecydes appears to have given toGades the name ofErythia, the locality of the myths concerningGeryon: others suppose it to have been the island situated near to this city, and separated from it by a strait of merely one stadium. This they do on account of the excellence of its pasturage. For the milk of thecattle which feed there does not yield any whey, and they are obliged to mix it with large quantities of water when they make cheese on account of its richness. After fifty days the beasts [pasturing there] would be choked unless they were let blood. The pasturage of the country is dry, but it fattens wonderfully: and it is thought that from this the myth concerning theoxen ofGeryon took its rise. The whole sea-shore however is possessed in common.

§ 3.5.5  Concerning the foundation ofGades, theGaditanians report that a certain oracle commanded theTyrians to found a colony by thePillars of Hercules. Those who were sent out for the purpose of exploring, when they had arrived at the strait byCalpe, imagined that the capes which form the strait were the boundaries of the habitable earth, as well as of the expedition ofHercules, and consequently they were what the oracle termed thePillars. They landed on the inside of the straits, at a place where the city of theExitani now stands. Here they offered sacrifices, which however not being favourable, they returned. After a time others were sent, who advanced about 1500 stadia beyond the strait, to an island consecrated toHercules, and lying opposite toOnoba, a city ofIberia: considering that here were thePillars, they sacrificed to the god, but the sacrifices being again unfavourable, they returned home. In the third voyage they reachedGades, and founded the sanctuary in the eastern part of the island, and the city in the west. On this account some consider that the capes in the strait are thePillars, others supposeGades, while others again believe that they lie still farther, beyondGades. There are also some who think that thePillars areCalpe, and the mountain ofLibya which is opposite, namedAbilyx, and situated, according toEratosthenes, amongst theMetagonians, a wandering race. Others fancy that they are two small islands near to the former, one of which is named the Island ofJuno.Artemidorus speaks both of the Island ofJuno and the sanctuary there, but makes no mention either of mountAbilyx, or the nation of theMetagonians. Some have transported hither thePlanctae and theSymplgades, supposing them to be thePillars, whichPindar calls the Gates ofGades, when he says that they were the farthest limits at whichHercules arrived.Dicaearchus,Eratosthenes, andPolybius, with most of the Grecians, represent thePillars as being close to the strait, while theIberians andLibyans place them atGades, alleging that there is nothing at all resembling pillars close by the strait. Others pretend that they are the pillars of brass eight cubits high in the sanctuary ofHercules atGades, on which is inscribed the cost of erecting that edifice; and that the sailors coming there on the completion of their voyage and sacrificing toHercules, rendered the place so famous that it came to be regarded as the termination of the land and sea.Posidonius thinks this view the most probable of all, and looks upon the oracle and the several expeditions as aPhoenician invention. As for the expeditions, what matters it whether any one should vehemently deny or credit the account, as neither the one nor the other would be inconsistent with reason: but the assertion that neither the little islands, nor yet the mountains, bear much resemblance to pillars, and that we should seek for pillars, strictly so called, [set up] either as the termination of the habitable earth, or of the expedition ofHercules, has at all events some reason in it; it being an ancient usage to set up such boundary marks. As for instance the smallcolumn which the inhabitants ofRhegium erected by theStrait of Sicily, which is indeed a little tower; and the tower called afterPelorus, which is situated opposite to this small column; also the structures calledaltars of the Philaeni, about midway in the land between theSyrtes; likewise it is recorded, that a certain pillar was formerly erected on theIsthmus ofCorinth, which theIonians who took possession ofAttica andMegaris when they were driven out of thePeloponnesus, and those who settled in thePeloponnesus, set up in common, and inscribed on the side nextMegaris, "This is no longerPeloponnesus, butIonia," and on the opposite, "This isPeloponnesus, notIonia. "Alexander too erected altars as boundaries of hisIndian campaign in those parts of the Indies he arrived at, which were situated farthest towards the east, in imitation ofHercules andBacchus. That this custom existed, then, cannot be doubted.

§ 3.5.6  It is probable that the places themselves took the same name [as the monuments], especially after time had destroyed the boundary marks which had been placed there. For instance, at the present day thealtars of the Philaeni no longer exist, but the place itself bears that designation. Similarly they say that inIndia neither thepillars of Hercules orBacchus are to be seen, nevertheless certain localities being described and pointed out to theMacedonians, they believed that those places were the pillars in which they discovered any trace either of the adventures ofBacchus orHercules. In the instance before us, it is not improbable that they who first [visited these regions], set up boundary marks fashioned by the hand of man, such as altars, towers, and pillars, in the most remarkable situations, to indicate the farthest distance they had reached, (and straits, the surrounding mountains, and little islands, are indubitably the most remarkable situations for pointing out the termination or commencement of places,) and that after these human monuments had decayed, their names descended to the places [where they had stood]; whether that were the little islands or the capes forming the strait. This latter point it would not be easy now to determine; the name would suit either place, as they both bear some resemblance to pillars; I say bear some resemblance, because they are placed in such situations as might well indicate boundaries. Now this strait is styled a mouth, as well as many others, but the mouth is at the beginning to those sailing into the strait, and to those who are quitting it at the end. The little islands at the mouth having a contour easy to describe, and being remarkable, one might not improperly compare to pillars. In like manner the mountains overlooking the strait are prominent, resembling columns or pillars. So tooPindar might very justly have said, "TheGaditanian Gates," if he had in mind the pillars at the mouth; for these mouths are very similar to gates. On the other hand,Gades is not in a position to indicate an extremity, but is situated about the middle of a long coast forming a kind of gulf. The supposition that the pillars of the sanctuary ofHercules inGades are intended, appears to me still less probable. It seems most likely that the name was originally conferred not by merchants, but generals, its celebrity afterwards became universal, as was the case with theIndian pillars. Besides, the inscription recorded refutes this idea, since it contains no religious dedication, but a mere list of expenses; whereas thepillars of Hercules should have been a record of the hero's wonderful deeds, not ofPhoenician expenditure.

§ 3.5.7  Polybius relates that there is a spring within the sanctuary ofHercules atGades, having a descent of a few steps to fresh water, which is affected in a manner the reverse of the sea tides, subsiding at the flow of the tide, and springing at the ebb. He assigns as the cause of this phenomenon, that air rises from the interior to the surface of the earth; when this surface is covered by the waves, at the rising of the sea, the air is deprived of its ordinary vents, and returns to the interior, stopping up the passages of the spring, and causing a want of water, but when the surface is again laid bare, the air having a direct exit liberates the channels which feed the spring, so that it gushes freely.Artemidorus rejects this explanation, and substitutes one of his own, recording at the same time the opinion of the historianSilanus; but neither one or other of their views seems to me worth relating, since both he andSilanus were ignorant in regard to these matters.Posidonius asserts that the entire account is false, and adds that there are two wells in the sanctuary ofHercules, and a third in the city. That the smaller of the two in the sanctuary ofHercules, if drawn from frequently, will become for a time exhausted, but that on ceasing to draw from it, it fills again: while in regard to the larger, it may be drawn from during the whole day; that it is true it becomes lower, like all other wells, but that it fills again during the night when drawing ceases. [He adds] that the ebb tide frequently happening to occur during the period of its re-filling, gave rise to the groundless belief of the inhabitants as to its being affected in an opposite manner [to the tides of the ocean]. However it is not only related by him that it is a commonly believed fact, but we have received it from tradition as much referred to amongst paradoxes. We have likewise heard that there are wells both within the city and also in the gardens without, but that on account of the inferiority of this water, tanks are generally constructed throughout the city for the supply of water: whether likewise any of these reservoirs give any signs of being affected in an opposite manner to the tides, we know not. If such be the case, the causes thereof should be received as amongst phenomena hard to be explained. It is likely thatPolybius may have assigned the proper reason; but it is also likely that certain of the channels of the springs being damped outside become relaxed, and so let the water run out into the surrounding land, instead of forcing it along its ancient passage to the spring; and there will of course be moisture when the tide overflows. But if, asAthenodorus asserts, the ebb and flow resemble the inspiration and expiration of the breath, it is possible that some of the currents of water which naturally have an efflux on to the surface of the earth, through various channels, the mouths of which we denominate springs and fountains, are by other channels drawn towards the depths of the sea, and raise it, so as to produce a flood-tide; when the expiration is sufficient, they leave off the course in which they are then flowing, and again revert to their former direction, when that again takes a change.

§ 3.5.8  I cannot tell how it is thatPosidonius, who describes thePhoenicians as sagacious in other things, should here attribute to them folly rather than shrewdness. The sun completes his revolution in the space of a day and night, being a portion of the time beneath the earth, and a portion of the time shining upon it. Now he asserts that the motion of the sea corresponds with the revolution of the heavenly bodies, and experiences a diurnal, monthly, and annual change, in strict accordance with the changes of the moon. For [he continues] when the moon is elevated one sign of the zodiac above the horizon, the sea begins sensibly to swell and cover the shores, until she has attained her meridian; but when that satellite begins to decline, the sea again retires by degrees, until the moon wants merely one sign of the zodiac from setting; it then remains stationary until the moon has set, and also descended one sign of the zodiac below the horizon, when it again rises until she has attained her meridian below the earth; it then retires again until the moon is within one sign of the zodiac of her rising above the horizon, when it remains stationary until the moon has risen one sign of the zodiac above the earth, and then begins to rise as before. Such he describes to be the diurnal revolution. In respect to the monthly revolution, [he says] that the spring-tides occur at the time of the new moon, when they decrease until the first quarter; they then increase until full moon, when they again decrease until the last quarter, after which they increase till the new moon; [he adds] that these increases ought to be understood both of their duration and speed. In regard to the annual revolution, he says that he learned from the statements of theGaditanians, that both the ebb and flow tides were at their extremes at the summer solstice: and that hence he conjectured that they decreased until the [autumnal] equinox; then increased till the winter solstice; then decreased again until the vernal equinox; and [finally] increased until the summer solstice. But since these revolutions occur twice in the four-and-twenty hours, the sea rising twice and receding twice, and that regularly every day and night, how is it that the filling and failing of the well do not frequently occur during the ebb and flow of the tide? or if it be allowed that this does often occur, why does it not do so in the same proportion? and if it does so in the same proportion, how comes it that theGaditanians are not competent to observe what is of daily occurrence, while they are nevertheless competent to the observing of revolutions which occur but once in the year. ThatPosidonius himself credited these reports is evident from his own conjecture respecting the decrease and increase [of the sea] from solstice to solstice. However, it is not likely, being an observant people, that they should be ignorant of what actually occurred, whilst giving credit to imaginary phenomena.

§ 3.5.9  Posidonius tells us thatSeleucus, a native of the country next theErythraean Sea, states that the regularity and irregularity of the ebb and flow of the sea follow the different positions of the moon in the zodiac; that when she is in the equinoctial signs the tides are regular, but that when she is in the signs next the tropics, the tides are irregular both in their height and force; and that for the remaining signs the irregularity is greater or less, according as they are more or less removed from the signs before mentioned.Posidonius adds, that during the summer solstice and whilst the moon was full, he himself passed many days in the sanctuary ofHercules atGades, but could not observe any thing of these annual irregularities. However, about the new moon of the same month he observed atIlipa a great change in the reflux of the water of theBaetis, as compared with previous flood-tides, in which the water did not rise half as high as the banks, and that then the water poured in so copiously, that the soldiers there dipped their supply without difficulty, althoughIlipa is about 700 stadia from the sea. He says, that the plains next the sea were covered by the tides to a distance of 30 stadia, and to such a depth as to form islands, while the basement of the sanctuary in the enclosure dedicated toHercules, and the top of the mole in front of the harbour ofGades, were not covered higher than 10 cubits, as observed by actual soundings; but if any one should add the double of that for the occasional risings of the tide which occur, [neither] thus would he be able to estimate the violence with which the full force of the high tide rushes over the plains.Posidonius informs us that this violence [of the tide] is common to all the coasts of Spain on theAtlantic, but what he relates concerning theEbro is unusual and peculiar to itself, for he says that it sometimes overflows after continued north winds, although there may have been neither rains nor snows. The cause of this [he supposes] to be the lake through which theEbro flows, its waters being driven by the winds into the current of the river.

§ 3.5.10  The same writer mentions a tree atGades, which had boughs reaching to the ground; its sword-shaped leaves often measuring a cubit long, and four fingers broad. Also that aboutCarthagena there was a tree whose thorns produced a bark from which most beautiful stuffs were woven. As for the tree [he saw] atGades, we ourselves have observed a similar inEgypt, so far as the inclination of the boughs is concerned, but with a differently shaped leaf, and producing no fruit, which according to him the other did. InCappadocia there are stuffs made from thorns, but it is not a tree which produces the thorn from which the bark is taken, but a low plant; he also tells us of a tree atGades, from which if a branch be broken off a milk will flow, and if the root be cut a red fluid runs. Thus much forGades.

§ 3.5.11  TheCassiterides are ten in number, and lie near each other in the ocean towards the north from the haven of theArtabri. One of them is desert, but the others are inhabited by men in black cloaks, clad in tunics reaching to the feet, girt about the breast, and walking with staves, thus resembling theFuries we see in tragic representations. They subsist by theircattle, leading for the most part a wandering life. Of the metals they have tin and lead; which with skins they barter with the merchants for earthenware, salt, and brazen vessels. Formerly thePhoenicians alone carried on this traffic fromGades, concealing the passage from every one; and when the Romans followed a certain ship-master, that they also might find the market, the shipmaster of jealousy purposely ran his vessel upon a shoal, leading on those who followed him into the same destructive disaster; he himself escaped by means of a fragment of the ship, and received from the state the value of the cargo he had lost. The Romans nevertheless by frequent efforts discovered the passage, and as soon asPublius Crassus, passing over to them, perceived that the metals were dug out at a little depth, and that the men were peaceably disposed, he declared it to those who already wished to traffic in this sea for profit, although the passage was longer than that toBritain. Thus far concerningIberia and the adjacent islands.

§ 4.1.1  NEXT in order [afterIberia] comesKeltica beyond theAlps, the configuration and size of which has been already mentioned in a general manner; we are now to describe it more particularly. Some divide it into the three nations of theAquitani, Belge, and Kelte. Of these theAquitani differ completely from the other nations, not only in their language but in their figure, which resembles more that of theIberians than theGalatae. The others are Galatae in countenance, although they do not all speak the same language, but some make a slight difference in their speech; neither is their polity and mode of life exactly the same. These writers give the name ofAquitani andKeltae to the dwellers near thePyrenees, which are bounded by theCevennes. For it has been stated that thisKeltica is bounded on the west by the mountains of thePyrenees, which extend to either sea, both the Mediterranean and the ocean; on the east by theRhine, which is parallel to thePyrenees; on the north by the ocean, from the northern extremities of thePyrenees to the mouths of theRhine; on the south by the sea ofMarseilles, andNarbonne, and by theAlps fromLiguria to the sources of theRhine. TheCevennes lie at right angles to thePyrenees, and traverse the plains for about 2000 stadia, terminating in the middle nearLugdunum. They call those peopleAquitani who inhabit the northern portions of thePyrenees, and theCevennes extending as far as the ocean, and bounded by the riverGaronne; andKeltae, those who dwell on the other side of theGaronne, towards the sea ofMarseilles andNarbonne, and touching a portion of theAlpine chain. This is the division adopted by divusCaesar in his Commentaries. ButAugustus Caesar, when dividing the country into four parts, united theKeltae to the Narbonnaise; theAquitani he preserved the same asJulius Caesar, but added thereto fourteen other nations of those who dwelt between theGaronne and the riverLoire, and dividing the rest into two parts, the one extending to the upper districts of theRhine he made dependent uponLugdunum, the other [he assigned] to theBelgae. However, it is the duty of the Geographer to describe the physical divisions of each country, and those which result from diversity of nations, when they seem worthy of notice; as to the limits which princes, induced by a policy which circumstances dictate, have variously imposed, it will be sufficient for him to notice them summarily, leaving others to furnish particular details.

§ 4.1.2  The whole of this country is irrigated by rivers descending from theAlps, theCevennes, and thePyrenees, some of which discharge themselves into the ocean, others into the Mediterranean. The districts through which they flow are mostly plains interspersed with hills, and having navigable streams. The course of these rivers is so happily disposed in relation to each other, that you may traffic from one sea to the other, carrying the merchandise only a small distance, and that easily, across the plains; but for the most part by the rivers, ascending some, and descending others. TheRhone is pre-eminent in this respect, both because it communicates with many other rivers, and also because it flows into the Mediterranean, which, as we have said, is superior to the ocean, and likewise passes through the richest provinces of Gaul. The whole of the Narbonnaise produces the same fruits asItaly. As we advance towards the north, and the mountains of theCevennes, the plantations of the olive and fig disappear, but the others remain. Likewise the vine, as you proceed northward, does not easily mature its fruit. The entire of the remaining country produces in abundance corn, millet, acorns, and mast of all kinds. No part of it lies waste except that which is taken up in marshes and woods, and even this is inhabited. The cause of this, however, is rather a dense population than the industry of the inhabitants. For the women there are both very prolific and excellent nurses, while the men devote themselves rather to war than husbandry. However, their arms being now laid aside, they are compelled to engage in agriculture. These remarks apply generally to the whole of TransalpineKeltica. We must now describe particularly each of the four divisions, which hitherto we have only mentioned in a summary manner. And, first, of the Narbonnaise.

§ 4.1.3  The configuration of this country resembles a parallelogram, the western side of which is traced by thePyrenees, the north by theCevennes; as for the other two sides, the south is bounded by the sea between thePyrenees andMarseilles, and the east partly by theAlps, and partly by a line drawn perpendicularly from these mountains to the foot of theCevennes, which extend towards theRhone, and form a right angle with the aforesaid perpendicular drawn from theAlps. To the southern side of this parallelogram we must add the sea-coast inhabited by theMassilienses andSalyes, as far as the country of theLigurians, the confines ofItaly, and the riverVar. This river, as we have said before, is the boundary of the Narbonnaise andItaly. It is but small in summer, but in winter swells to a breadth of seven stadia. From thence the coast extends to thesanctuary of the Pyrenaean Venus, which is the boundary between this province andIberia. Some, however, assert that the spot where theTrophies ofPompey stand is the boundary betweenIberia andKeltica. From thence toNarbonne is 63 miles; fromNarbonne toNemausus, 88; fromNemausus throughUgernum andTarusco, to the hot waters calledSextiae nearMarseilles, 53; from thence toAntipolis and the riverVar, 73; making in the total 277 miles. Some set down the distance from thesanctuary ofVenus to theVar at 2600 stadia; while others increase this number by 200 stadia; for there are different opinions as to these distances. As for the other road, which traverses the [countries of the]Vocontii andCottius, fromNemausus toUgernum andTarusco, the route is common; from thence [it branches off in two directions], one throughDruentia and Caballio, to the frontiers of theVocontii and the commencement of the ascent of theAlps, which is 63 miles; the other is reckoned at 99 miles from the same point to the other extremity of theVocontii, bordering on the state ofCottius, as far as the village ofEbrodunum. The distance is said to be the same by the route through the village ofBrigantium,Scingomagus, and the passage of theAlps toOcelum, which is the limit of the country ofCottius. However, it is considered to beItaly fromScingomagus. AndOcelum is 28 miles beyond this.

§ 4.1.4  Marseilles, founded by thePhocaeans, is built in a stony region. Its harbour lies beneath a rock, which is shaped like a theatre, and looks towards the south. It is well surrounded with walls, as well as the whole city, which is of considerable size. Within the citadel are placed theEphesium and the sanctuary of theDelphianApollo. This latter sanctuary is common to all theIonians; theEphesium is a temple consecrated toArtemis of Ephesus. They say that when thePhocaeans were about to quit their country, an oracle commanded them to take fromDiana ofEphesus a conductor for their voyage. On arriving atEphesus they therefore inquired how they might be able to obtain from the goddess what was enjoined them. The goddess appeared in a dream toAristarcha, one of the most honourable women of the city, and commanded her to accompany thePhocaeans, and to take with her a likeness of the sacred objects. These things being performed, and the colony being settled, thePhocaeans founded a sanctuary, and evinced their great respect forAristarcha by making her priestess. All the colonies [sent out fromMarseilles ] hold this goddess in peculiar reverence, preserving both the shape of the cult image [xoanon], and also every rite observed in the metropolis.

§ 4.1.5  TheMassilians live under a well-regulated aristocracy. They have a council composed of 600 persons called timouchi, who enjoy this dignity for life. Fifteen of these preside over the council, and have the management of current affairs; these fifteen are in their turn presided over by three of their number, in whom rests the principal authority; and these again by one. No one can become a timouchus who has not children, and who has not been a citizen for three generations. Their laws, which are the same as those of theIonians, they expound in public. Their country abounds in olives and vines, but on account of its ruggedness the wheat is poor. Consequently they trust more to the resources of the sea than of the land, and avail themselves in preference of their excellent position for commerce. Nevertheless they have been enabled by the power of perseverance to take in some of the surrounding plains, and also to found cities: of this number are the cities they founded inIberia as a rampart against theIberians, in which they introduced the worship ofDiana ofEphesus, as practised in their father-land, with the Grecian mode of sacrifice. In this number too are Rhoa [and]Agatha, [built for defence] against the barbarians dwelling around the riverRhone; alsoTauroentium,Olbia,Antipolis andNicaea, [built as a rampart] against the nation of theSalyes and theLigurians who inhabit theAlps. They possess likewise dry docks and armouries. Formerly they had an abundance of vessels, arms, and machines, both for the purposes of navigation and for besieging towns; by means of which they defended themselves against the barbarians, and likewise obtained the alliance of the Romans, to whom they rendered many important services; the Romans in their turn assisting in their aggrandizement.Sextius, who defeated theSalyes, founded, not far fromMarseilles, a city which was named after him and the hot waters, some of which they say have lost their heat. Here he established a Romangarrison, and drove from the sea-coast which leads fromMarseilles toItaly the barbarians, whom theMassilians were not able to keep back entirely. However, all he accomplished by this was to compel the barbarians to keep at a distance of twelve stadia from those parts of the coast which possessed good harbours, and at a distance of eight stadia where it was rugged. The land which they thus abandoned, he presented to theMassilians. In their city are laid up heaps of booty taken in naval engagements against those who disputed the sea unjustly. Formerly they enjoyed singular good fortune, as well in other matters as also in their amity with the Romans. Of this [amity] we find numerous signs, amongst others the statue ofDiana which the Romans dedicated on theAventine mount, of the same figure as that of theMassilians. Their prosperity has in a great measure decayed since the war ofPompey againstCaesar, in which they sided with the vanquished party. Nevertheless some traces of their ancient industry may still be seen amongst the inhabitants, especially the making of engines of war and ship-building. Still as the surrounding barbarians, now that they are under the dominion of the Romans, become daily more civilized, and leave the occupation of war for the business of towns and agriculture, there is no longer the same attention paid by the inhabitants ofMarseilles to these objects. The aspect of the city at the present day is a proof of this. For all those who profess to be men of taste, turn to the study of elocution and philosophy. Thus this city for some little time back has become a school for the barbarians, and has communicated to theGalatae such a taste for Greek literature, that they even draw contracts on the Grecian model. While at the present day it so entices the noblest of the Romans, that those desirous of studying resort thither in preference toAthens. These theGalatae observing, and being at leisure on account of the peace, readily devote themselves to similar pursuits, and that not merely individuals, but the public generally; professors of the arts and sciences, and likewise of medicine, being employed not only by private persons, but by towns for common instruction. Of the wisdom of theMassilians and the simplicity of their life, the following will not be thought an insignificant proof. The largest dowry amongst them consists of one hundred gold pieces, with five for dress, and five more for golden ornaments. More than this is not lawful.Caesar and his successors treated with moderation the offences of which they were guilty during the war, in consideration of their former friendship; and have preserved to the state the right of governing according to its ancient laws. So that neitherMarseilles nor the cities dependent on it are under submission to the governors sent [into the Narbonnaise]. So much forMarseilles.

§ 4.1.6  The mountains of theSalyes incline gently from west to north in proportion as they retire from the sea. The coast runs west, and extending a short distance, about 100 stadia, fromMarseilles, it begins to assume the character of a gulf at a considerable promontory near to certain stone quarries, and extending to theAphrodisium, the headland which terminates thePyrenees, forms the Galatic Gulf, which is also called the Gulf ofMarseilles: it is double, for in its circuit Mount Setium stands out together with the island ofBlascon, which is situated close to it, and separates the two gulfs. The larger of these is properly designated the Galatic Gulf, into which theRhone discharges itself; the smaller is on the coast ofNarbonne, and extends as far as thePyrenees.Narbonne is situated above the outlets of theAtax (Aude) and the lake ofNarbonne. It is the principal commercial city on this coast. On theRhone isArelate, a city and emporium of considerable traffic. The distance between these two cities is nearly equal to that which separates them from the aforesaid promontories, namely,Narbonne from theAphrodisium, andArelate from the cape ofMarseilles. There are other rivers besides which flow on either side ofNarbonne, some from theCevennes, others from thePyrenees. Along these rivers are situated cities not far upriver for small vessels. The rivers which proceed from thePyrenees, are theRuscinon (Tet) and theIlibirris (Tech); two cities are built on them, which bear respectively the same name as the rivers. There is a lake near toRuscino, and a little above the sea a marshy district full of salt springs, which supplies "dug mullets," for whoever digs two or three feet and plunges a trident into the muddy water, will be sure to take the fish, which are worthy of consideration on account of their size; they are nourished in the mud like eels. Such are the rivers which flow from thePyrenees betweenNarbonne and theAphrodisium. On the other side ofNarbonne the following rivers descend from theCevennes into the sea. TheAtax (Aude), the Orbis, and the Arauris. On the first of these latter is situated the strong city ofBaetera, near toNarbonne; on the lastAgatha, founded by the people ofMarseilles.

§ 4.1.7  Of one marvel of this sea-coast, namely the "dug mullets," we have already spoken; we will now mention another, even more surprising. BetweenMarseilles and the outlets of theRhone there is a circular plain, about 100 stadia distant from the sea, and about 100 stadia in diameter. It has received the name of Lithodes (the Stony Plain), from the circumstance of its being covered with stones the size of the fist, from beneath which an abundant herbage springs up for the pasturage ofcattle. In the midst of it are water, saltsprings, and salt. The whole both of this district and that above it is exposed to the wind, but in this plain the black north, a violent and horrible wind, rages especially: for they say that sometimes the stones are swept and rolled along, and men hurled from their carriages and stripped both of their arms and garments by the force of the tempest.Aristotle tells us that these stones being cast up by the earthquakes designated brastai, and falling on the surface of the earth, roll into the hollow places of the districts; butPosidonius, that the place was formerly a lake, which being congealed during a violent agitation, became divided into numerous stones, like river pebbles or the stones by the sea-shore, which they resemble both as to smoothness, size, and appearance. Such are the causes assigned by these two [writers]; however, neither of their opinions is credible, for these stones could neither have thus accumulated of themselves, nor yet have been formed by congealed moisture, but necessarily from the fragments of large stones shattered by frequent convulsions.Aeschylus having, however, learnt of the difficulty of accounting for it, or having been so informed by another, has explained it away as a myth. He makesPrometheus utter the following, whilst directingHercules the road from theCaucasus to theHesperides: "There you will come to the undaunted army of theLigurians, where, resistless though you be, sure am I you will not worst them in battle; for it is fated that there your darts shall fail you; nor will you be able to take up a stone from the ground, since the country consists of soft mould; butJupiter, beholding your distress, will compassionate you, and overshadowing the earth with a cloud, he will cause it to hail round stones, which you hurling against theLigurian army, will soon put them to flight!"Posidonius asks, would it not have been better to have rained down these stones upon theLigurians themselves, and thus have destroyed them all, than to makeHercules in need of so many stones? As for the number, they were necessary against so vast a multitude; so that in this respect the writer of the myth seems to me deserving of more credit than he who would refute it. Further, the poet, in describing it as fated, secures himself against such fault-finding. For if you dispute Providence and Destiny, you can find many similar things both in human affairs and nature, that you would suppose might be much better performed in this or that way; as for instance, thatEgypt should have plenty of rain of its own, without being irrigated from the land ofEthiopia. That it would have been much better ifParis had suffered shipwreck on his voyage toSparta, instead of expiating his offences after having carried offHelen, and having been the cause of so great destruction both amongst the Greeks and Barbarians.Euripides attributes this toJupiter: "FatherJupiter, willing evil to theTrojans and suffering to the Greeks, decreed such things."

§ 4.1.8  As to the mouths of theRhone,Polybius asserts that there are but two, and blamesTimaeus for saying five.Artemidorus says that there are three. AfterwardsMarius, observing that the mouth was becoming stopped up and difficult of entrance on account of the deposits of mud, caused a new channel to be dug, which received the greater part of the river into it. This he gave to the people ofMarseilles in recompense for their services in the war against theAmbrones and Toygeni. This canal became to them a source of much revenue, as they levied a toll from all those who sailed up or down it: notwithstanding, the entrance [to the river] still continues difficult to navigate, on account of its great impetuosity, its deposits, and the [general] flatness of the country, so that in foul weather you cannot clearly discern the land even when quite close. On this account the people ofMarseilles, who wished by all means to inhabit the country, set up towers as beacons; they have even set up a sanctuary ofDiana ofEphesus on a piece of the land, which the mouths of the rivers have formed into an island. Above the outlets of theRhone is a salt-lake which they callStomalimne. It abounds in shell and other fish. There are some who enumerate this amongst the mouths of theRhone, especially those who say that it has seven mouths. But in this they are quite mistaken; for there is a mountain between, which separates the lake from the river. Such then is the disposition and extent of the coast from thePyrenees toMarseilles.

§ 4.1.9  The [coast] which extends from this [last city] to the riverVar, and theLigurians who dwell near it, contains theMassilian cities ofTauroentium,Olbia,Antipolis,Nicaea, and the sea-port ofAugustus Caesar, calledForum Julium. which is situated betweenOlbia andAntipolis, and distant fromMarseilles about 600 stadia. TheVar is betweenAntipolis andNicaea; distant from the one about 20 stadia, from the other about 60; so that according to the boundary now markedNicaea belongs toItaly, although it is a city of the people ofMarseilles, for they built these cities [as a defence] against the barbarians who dwelt higher up the country, in order to maintain the sea free, as the barbarians possessed the land. For this [region] is mountainous and fortified by nature, leaving however a considerable extent of plain country nearMarseilles; but as you proceed towards the east the country is so hemmed in by the mountains, as scarcely to leave a sufficient road for passage by the sea-shore. The former districts are inhabited by theSalyes, the latter by theLigurians, who border onItaly, of whom we shall speak afterwards. It should here be mentioned, that althoughAntipolis is situated in the Narbonnaise, andNicaea inItaly, this latter is dependent onMarseilles, and forms part of that province; whileAntipolis is ranked amongst theItalian cities, and freed from the government of theMarseillese by a judgment given against them.

§ 4.1.10  Lying off this narrow pass along the coast, as you commence your journey fromMarseilles, are theStoechades islands. Three of these are considerable, and two small. They are cultivated by the people ofMarseilles. Anciently they contained a garrison, placed here to defend them from the attacks ofpirates, for they have good ports. After theStoechades come [the islands of]Planasia andLero, both of them inhabited. InLero, which lies opposite toAntipolis, is a heroon ofLero. There are other small islands not worth mentioning, some of them beforeMarseilles, others before the rest of the coast which I have been describing. As to the harbours, those of the seaport andMarseilles are considerable, the others are but middling. Of this latter class is the portOxybius, so named from theOxybianLigurians. — This concludes what we have to say of this coast.

§ 4.1.11  The country above this is bounded principally by the surrounding mountains and rivers. Of these theRhone is the most remarkable, being both the largest, and capable of being navigated farther than any of the others, and also receiving into it a greater number of tributaries; of these we must speak in order. Commencing atMarseilles, and proceeding to the country between theAlps and theRhone, to the riverDurance, dwell theSalyes for a space of 500 stadia. From thence you proceed in a ferry-boat to the city ofCaballio; beyond this the whole country belongs to theCavari as far as the junction of theIsara with theRhone; it is here too that theCevennes approach theRhone. From theDurance to this point is a distance of 700 stadia. TheSalyes occupy the plains and mountains above these. TheVocontii,Tricorii, Icomi, andMedylli, lie above theCavari. Between theDurance and theIsara there are other rivers which flow from theAlps into theRhone; two of these, after having flowed round the city of theCavari, discharge themselves by a common outlet into theRhone. TheSulgas, which is the third, mixes with theRhone near the city ofVindalum, whereCnaeus Aenobarbus in a decisive engagement routed many myriads of theKelts. Between these are the cities ofAvenio,Arausio, andAeria, which latter, remarksArtemidorus, is rightly named aerial, being situated in a very lofty position. The whole of this country consists of plains abounding in pasturage, excepting on the route fromAeria toAvenio, where there are narrow defiles and woods to traverse. It was at the point where the riverIsara and theRhone unite near theCevennes, thatQuintus Fabius Maximus Aemilianus, with scarcely 30,000 men, cut to pieces 200,000Kelts. Here he erected a white stone as a trophy, and two temples, one toMars, and the other toHercules. From theIsara toVienne, the metropolis of theAllobroges, situated on theRhone, the distance is 320 stadia.Lugdunum is a little aboveVienne at the confluence of theArar and theRhone. The distance by land [from this latter city] toLugdunum, passing through the country of theAllobroges, is about 200 stadia, and rather more by water. Formerly theAllobroges engaged in war, their armies consisting of many myriads; they now occupy themselves in cultivating the plains and valleys of theAlps. They dwell generally in villages, the most notable of them inhabitingVienne, which was merely a village, although called the metropolis of their nation; they have now improved and embellished it as a city; it is situated on theRhone. So full and rapid is the descent of this river from theAlps, that the flow of its waters through LakeLemannus may be distinguished for many stadia. Having descended into the plains of the countries of theAllobroges, andSegusii, it falls into theArar, near toLugdunum, a city of theSegusii. TheArar rises in theAlps, and separates theSequani, theAedui, and theLincasii. It afterwards receives theDubis, a navigable river which rises in the same mountains, still however preserving its own name, and consisting of the two, mingles with theRhone. TheRhone in like manner preserves its name, and flows on toVienne. At their rise these three rivers flow towards the north, then in a westerly direction, afterwards uniting into one they take another turn and flow towards the south, and having received other rivers, they flow in this direction to the sea. Such is the country situated between theAlps and theRhone.

§ 4.1.12  The main part of the country on the other side of theRhone is inhabited by theVolcae, surnamedArecomisci. Their naval station isNarbonne, which may justly be called the emporium of all Gaul, as it far surpasses every other in the multitude of those who resort to it. TheVolcae border on theRhone, theSalyes andCavari being opposite to them on the other side of the river. However, the name of theCavari has so obtained, that all the barbarians inhabiting near now go by that designation; nay, even those who are no longer barbarians, but follow the Roman customs, both in their speech and mode of life, and some of those even who have adopted the Roman polity. Between theArecomisci and thePyrenees there are some other small and insignificant nations.Nemausus is the metropolis of theArecomisci; though far inferior toNarbonne both as to its commerce, and the number of foreigners attracted thither, it surpasses that city in the number of its citizens; for it has under its dominion four and twenty different villages all well inhabited, and by the same people, who pay tribute; it likewise enjoys the rights of theLatin towns, so that inNemausus you meet with Roman citizens who have obtained the honours of the aedile and quaestorship, wherefore this nation is not subject to the orders issued by the praetors fromRome. The city is situated on the road fromIberia toItaly; this road is very good in the summer, but muddy and overflowed by the rivers during winter and spring. Some of these streams are crossed in ferry-boats, and others by means of bridges constructed either of wood or stone. The inundations which destroy the roads are caused by the winter torrents, which sometimes pour down from theAlps even in summer-time after the melting of the snows. To perform the route before mentioned, the shortest way is, as we have said, across the territory of theVocontii direct to theAlps; the other, along the coast ofMarseilles andLiguria, is longer, although it offers an easier passage intoItaly, as the mountains are lower.Nemausus is about 100 stadia distant from theRhone, situated opposite to the small town of Tarascon, and about 720 stadia fromNarbonne. TheTectosages, and certain others whom we shall mention afterwards, border on the range of theCevennes, and inhabit its southern side as far as the promontory of theVolcae. Respecting all the others we will speak hereafter.

§ 4.1.13  But theTectosages dwell near to thePyrenees, bordering for a small space the northern side of theCevennes; the land they inhabit is rich in gold. It appears that formerly they were so powerful and numerous, that dissensions having arisen amongst them, they drove a vast multitude of their number from their homes; and that these men associating with others of different nations took possession ofPhrygia, next toCappadocia, and thePaphlagonians. Of this those who are now called theTectosages afford us proof, for [Phrygia contains] three nations, one of them dwelling near to the city ofAncyra, being called theTectosages; the remaining two, theTrocmi andTolistobogii. The resemblance these nations bear to theTectosages is evidence of their having immigrated fromKeltica, though we are unable to say from which district they came, as there does not appear to be any people at the present time bearing the name ofTrocmi orTolistobogii, who inhabit either beyond theAlps, theAlps themselves, or on this side theAlps. It would seem that continual emigration has drained them completely from their native country, a circumstance which has occurred to many other nations, as some say that theBrennus, who led an expedition toDelphi, was a leader of thePrausi; but we are unable to say where thePrausi formerly inhabited. It is said that theTectosages took part in the expedition toDelphi, and that the treasures found in the city ofTolosa (Tolosse) by the Roman generalCaepio formed a portion of the booty gained there, which was afterwards increased by offerings which the citizens made from their own property, and consecrated in order to conciliate the god. And that it was for daring to touch these thatCaepio terminated so miserably his existence, being driven from his country as a plunderer of temples, and leaving behind him his daughters, who, asTimagenes informs us, having been wickedly violated, perished miserably. However, the account given byPosidonius is the more credible. He tells us that the wealth found inTolosa amounted to somewhere about 15,000 talents, a part of which was hidden in the chapels, and the remainder in the sacred lakes, and that it was not coined [money], but gold and silver in bullion. But at this time the sanctuary ofDelphi was emptied of these treasures, having been pillaged by thePhocians at the period of the Sacred war and supposing any to have been left, it would have been distributed amongst many. Nor is it probable that theTectosages returned home, since they came off miserably after leavingDelphi, and owing to their dissensions were scattered here and there throughout the country; there is much more likelihood in the statement made byPosidonius and many others, that the country abounding in gold, and the inhabitants being superstitious, and not living expensively, they hid their treasures in many different places, the lakes in particular affording them a hiding place for depositing their gold and silver bullion. When the Romans obtained possession of the country they put up these lakes to public sale, and many of the purchasers found therein solid masses of silver. InTolosa there was a sacred sanctuary, held in great reverence by the inhabitants of the surrounding country, and on this account loaded with riches, inasmuch as there were many who offered gifts, and no one dared to touch them.

§ 4.1.14  Tolosa is situated upon the narrowest part of the isthmus which separates the ocean from the sea ofNarbonne; the breadth of the [isthmus], according toPosidonius, being less than 3000 stadia. The perfect similarity maintained throughout this country both in respect to its rivers, and to the exterior and interior sea, appears to us worthy of especial notice, as we have said before. This, on reflection, will prove to be one main cause of the excellence of this country, since the inhabitants are enabled mutually to communicate, and to procure from each other the necessaries of life; this is peculiarly the case at the present time, when on account of their leisure from war they are devoting themselves to agriculture and the pursuits of social life. In this we are persuaded that we behold the work of Providence; such a disposition of these regions not resulting from chance, but from the thought of some [intelligence]. TheRhone, for instance, is navigable to a considerable distance for vessels of heavy burden, which it is capable of transmitting through various districts of the country by means of other rivers which fall into it, and are likewise fitted for the navigation of large vessels. To theRhone succeeds theArar, and into this latter river falls theDoubs; thence the merchandise is carried by land to the riverSeine; whence it is transported to the ocean and the [countries of the]Lexovii andCaleti, the distance thence toBritain being less than a day's journey. The navigation of theRhone being difficult on account of the rapidity of its current, the merchants prefer to transport in waggons certain of their wares, which are destined for theArverni, and the riverLoire, notwithstanding the vicinity of theRhone in some places, but the road being level and the distance not far, (about 800 stadia,) they do not make use of water carriage on account of the facility of the transport by land, from thence the merchandise is easily conveyed by theLoire. This river flows from theCevennes into the ocean. FromNarbonne the voyage to theAtax is short, but the journey by land to the riverGaronne longer, being as much as 700 or 800 stadia. TheGaronne likewise flows into the ocean. Such is what we have to say concerning the inhabitants of the Narbonnaise, who were formerly namedKelts. In my opinion the celebrity of theKelts induced the Grecians to confer that name on the whole of theGalatae; the vicinity of theMassilians may also have had something to do with it.

§ 4.2.2  WE must now speak of theAquitani and the fourteen Galatic nations pertaining to them, situated between theGaronne and theLoire, some of which extend to the riverRhone and the plains of the Narbonnaise. Generally speaking, theAquitani may be said to differ from the Galatic race, both as to form of body and language, resembling more nearly theIberians. They are bounded by theGaronne, and dwell between this river and thePyrenees. There are above twenty nations which bear the name ofAquitani, small and obscure, the major part of them dwelling by the ocean, and the remainder in the interior and by the extremities of theCevennes, as far as theTectosages. This district, however, being too small, they added to it the territory between theGaronne and theLoire. These rivers are nearly parallel with thePyrenees, and form with them two parallelograms, bounded on the remaining sides by the ocean and the mountains of theCevennes. Both of these rivers are navigable for a distance of about 2000 stadia. TheGaronne, after being augmented by three other rivers, discharges itself into the [ocean] between the [country] of theBituriges, surnamed theVivisci, and that of theSantoni; both of them Gallic nations. TheBituriges are the only foreign people who dwell among theAquitani without forming a part of them. Their emporium isBurdegala, situated on a creek formed by the outlets of the river. TheLoire discharges itself between thePictones and theNamnetae. Formerly there was an emporium on this river named Corbilon, mentioned byPolybius when speaking of the fictions ofPytheas. "TheMarseillese, [says he, ] when interrogated byScipio at their meeting, had nothing to tell aboutBritain worth mentioning, nor yet had the people of the Narbonnaise, nor those of Corbilon; notwithstanding these were the two principal cities of the district,Pytheas alone dared to forge so many lies [concerning that island]."Mediolanium is the capital of theSantoni. The part ofAquitaine next the ocean is for the most part sandy and meagre, producing millet, but barren of all other fruits. Here is the gulf which, with that on the coast ofNarbonne, forms the isthmus. Both these gulfs go by the name of the Galatic gulf. The former gulf belongs to theTarbelli. These people possess the richest gold mines; masses of gold as big as the fist can contain, and requiring hardly any purifying, being found in diggings scarcely beneath the surface of the earth, the remainder consisting of dust and lumps, which likewise require but little working. In the interior and mountainous parts [ofAquitaine] the soil is superior; for instance, in the district near thePyrenees belonging to theConvenae, which name signifies people assembled from different countries to dwell in one place. Here is the city ofLugdunum, and the hot springs of theOnesii, which are most excellent for drinking. The country of theAuscii likewise is fine.

§ 4.2.2  The nations between theGaronne and theLoire annexed to theAquitani, are theElui, who commence at theRhone. After these theVellaei, who were formerly comprehended amongst theArverni, but now form a people to themselves. After theseArverni come theLemovices, andPetrocorii, and after them theNitiobriges, theCadurci, and theBituriges, surnamedCubi. Along the ocean we meet with theSantoni, andPictones, the former dwelling by theGaronne, as we have stated, and the latter by theLoire. TheRuteni and theGabales are in the vicinity of Narbonitis. ThePetrocorii andBituriges-Cubi possess excellent ironworks, theCadurci linen-factories, and theRuteni silvermines: theGabales likewise possess silver-mines. On certain amongst theAquitani the Romans have conferred the rights ofLatin cities; such for instance as theAuscii, and theConvenae.

§ 4.2.3  TheArverni are situated along theLoire.Nemossus, their metropolis, is built on the same river. This river having flowed pastCenabum, an emporium of theCarnutes, situated about the middle of its course, discharges itself into the ocean. A great proof of the former power of theArverni, is the fact of the frequent wars which they sustained against the Romans, sometimes with armies of 200,000 men, and sometimes with double that number, which was the amount of their force when they fought against divusCaesar under the command ofVercingetorix. Before this they had brought 200,000 men againstMaximus Aemilianus, and the same number againstDomitius Aenobarbus. Their battles withCaesar took place, one inGergovia, a city of theArverni situated on a lofty mountain, the birth-place ofVercingetorix; the other, near toAlesia, a city of theMandubii, who border on theArverni; this city is likewise situated on a high hill, surrounded by mountains, and between two rivers. Here the war was terminated by the capture of their leader. The battle withMaximus Aemilianus was fought near the confluence of theIsara and theRhone, at the point where the mountains of theCevennes approach the latter river. That withDomitius was fought lower down at the confluence of theSulgas and theRhone. TheArverni extended their dominion as far asNarbonne and the borders ofMarseilles, and exercised authority over the nations as far as thePyrenees, the ocean, and theRhine.Luerius, the father ofBituitus who fought againstMaximus andDomitius, is said to have been so distinguished by his riches and luxury, that to give a proof of his opulence to his friends, he caused himself to be dragged across a plain in a car, whilst he scattered gold and silver coin in every direction for those who followed him to gather up.

§ 4.3.1  NEXT in order afterAquitaine and Narbonitis, is that portion [of Gaul] extending as far as theRhine from the riverLoire, and theRhone, where it passes byLugdunum: in its descent from its source. The upper regions of this district from the sources of theRhine andRhone, nearly to the middle of the plains, pertain toLugdunum; the remainder, with the regions next the ocean, is comprised in another division which belongs to theBelgae. We will describe the two together.

§ 4.3.2  Lugdunum itself, situated on a hill, at the confluence of theArar and theRhone, belongs to the Romans. It is the most populous city afterNarbonne. It carries on a great commerce, and the Roman prefects here coin both gold and silver money. Before this city, at the confluence of the rivers, is situated the sanctuary dedicated by all theGalatae in common toAugustus Caesar. The altar is splendid, and has inscribed on it the names of sixty people, and images of them, one for each, and also another great altar. This is the principal city of the nation of theSegusiani who lie between theRhone and theDoubs. The other nations who extend to theRhine, are bounded in part by theDoubs, and in part by theArar. These two rivers, as said before, descend from theAlps, and, falling into one stream, flow into theRhone. There is likewise another river which has its sources in theAlps, and is named theSeine. It flows parallel with theRhine, through a nation bearing the same name as itself, and so into the ocean. TheSequani are bounded on the east by theRhine, and on the opposite side by theArar. It is from them that the Romans procure the finest salted-pork. Between theDoubs andArar dwells the nation of theAedui, who possess the city ofCabyllinum, situated on theArar and the fortress ofBibracte. TheAedui are said to be related to the Romans, and they were the first to enter into friendship and alliance with them. On the other side of theArar dwell theSequani, who have for long been at enmity with the Romans andAedui, having frequently allied themselves with the Germans in their incursions intoItaly. It was then that they proved their strength, for united to them the Germans were powerful, but when separated, weak. As for theAedui, their alliance with the Romans naturally rendered them the enemies of theSequani, but the enmity was increased by their contests concerning the river which divides them, each nation claiming theArar exclusively for themselves, and likewise the tolls on vessels passing. However, at the present time, the whole of it is under the dominion of the Romans.

§ 4.3.3  The first of all the nations dwelling on theRhine are theHelvetii, amongst whom are the sources of that river in MountAdula, which forms part of theAlps. From this mountain, but in an opposite direction, likewise proceeds theAdda, which flows towardsCisalpine Gaul, and fills lakeLarius, near to which stands [the city of]Como; thence it discharges itself into thePo, of which we shall speak afterwards. TheRhine also flows into vast marshes and a great lake, which borders on theRhaeti andVindelici, who dwell partly in theAlps, and partly beyond theAlps.Asinius says that the length of this river is 6000 stadia, but such is not the case, for taken in a straight line it does not much exceed half that length, and 1000 stadia is quite sufficient to allow for its sinuosities. In fact this river is so rapid that it is difficult to throw bridges across it, although after its descent from the mountains it is borne the remainder of the way through level plains; now how could it maintain its rapidity and vehemence, if in addition to this level channel, we suppose it also to have long and frequent tortuosities?Asinius likewise asserts that this river has two mouths, and blames those who say that it has more. This river and theSeine embrace within their tortuosities a certain extent of country, which however is not considerable. They both flow from south to north.Britain lies opposite to them; but nearest to theRhine, from which you may see Kent, which is the most easterly part of the island. TheSeine is a little further. It was here that divusCaesar established a dock-yard when he sailed toBritain. The navigable portion of theSeine, commencing from the point where they receive the merchandise from theArar, is of greater extent than the [navigable portions] of theLoire andGaronne. FromLugdunum to theSeine is [a distance of] 1000 stadia, and not twice this distance from the outlets of theRhone toLugdunum. They say that theHelvetii, though rich in gold, nevertheless devoted themselves to pillage on beholding the wealth of theCimbri, [accumulated by that means; ] and that two out of their three tribes perished entirely in their military expeditions. However, the multitude of descendants who sprang from this remainder was proved in their war with divusCaesar, in which about 400,000 of their number were destroyed; the 8000 who survived the war, being spared by the conqueror, that their country might not be left desert, a prey to the neighbouring Germans.

§ 4.3.4  After theHelvetii, theSequani andMediomatrici dwell along theRhine, amongst whom are theTribocchi, a German nation who emigrated from their country hither.Iourasios, [Jura] which is in the country of theSequani, separates that people from theHelvetii. To the west, above theHelvetii andSequani, dwell theAedui andLingones; theLeuci and a part of theLingones dwelling above theMediomatrici. The nations between theLoire and theSeine, and beyond theRhone and theArar, are situated to the north near to theAllobroges, and the parts aboutLugdunum. The most celebrated amongst them are theArverni andCarnutes, through both of whose territories theLoire flows before discharging itself into the ocean. The distance from the rivers ofKeltica toBritain is 320 stadia; for departing in the evening with the ebb tide, you will arrive on the morrow at the island about the eighth hour. After theMediomatrici andTribocchi, theTreviri inhabit along theRhine; in their country the Roman generals now engaged in the German war have constructed a bridge. Opposite this place on the other bank of the river dwelt theUbii, whomAgrippa with their own consent brought over to this side theRhine. TheNervii, another German nation, are contiguous to theTreviri; and last theMenapii, who inhabit either bank of the river near to its outlets; they dwell amongst marshes and forests, not lofty, but consisting of dense and thorny wood. Near to these dwell theSicambri, who are likewise Germans. The country next the whole [eastern] bank is inhabited by theSuevi, who are also named Germans, but are superior both in power and number to the others, whom they drove out, and who have now taken refuge on this side theRhine. Other tribes have sway in different places; they are successively a prey to the flames of war, the former inhabitants for the most part being destroyed.

§ 4.3.5  TheSenones, theRemi, theAtrebates, and theEburones dwell west of theTreviri andNervii. Close to theMenapii and near the sea are theMorini, theBellovaci, theAmbiani, theSuessiones, and theCaleti, as far as the outlet of the riverSeine. The countries of theMorini, theAtrebates, and theEburones are similar to that of theMenapii. It consists of a forest filled with low trees; of great extent, but not near so large as writers have described it, viz. 4000 stadia. It is namedArduenna. In the event of warlike incursions the inhabitants would interweave the flexible brambly shrubs, thus stopping up the passages [into their country]. They also fixed stakes in various places, and then retreated with their whole families into the recesses of the forest, to small islands surrounded by marshes. During the rainy season these proved secure hiding-places, but in times of drought they were easily taken. However, at the present time all the nations on this side theRhine dwell in peace under the dominion of the Romans. TheParisii dwell along the riverSeine, and inhabit an island formed by the river; their city isLucotocia. TheMeldi andLexovii border on the ocean. The most considerable, however, of all these nations are theRemi.Duricortora, their metropolis, is well populated, and is the residence of the Roman prefects.

§ 4.4.1  GAUL. THE BELGAE. AFTER the nations mentioned come those of theBelgae, who dwell next the ocean. Of their number are theVeneti, who fought a naval battle withCaesar. They had prepared to resist his passage intoBritain, being possessed of the commerce [of that island] themselves. ButCaesar easily gained the victory, not however by means of his beaks, (for their ships were constructed of solid wood,) but whenever their ships were borne near to his by the wind, the Romans rent the sails by means of scythes fixed on long handles: for the sails [of their ships] are made of leather to resist the violence of the winds, and managed by chains instead of cables. They construct their vessels with broad bottoms and high poops and prows, on account of the tides. They are built of the wood of the oak, of which there is abundance. On this account, instead of fitting the planks close together, they leave interstices between them; these they fill with sea-weed to prevent the wood from drying up in dock for want of moisture; for the sea-weed is damp by nature, but the oak dry and arid. In my opinion theseVeneti were the founders of theVeneti in theAdriatic, for almost all the otherKeltic nations inItaly have passed over from the country beyond theAlps, as for instance, theBoii andSenones. They are said to bePaphlagonians merely on account of a similarity of name. However, I do not maintain my opinion positively; for in these matters probability is quite sufficient. TheOsismii are the people whomPytheas callsOstimii; they dwell on a promontory which projects considerably into the ocean, but not so far asPytheas and those who follow him assert. As for the nations between theSeine and theLoire, some are contiguous to theSequani, others to theArverni.

§ 4.4.2  The entire race which now goes by the name of Gallic, or Galatic, is warlike, passionate, and always ready for fighting, but otherwise simple and not malicious. If irritated, they rush in crowds to the conflict, openly and without any circumspection; and thus are easily vanquished by those who employ stratagem. For any one may exasperate them when, where, and under whatever pretext he pleases; he will always find them ready for danger, with nothing to support them except their violence and daring. Nevertheless they may be easily persuaded to devote themselves to any thing useful, and have thus engaged both in science and letters. Their power consists both in the size of their bodies and also in their numbers. Their frankness and simplicity lead then easily to assemble in masses, each one feeling indignant at what appears injustice to his neighbour. At the present time indeed they are all at peace, being in subjection and living under the command of the Romans, who have subdued them; but we have described their customs as we understand they existed in former times, and as they still exist amongst the Germans. These two nations, both by nature and in their form of government, are similar and related to each other. Their countries border on each other, being separated by the riverRhine, and are for the most part similar.Germania, however, is more to the north, if we compare together the southern and northern parts of the two countries respectively. Thus it is that they can so easily change their abode. They march in crowds in one collected army, or rather remove with all their families, whenever they are ejected by a more powerful force. They were subdued by the Romans much more easily than theIberians; for they began to wage war with these latter first, and ceased last, having in the mean time conquered the whole of the nations situated between theRhine and the mountains of thePyrenees. For these fighting in crowds and vast numbers, were overthrown in crowds, whereas theIberians kept themselves in reserve, and broke up the war into a series of petty engagements, showing themselves in different bands, sometimes here, sometimes there, like banditti. All theGauls are warriors by nature, but they fight better on horseback than on foot, and the flower of the Roman cavalry is drawn from their number. The most valiant of them dwell towards the north and next the ocean.

§ 4.4.3  Of these they say that theBelgae are the bravest. They are divided into fifteen nations, and dwell near the ocean between theRhine and theLoire, and have therefore sustained themselves single-handed against the incursions of the Germans, theCimbri, and theTeutons. The bravest of theBelgae are theBellovaci, and after them theSuessiones. The amount of their population may be estimated by the fact that formerly there were said to be 300,000Belgae capable of bearing arms. The numbers of theHelvetii, theArverni, and their allies, have already been mentioned. All this is a proof both of the amount of the population [of Gaul], and, as before remarked, of the fecundity of their women, and the ease with which they rear their children. TheGauls wear the sagum, let their hair grow, and wear short breeches. Instead of tunics they wear a slashed garment with sleeves descending a little below the hips. The wool [of theirsheep is coarse, but long; from it they weave the thick saga called laines. However, in the northern parts the Romans rear flocks ofsheep which they cover with skins, and which produce very fine wool. The equipment [of theGauls] is in keeping with the size of their bodies; they have a long sword hanging at their right side, a long shield, and lances in proportion, together with a madaris somewhat resembling a javelin; some of them also use bows and slings; they have also a piece of wood resembling a pilum, which they hurl not out of a thong, but from their hand, and to a farther distance than an arrow. They principally make use of it in shooting birds. To the present day most of them lie on the ground, and take their meals seated on straw. They subsist principally on milk and all kinds of flesh, especially that ofswine, which they eat both fresh and salted. Theirswine live in the fields, and surpass in height, strength, and swiftness. To persons unaccustomed to approach them they are almost as dangerous aswolves. The people dwell in great houses arched, constructed of planks and wicker, and covered with a heavy thatched roof. They havesheep andswine in such abundance, that they supply saga and salted pork in plenty, not only toRome but to most parts ofItaly. Their governments were for the most part aristocratic; formerly they chose a governor every year, and a military leader was likewise elected by the multitude. At the present day they are mostly under subjection to the Romans. They have a peculiar custom in their assemblies. If any one makes an uproar or interrupts the person speaking, an attendant advances with a drawn sword, and commands him with menace to be silent; if he persists, the attendant does the same thing a second and third time; and finally, [if he will not obey, ] cuts off from his sagum so large a piece as to render the remainder useless. The labours of the two sexes are distributed in a manner the reverse of what they are with us, but this is a common thing with numerous other barbarians.

§ 4.4.4  Amongst [theGauls] there are generally three divisions of' men especially reverenced, the Bards, theVates, and theDruids. The Bards composed and chanted hymns; theVates occupied themselves with the sacrifices and the study of nature; while theDruids joined to the study of nature that of moral philosophy. The belief in the justice [of theDruids] is so great that the decision both of public and private disputes is referred to them; and they have before now, by their decision, prevented armies from engaging when drawn up in battle-array against each other. All cases of murder are particularly referred to them. When there is plenty of these they imagine there will likewise be a plentiful harvest. Both these and the others assert that the soul is indestructible, and likewise the world, but that sometimes fire and sometimes water have prevailed in making great changes.

§ 4.4.5  To their simplicity and vehemence, theGauls join much folly, arrogance, and love of ornament. They wear golden collars round their necks, and bracelets on their arms and wrists, and those who are of any dignity have garments dyed and worked with gold. This lightness of character makes them intolerable when they conquer, and throws them into consternation when worsted. In addition to their folly, they have a barbarous and absurd custom, common however with many nations of the north, of suspending the heads of their enemies from theirhorses' necks on their return from tattle, and when they have arrived nailing them as a spectacle to their gates.Posidonius says he witnessed this in many different places, and was at first shocked, but became familiar with it in time on account of its frequency. The beads of any illustrious persons they embalm with cedar, exhibit them to strangers, and would not sell them for their weight in gold. However, the Romans put a stop to these customs, as well as to their modes of sacrifice and divination, which were quite opposite to those sanctioned by our laws. They would strike a man devoted as an offering in his back with a sword, and divine from his convulsive throes. Without theDruids they never sacrifice. It is said they have other modes of sacrificing their human victims; that they pierce some of them with arrows, and crucify others in their sanctuaries; and that they prepare a colossus of hay and wood, into which they putcattle, beasts of all kinds, and men, and then set fire to it.

§ 4.4.6  They say that in the ocean, not far from the coast, there is a small island lying opposite to the outlet of the riverLoire, inhabited bySamnite women who areBacchantes, and conciliate and appease that god by mysteries and sacrifices. No man is permitted to land on the island; and when the women desire to have intercourse with the other sex, they cross the sea, and afterwards return again. They have a custom of once a year unroofing the whole of the sanctuary, and roofing it again the same day before sun-set, each one bringing some of the materials. If any one lets her burden fall, she is torn in pieces by the others, and her limbs carried round the sanctuary with wild shouts, which they never cease until their rage is exhausted. [They say] it always happens that some one drops her burden, and is thus sacrificed. But whatArtemidorus tells us concerning thecrows, partakes still more of fiction. He narrates that on the coast, washed by the ocean, there is a harbour named the Port of TwoCrows, and that here twocrows may be seen with their right wings white. Those who have any dispute come here, and each one having placed a plank for himself on a lofty eminence, sprinkles crumbs thereupon; the birds fly to these, eat up the one and scatter the other, and he whose crumbs are scattered gains the cause. This narration has decidedly too much the air of fiction. What he narrates concerningCeres andProserpine is more credible. He says that there is an island nearBritain in which they perform sacrifices to these goddesses after the same fashion that they do inSamothrace. The following is also credible, that a tree grows inKeltica similar to a fig, which produces a fruit resembling aCorinthian capital, and which, being cut, exudes a poisonous juice which they use for poisoning their arrows. It is well known that all theKelts are fond of disputes; and that amongst them pederasty is not considered shameful.Ephorus extends the size ofKeltica too far, including within it most of what we now designate asIberia, as far asGades, He states that the people are great admirers of the Greeks, and relates many particulars concerning them not applicable to their present state. This is one: — That they take great care not to become fat or big-bellied, and that if any young man exceeds the measure of a certain girdle, he is punished. Such is our account ofKeltica beyond theAlps.

§ 4.5.1  BRITAIN. BRITAIN is triangular in form; its longest side lies parallel toKeltica, in length neither exceeding nor falling short of it; for each of then extends as much as 4300 or 4400 stadia: the side ofKeltica extending from the mouths of theRhine to the northern extremities of thePyrenees towardsAquitaine; and that ofBritain, which commences at Kent, its most eastern point, opposite the mouths of theRhine, extending to the western extremity of the island, which lies over againstAquitaine and thePyrenees. This is the shortest line from thePyrenees to theRhine; the longest is said to be 5000 stadia; but it is likely that there is some convergency of the river towards the mountain from a strictly parallel position, there being an inclination of either toward the other at the extremities next the ocean.

§ 4.5.2  There are four passages commonly used from the continent to the island, namely, from the mouths of the riversRhine,Seine,Loire, andGaronne; but to such as set sail from the parts about theRhine, the passage is not exactly from its mouths, but from theMorini, who border on theMenapii, among whom also is situated Itium, which divusCaesar used as his naval station when about to pass over to the island: he set sail by night, and arrived the next day about the fourth hour, having completed a passage of 320 stadia, and he found the corn in the fields. The greatest portion of the island is level and woody, although many tracts are hilly. It produces corn,cattle, gold, silver, and iron, which things are brought thence, and also skins, and slaves, anddogs sagacious in hunting; theKelts use these, as well as their nativedogs, for the purposes of war. The men are taller than theKelts, with hair less yellow; they are slighter in their persons. As an instance of their height, we ourselves saw atRome some youths who were taller than the tallest there by as much as half a foot, but their legs were bowed, and in other respects they were not symmetrical in conformation. Their manners are in part like those of theKelts, though in part more simple and barbarous; insomuch that some of them, though possessing plenty of milk, have not skill enough to make cheese, and are totally unacquainted with horticulture and other matters of husbandry. There are several states amongst them. In their wars they make use of chariots for the most part, as do some of theKelts. Forests are their cities; for having enclosed an ample space with felled trees, they make themselves huts therein, and lodge theircattle, though not for any long continuance. Their atmosphere is more subject to rain than to snow; even in their clear days the mist continues for a considerable time, insomuch that throughout the whole day the sun is only visible for three or four hours about noon; and this must be the case also amongst theMorini, and theMenapii, and among all the neighbouring people.

§ 4.5.3  DivusCaesar twice passed over to the island, but quickly returned, having effected nothing of consequence, nor proceeded far into the country, as well on account of some commotions inKeltica, both among his own soldiers and among the barbarians, as because of the loss of many of his ships at the time of the full moon, when both the ebb and flow of the tides were greatly increased. Nevertheless he gained two or three victories over theBritons, although he had transported thither only two legions of his army, and brought away hostages and slaves and much other booty. At the present time, however, some of the princes there have, by their embassies and solicitations, obtained the friendship ofAugustus Caesar, dedicated their offerings in theCapitol, and brought the whole island into intimate union with the Romans. They pay but moderate duties both on the imports and exports fromKeltica; which are ivory bracelets and necklaces, amber, vessels of glass, and small wares; so that the island scarcely needs a garrison, for at the least it would require one legion and some cavalry to enforce tribute from them; and the total expenditure for the army would be equal to the revenue collected; for if a tribute were levied, of necessity the imposts must be diminished, and at the same time some danger would be incurred if force were to be employed.

§ 4.5.4  There are also other small islands aroundBritain; but one, of great extent,Ierna, lying parallel to it towards the north, long, or rather, wide; concerning which we have nothing certain to relate, further than that its inhabitants are more savage than theBritons, feeding on human flesh, and enormous eaters, and deeming it commendable to devour their deceased fathers, as well as openly to have commerce not only with other women, but also with their own mothers and sisters. But this we relate perhaps without very competent authority; although to eat human flesh is said to be aScythian custom; and during the severities of a siege, even theKelts, theIberians, and many others, are reported to have done the like.

§ 4.5.5  The account ofThule is still more uncertain, on account of its secluded situation; for they consider it to be the northernmost of all lands of which the names are known. The falsity of whatPytheas has related concerning this and neighbouring places, is proved by what he has asserted of wellknown countries. For if, as we have shown, his description of these is in the main incorrect, what he says of far distant countries is still more likely to be false. Nevertheless, as far as astronomy and the mathematics are concerned, he appears to have reasoned correctly, that people bordering on the frozen zone would be destitute of cultivated fruits, and almost deprived of the domestic animals; that their food would consist of millet, herbs, fruits, and roots; and that where there was corn and honey they would make drink of these. That having no bright sun, they would thresh their corn, and store it in vast granaries, threshing-floors being useless on account of the rain and want of sun.

§ 4.6.1  THE ALPS. HAVING describedKeltica beyond theAlps, and the nations who inhabit the country, we must now speak of theAlps themselves and their inhabitants, and afterwards of the whole ofItaly; observing in our description such arrangement as the nature of the country shall point out. TheAlps do not commence atMonoeci Portus, as some have asserted, but from the region whence theApennines take their rise aboutGenoa, a mercantile city of theLigurians, and at the marshes namedSabbatorum Vada; for theApennines take their rise nearGenoa, and theAlps nearSabbatorum Vada. The distance betweenGenoa and theSabbatorum Vada is about 260 stadia. About 370 stadia farther on is the little city ofAlbingaunum, inhabited byLigurians who are calledIngauni. From thence to theMonoeci Portus is 480 stadia. In the interval between is the very considerable city ofAlbium Intemelium, inhabited by theIntemelii. These names are sufficient to prove that theAlps commence at theSabbatorum Vada. For theAlps were formerly called Albia and Alpionia, and at the present day the high mountain in the country of theIapodes, next toOcra and theAlps, is namedAlbius, showing that theAlps extend so far.

§ 4.6.2  Now since theLigurians were divided intoIngauni andIntemelii, it was natural that their maritime colonies should be distinguished, one by the name ofAlbium Intemelium,Alpine as it were, and the other by the more concise formAlbingaunum. To these two tribes ofLigurians already mentioned,Polybius adds those of theOxybii andDeciates. The whole coast fromMonoeci Portus toTyrrhenia is continuous, and without harbours excepting some small roads and anchorages. Above it rise the rugged precipices of theAlpine range, leaving but a narrow passage along the sea. This district, but particularly the mountains, is inhabited byLigurians, principally subsisting on the produce of their herds, and milk, and a drink made of barley. There is plenty of wood here for the construction of ships; the trees grow to a vast size, some of them having been found eight feet in diameter. Much of the wood is veined, and not inferior to cedar-wood for cabinet work. This wood, together with the produce of theircattle, hides, and honey, they transport to the mart ofGenoa, receiving in exchange for them the oil and wine ofItaly; for the little [wine] which their country produces is harsh and tastes of pitch. Here are bred thehorses and mules known as ginni, and here too are wrought theLigurian tunics and saga. In their country likewise there is plenty of lingurium, called by some electrum. They use but few cavalry in war; their infantry are good, and excellent slingers. Some have thought that their brazen shields prove these people to be of Grecian origin.

§ 4.6.3  Monoeci Port is an anchorage unsuitable for many or large vessels. Here is a sanctuary dedicated toHerculesMonoecus. The name seems to show it probable that theMassilian voyages along the coast extended as far as here.Monoeci Port is distant fromAntipolis rather more than 200 stadia. TheSalyes occupy the region from thence toMarseilles, or a little farther; they inhabit theAlps which lie above that city, and a portion of the sea-coast, where they intermingle with the Greeks. The ancient Greeks gave to theSalyes the name ofLigyes, and to the country which was in the possession of theMarseillese, that of Ligystica. The later Greeks named them Kelto-Ligyes, and assigned to them the whole of the plains extending as far as Luerion and theRhone. They are divided into ten cantons, and are capable of raising troops not only of infantry, but of cavalry also. These people were the first of the TransalpineKelts whom the Romans subdued after maintaining a lengthened war against them and theLigurians. They closed [against the Romans] all the roads intoIberia along the sea-coast, and carried on a system of pillage both by sea and land. Their strength so increased that large armies were scarcely able to force a passage. And after a war of eighty years, the Romans were hardly able to obtain a breadth of twelve stadia for the purpose of making a public road. After this, however, the Romans subdued the whole of them, and established among them a regular form of government, and imposed a tribute.

§ 4.6.4  After theSalyes, theAlbienses, theAlbioeci, and theVocontii inhabit the northern portion of the mountains. TheVocontii extend as far as theAllobriges, and occupy vast valleys in the depths of the mountains, not inferior to those inhabited by theAllobriges. Both theAllobriges andLigurians are subject to the pretors sent into the Narbonnaise, but theVocontii are governed by their own laws, as we have said of theVolcae ofNemausus. Of theLigurians between theVar andGenoa, those along the sea are consideredItalians; while the mountaineers are governed by a prefect of the equestrian order, as is the case in regard to other nations wholly barbarous.

§ 4.6.5  After theVocontii, are theIconii, theTricorii, and theMedulli; who inhabit the loftiest ridges of the mountains, for they say that some of them have an almost perpendicular ascent of 100 stadia, and a similar descent to the frontiers ofItaly. In these high-lands there is a great lake; there are also two springs not far distant from each other; one of these gives rise to theDurance, which flows like a torrent into theRhone, and to the Durias, which flows in an opposite direction; for it mingles with thePo after having pursued its course through the country of theSalassi intoCisalpine Gaul. From the other source, but much lower down, rises thePadus itself, large and rapid, which as it advances becomes still vaster, and at the same time more gentle. As it reaches the plains it increases in breadth, being augmented by numerous [other rivers], and thus it becomes less impetuous in its course, and its current is weakened. Having become the largest river in Europe, with the exception of theDanube, it discharges itself into theAdriatic Sea. TheMedulli are situated considerably above the confluence of theIsara and theRhone.

§ 4.6.6  On the opposite side of the mountains, sloping towardsItaly, dwell theTaurini, aLigurian nation, together with certain otherLigurians. What is called the land of Ideonnus andCottius belongs to theseLigurians. Beyond them and thePadus are theSalassi; above whom in the summits [of theAlps] are theKentrones, theCatoriges, theVeragri, theNantuatae, LakeLemmanus, traversed by theRhone, and the sources of that river. Not far from these are the sources of theRhine, andMount Adulas, from whence theRhine flows towards the north; likewise theAdda, which flows in an opposite direction, and discharges itself into LakeLarius, near toComo. Lying aboveComo, which is situated at the roots of theAlps, on one side are theRhaeti andVennones towards the east, and on the other theLepontii, theTridentini, theStoni, and numerous other small nations, poor and addicted to robbery, who in former times possessedItaly. At the present time some of them have been destroyed, and the others at length civilized, so that the passes over the mountains through their territories, which were formerly few and difficult, now run in every direction, secure from any danger of these people, and as accessible as art can make them. ForAugustus Caesar not only destroyed the robbers, but improved the character of the roads as far as practicable, although he could not every where overcome nature, on account of the rocks and immense precipices; some of which tower above the road, while others yawn beneath; so that departing ever so little [from the path], the traveller is in inevitable danger of falling down bottomless chasms. In some places the road is so narrow as to make both the foot traveller and his beasts of burden, who are unaccustomed to it, dizzy; but the animals of the district will carry their burdens quite securely. These things however are beyond remedy, as well as the violent descent of vast masses of congealed snow from above, capable of overwhelming a whole company at a time, and sweeping them into the chasms beneath. Numerous masses lie one upon the other, one hill of congealed snow being formed upon another, so that the uppermost mass is easily detached at any time from that below it, before being perfectly melted by the sun.

§ 4.6.7  A great part of the country of theSalassi lies in a deep valley, formed by a chain of mountains which encloses the district on either side; a part of them however inhabit the overhanging ridges. The route of those who are desirous of passing fromItaly over these mountains, lies through the aforesaid valley. Beyond this the road separates into two. The one which passes through the mountain peaks, known as thePennine Alps, cannot be traversed by carriages; the other, which runs through the country of theCeutrones, lies more to the west. The country of theSalassi contains gold mines, of which formerly, in the days of their power, they were masters, as well as of the passes. The river Doria Baltea afforded them great facility in obtaining the metal by [supplying them with water] for washing the gold, and they have emptied the main bed by the numerous trenches cut for drawing the water to different places. This operation, though advantageous in gold hunting, was injurious to the agriculturists below, as it deprived them of the irrigation of a river, which, by the height of its position, was capable of watering their plains. This gave rise to frequent wars between the two nations; when the Romans gained the dominion, theSalassi lost both their gold works and their country, but as they still possessed the mountains, they continued to sell water to the public contractors of the gold mines; with whom there were continual disputes on account of the avarice of the contractors, and thus the Roman generals sent into the country were ever able to find a pretext for commencing war. And, until very recently, theSalassi at one time waging war against the Romans, and at another making peace, took occasion to inflict numerous damages upon those who crossed over their mountains, by their system of plundering; and even exacted fromDecimus Brutus, on his flight fromMutina, a drachm per man.Messala, likewise, having taken up his winter quarters in their vicinity, was obliged to pay them, both for his fire-wood, and for the elm-wood for making javelins for the exercise of his troops. In one instance they plundered the treasures ofCaesar, and rolled down huge masses of rock upon the soldiers under pretence of making roads, or building bridges over the rivers. AfterwardsAugustus completely overthrew them, and carried them toEporedia, a Roman colony which had been planted as a bulwark against theSalassi, although the inhabitants were able to do but little against them until the nation was destroyed; their numbers amounted to 36,000 persons, besides 8000 men capable of bearing arms.TerentiusVarro, the general who defeated them, sold them all by public auction, as enemies taken in war. Three thousand Romans sent out byAugustus founded the city ofAugusta, on the spot whereVarro had encamped, and now the whole surrounding country, even to the summits of the mountains, is at peace.

§ 4.6.8  Beyond, both the eastern parts of the mountains, and those likewise inclining to the south, are possessed by theRhaeti andVindelici, who adjoin theHelvetii andBoii, and press upon their plains. TheRhaeti extend as far asItaly aboveVerona andComo. TheRhaetian wine, which is esteemed not inferior to the finest wines ofItaly, is produced [from vines which grow] at the foot of the mountains. These people extend also as far as the districts through which theRhine flows. TheLepontii andCamuni are of their nation. TheVindelici andNorici possess, for the most part, the opposite side of the mountains together with theBreuni andGenauni, who form part of theIllyrians. All these people were continually making incursions both into the neighbouring parts ofItaly, and into [the countries] of theHelvetii, theSequani, theBoii, and the Germans. But theLicattii, theClautinatii, and theVennones proved the boldest amongst theVindelici; and theRucantii and Cotuantii amongst theRhaeti. Both theEstiones andBrigantii belong to theVindelici; their cities areBrigantium,Cambodunum, andDamasia, which may be looked upon as the acropolis of theLicattii. It is narrated, as an instance of the extreme brutality of these robbers towards the people ofItaly, that when they have taken any village or city, they not only put to death all the men capable of bearing arms, but likewise all the male children, and do not even stop here, but murder every pregnant woman who, their diviners say, will bring forth a male infant.

§ 4.6.9  After these come certain of theNorici, and theCarni, who inhabit the country about theAdriatic Gulf andAquileia. TheTaurisci belong to theNorici.Tiberius and his brotherDrusus in one summer put a stop to their lawless incursions, so that now for three and thirty years they have lived quietly and paid their tribute regularly. Throughout the whole region of theAlps there are hilly districts capable of excellent cultivation, and well situated valleys; but the greater part, especially the summits of the mountains inhabited by the robbers, are barren and unfruitful, both on account of the frost and the ruggedness of the land. On account of the want of food and other necessaries the mountaineers have sometimes been obliged to spare the inhabitants of the plains, that they might have some people to supply them; for these they have given them in exchange, resin, pitch, torches, wax, cheese, and honey, of which they have plenty. In the MountApennine which lies above theCarni there is a lake which runs out into theAtesinus, which river, after receiving another river, theAtagis, discharges itself into theAdriatic. From this lake there is also another river, theIsaras, which flows into theDanube. TheDanube itself rises in the mountains which are split into many branches and numerous summits. For fromLiguria to here the summits of theAlps stretch along continuously, presenting the appearance of one mountain; but after this they rise and fall in turns, forming numerous ridges and peaks. The first of these is beyond theRhine and the lake inclining towards the east, its ridge moderately elevated; here are the sources of theDanube near to theSuevi and the forest ofHercynia. The other branches extend towardsIllyria and theAdriatic, such are the MountApennine, already mentioned, Tullum and Phligadia, the mountains lying above theVindelici from whence proceed the Duras, theClanis, and many other rivers which discharge themselves like torrents into the current of theDanube.

§ 4.6.10  Near to these regions dwell theIapodes, (a nation now mixed with theIllyrians, andKelts,) close to them is [the Mount]Ocra. Formerly theIapodes were numerous, inhabiting either side of the mountain, and were notorious for their predatory habits, but they have been entirely reduced and brought to subjection byAugustus Caesar. Their cities areMetulum,Arupenum, Monetium, andVendon. After these is the city of Segesta, [situated] in a plain. Near to it flows the river Save, which discharges itself into theDanube. This city lies in an advantageous position for carrying on war against theDacians.Ocra forms the lowest portion of theAlps, where they approach the territory of theCarni, and through which they convey the merchandise ofAquileia in waggons to Pamportus. This route is not more than 400 stadia. From thence they convey it by the rivers as far as theDanube and surrounding districts, for a navigable river which flows out ofIllyria, passes by Pamportus, and discharges itself into the Save, so that the merchandise may easily be carried down both to Segesta, and to thePannonians, andTaurisci. It is near this city, that the Kulp falls into the Save. Both of these rivers are navigable, and flow down from theAlps. TheAlps contain wildhorses andcattle, andPolybius asserts that an animal of a singular form is found there; it resembles a stag except in the neck and hair, which are similar to those of a wildboar; under its chin it has a tuft of hair about a span long, and the thickness of the tail of a younghorse.

§ 4.6.11  One of the passages over the mountains fromItaly into Transalpine and northernKeltica is that which passes through the country of theSalassi, and leads toLugdunum. This [route] is divided into two ways, one practicable for carriages, but longer, which crosses the country of theCeutrones, the other steep and narrow, but shorter; this crosses thePennine [Alps].Lugdunum is situated in the midst of the country, serving as an acropolis, both on account of the confluence of the rivers, and of its being equally near to all parts. It was on this account thatAgrippa cut all the roads from this [as a centre] one running through the mountains of theCevennes to theSantones andAquitaine, another towards theRhine; a third towards the ocean by the country of theBellovaci andAmbiani, and a fourth towards the Narbonnaise and the coast ofMarseilles. The traveller, also, leavingLugdunum and the country above on his left, may pass over thePennine Alps themselves, theRhone, or LakeLemannus, into the plains of theHelvetii, whence there is a passage through MountJura into the country of theSequani, andLingones; here the road separates into two routes, one running to theRhine, and the other to the ocean.

§ 4.6.12  Polybius tells us that in his time the gold mines were so rich aboutAquileia, but particularly in the countries of theTaurisciNorici, that if you dug but two feet below the surface you found gold, and that the diggings [generally] were not deeper than fifteen feet. In some instances the gold was found pure in lumps about the size of a bean or lupin, and which diminished in the fire only about one eighth; and in others, though requiring more fusion, was still very profitable. CertainItalians aiding the barbarians in working [the mines], in the space of two months the value of gold was diminished throughout the whole ofItaly by one third. TheTaurisci on discovering this drove out their fellow-labourers, and only sold the gold themselves. Now, however, the Romans possess all the gold mines. Here, too, as well as inIberia, the rivers yield gold-dust as well as the diggings, though not in such large quantities. The same writer, speaking of the extent and height of theAlps, compares with them the largest mountains of Greece, such asTaygetum,Lycaion,Parnassus,Olympus,Pelion,Ossa, and ofThrace, as theHaemus,Rhodope, and Dunax, saying that an active person might almost ascend any of these in a single day, and go round them in the same time, whereas five days would not be sufficient to ascend theAlps, while their length along the plains extends 2200 stadia. He only names four passes over the mountains, one throughLiguria close to theTyrrhenian sea, a second through the country of theTaurini, by whichHannibal passed, a third through the country of theSalassi, and a fourth through that of theRhaeti, all of them precipitous. In these mountains, he says, there are numerous lakes; three large ones, the first of which isBenacus, 500 stadia in length and 130 in breadth, the riverMincius flows from it. The second is theVerbanus, 400 stadia [in length], and in breadth smaller than the preceding; the great riverTicinus flows from this [lake]. The third is theLarius, its length is nearly 300 stadia, and its breadth 30, the riverAdda flows from it. All these rivers flow into thePo. This is what we have to say concerning theAlpine mountains.

§ 4.7.1  AT the foot of theAlps commences the region now known asItaly. The ancients byItaly merely understoodOenotria, which reached from theStrait of Sicily to the Gulf ofTaranto, and the region aboutPosidonium, but the name has extended even to the foot of theAlps; comprehending on one side that portion ofLiguria situated by the sea, from the confines ofTyrrhenia to theVar; and on the other, that portion ofIstria which extends as far asPola. It seems probable that the first inhabitants were namedItalians, and, being successful, they communicated their name to the neighbouring tribes, and this propagation [of name] continued until the Romans obtained dominion. Afterwards, when the Romans conferred on theItalians the privileges of equal citizenship, and thought fit to extend the same honour to theCisalpine Galatae andHeneti, they comprised the whole under the general denomination ofItalians and Romans; they likewise founded amongst them numerous colonies, some earlier, some later, of which it would be difficult to say which are the most considerable.

§ 5.1.2  It is not easy to describe the whole ofItaly under any one geometrical figure; although some say that it is a promontory of triangular form, extending towards the south and winter rising, with its apex towards theStrait of Sicily, and its base formed by theAlps. . . . . . [No one can allow this definition either for the base or one of the sides, ] although it is correct for the other side which terminates at theStrait, and is washed by theTyrrhenian sea. But a triangle, properly so called, is a rectilinear figure, whereas in this instance both the base and the sides are curved. So that, if I agree, I must add that the base and the sides are of a curved figure, and it must be conceded to me that the eastern side deviates, as well; otherwise they have not been sufficiently exact in describing as one side that which extends from the head of theAdriatic to theStrait [of Sicily]. For we designate as a side a line without any angle; now a line without any angle is one which does not incline to either side, or but very little; whereas the line fromAriminum to theIapygian promontory, and that from theStrait to the same promontory, incline very considerably. The same I consider to be the case with regard to the lines drawn from the head of theAdriatic andIapygia, for meeting about the neighbourhood ofAriminum andRavenna, they form an angle, or if not an angle, at least a strongly defined curve. Consequently, if the coast from the head [of theAdriatic] toIapygia be considered as one side, it cannot be described as a right line; neither can the remainder of the line from hence to theStrait [ofSicily ], though it may be considered another side, be said to form a right line. Thus the figure [ofItaly] may be said to be rather quadrilateral than trilateral, and can never without impropriety be called a triangle. It is better to confess that you cannot define exactly ungeometrical figures.

§ 5.1.3  [Italy], however, may be described in the following manner. The roots of theAlps are curved, and in the form of a gulf, the head turned towardsItaly; the middle of the gulf in the country of theSalassi, and its extremities turned, the one towardsOcra and the head of theAdriatic, the other towards the coast ofLiguria as far asGenoa, a mercantile city of theLigurians, where theApennines fall in with theAlps. Immediately under [theAlps] there is a considerable plain, of about an equal extent of 2100 stadia both in breadth and length; its southern side is closed by the coast of theHeneti and theApennines, which extend toAriminum andAncona; for these mountains, commencing atLiguria, enterTyrrhenia, leaving but a narrow sea-coast; they afterwards retire by degrees into the interior, and having reached the territory ofPisa, turn towards the east in the direction of theAdriatic as far as the country aboutAriminum andAncona, where they approach the sea-coast of theHeneti at right angles.Cisalpine Gaul is enclosed within these limits, and the length of the coast joined to that of the mountains is 6300 stadia; its breadth rather less than 2000. The remainder ofItaly is long and narrow, and terminates in two promontories, one extending to theStrait of Sicily, the other toIapygia. It is embraced on one side by theAdriatic, on the other by theTyrrhenian sea. The form and size of theAdriatic resembles that portion ofItaly bounded by theApennines and the two seas, and extending as far asIapygia and the isthmus which separates the Gulf ofTaranto from that ofPosidonium. The greatest breadth of both is about 1300 stadia, and the length not much less than 6000. The remainder of the country is possessed by theBruttii, and certain of theLeucani.Polybius tells us, that traversing the sea-coast on foot fromIapygia to theStrait [ofSicily ] there are 3000 stadia, the coast being washed by the Sea ofSicily; but that going by water it is 500 stadia less. TheApennines, after approaching the country aboutAriminum andAncona, and determining the breadth ofItaly at this point from sea to sea, change their direction and divide the whole country throughout its length. As far as thePeucetii andLeucani they do not recede much from theAdriatic, but on arriving at theLeucani they decline considerably towards the other sea, and traversing the remainder of the distance through theLeucani andBruttii, terminate atLeucopetra, inReggio. Such is a general description of the whole of presentItaly. We will now endeavour to undertake a description of its various parts. And, first, of those situated below theAlps.

§ 5.1.4  This is a superb plain variegated with fruitful hills. ThePo divides it almost through its midst, one side being denominated Cispadana, and the other Transpadana. Cispadana comprehends that part next theApennines andLiguria, and Transpadana the remainder. The former [division] is inhabited byLigurian andKeltic nations, the former inhabiting the mountains and the latter the plains; and the latter [division] byKelts andHeneti. TheseKelts are of the same race as the TransalpineKelts. Concerning theHeneti there are two traditions, some saying that they are a colony of thoseKelts of the same name who dwell by the ocean. Others say that they are descended from theVeneti ofPaphlagonia, who took refuge here withAntenor after theTrojan War; and they give as a proof of this the attention these people bestow on rearinghorses; which, though now entirely abandoned, was formerly in great esteem among them, resulting from the ancient rage for breeding mules, whichHomer thus mentions: "From theEneti for forest mules renowned." Iliad ii. 857. It was here thatDionysius, the tyrant ofSicily, kept his stud ofrace-horses. And, in consequence, the Henetianhorses were much esteemed in Greece, and their breed in great repute for a long period.

§ 5.1.5  The whole of this country is full of rivers and marshes, especially the district of theHeneti, which likewise experiences the tides of the sea. This is almost the only part of our sea which is influenced in the same manner as the ocean, and, like it, has ebb and flood tides. In consequence most of the plain is covered with lagoons. The inhabitants have dug canals and dikes, after the manner of LowerEgypt, so that part of the country is drained and cultivated, and the rest is navigable. Some of their cities stand in the midst of water like islands, others are only partially surrounded. Such as lie above the marshes in the interior are situated on rivers navigable for a surprising distance, thePo in particular, which is both a large river, and also continually swelled by the rains and snows. As it expands into numerous outlets, its mouth is not easily perceptible and is difficult to enter. But experience surmounts even the greatest difficulties.

§ 5.1.6  Formerly, as we have said, the district next this river was chiefly inhabited byKelts. The principal nations of theseKelts were theBoii, theInsubri, and theSenones and Gaesatae, who in one of their incursions took possession ofRome. The Romans afterwards entirely extirpated these latter, and expelled theBoii from their country, who then migrated to the land about theDanube, where they dwelt with theTaurisci, and warred against theDacians until the whole nation was destroyed; and they left to the surrounding tribes thissheep-pasturing district ofIllyria. TheInsubri still exist; their metropolis isMediolanum, which formerly was a village, (for they all dwelt in villages) but is now a considerable city, beyond thePo, and almost touching theAlps. Near to it isVerona, a large city, and the smaller townsBrixia,Mantua,Reggio, andComo. This latter was but a very indifferent colony, having been seriously impaired by theRhaeti who dwelt higher up, but it was repeopled byPompeius Strabo, father ofPompey the Great. AfterwardsCaius Scipio transferred thither 3000 men, and finally divusCaesar peopled it with 5000 men, the most distinguished of whom were 500 Greeks. He conferred on these the privileges of citizens, and enrolled them amongst the inhabitants. They not only took up their abode here, but left their name to the colony itself; for all the inhabitants taking the name of νεοκωμῖται, this was translated [intoLatin], and the place called Novum-Comum. Near to this place is LakeLarius, which is filled by the riverAdda, and afterwards flows out into thePo. The sources of this river, as well as those of theRhine, rise inMount Adulas.

§ 5.1.7  These cities are situated high above the marshes; near to them isPatavium, the finest of all the cities in this district, and which at the time of the late census was said to contain 500 equites. Anciently it could muster an army of 120,000 men. The population and skill of this city is evinced by the vast amount of manufactured goods it sends to the Roman market, especially clothing of all kinds. It communicates with the sea by a river navigable from a large harbour [at its mouth], the river runs across the marshes for a distance of 250 stadia. This harbour, as well as the river, is named Medoacus. Situated in the marshes is the great [city of]Ravenna, built entirely on piles, and traversed by canals, which you cross by bridges or ferry-boats. At the full tides it is washed by a considerable quantity of sea-water, as well as by the river, and thus the sewage is carried off, and the air purified; in fact, the district is considered so salubrious that the [Roman] governors have selected it as a spot to bring up and exercise the gladiators in. It is a remarkable peculiarity of this place, that, though situated in the midst of a marsh, the air is perfectly innocuous; the same is the case with respect toAlexandria inEgypt, where the malignity of the lake during summer is entirely removed by the rising of the river which covers over the mud. Another remarkable peculiarity is that of its vines, which, though growing in the marshes, make very quickly and yield a large amount of fruit, but perish in four or five years.Altinum stands likewise in the marshes, its situation being very similar to that ofRavenna. Between them isButrium, a small city ofRavenna, andSpina, which is now a village, but was anciently a celebrated Grecian city. In fact, the treasures of theSpinitae are shown atDelphi, and it is, besides, reported in history that they had dominion over the sea. They say that it formerly stood on the sea; now, however, the district is inland about 90 stadia from the sea.Ravenna is reported to have been founded byThessalians, who not being able to sustain the violence of theTyrrheni, welcomed into their city some of theOmbrici, who still possess it, while they themselves returned home. These cities for the most part are surrounded, and, as it were, washed by the marshes.

§ 5.1.8  Opitergium,Concordia,Atria,Vicetia, as well as some smaller cities, are less annoyed by the marshes: they communicate by small navigable canals with the sea. They say thatAtria was formerly a famous city, from which theAdriatic Gulf, with a slight variation, received its name.Aquileia, which is the nearest to the head [of the gulf], was founded by the Romans, to keep in check the barbarians dwelling higher up. You may navigate transport ships to it up the river Natisone for more than sixty stadia. This is the trading city with the nations ofIllyrians who dwell round theDanube. Some deal in marine merchandise, and carry in waggons wine in wooden casks and oil, and others exchange slaves,cattle, and hides.Aquileia is without the limits of theHeneti, their country being bounded by a river which flows from the mountains of theAlps, and is navigable for a distance of 1200 stadia, as far as the city ofNoreia, near to whereCnaeus Carbo was defeated in his attack upon theKimbrians. This place contains fine stations for gold washing and iron-works. At the very head of theAdriatic is the Timavum, a sanctuary consecrated toDiomedes, worthy of notice. For it contains a harbour and a fine grove, with seven springs of fresh water, which fall into the sea in a broad, deep river [Timavus].Polybius, however, says that, with the exception of one, they are all salt springs, and that it is on this account the place is called by the inhabitants — the source and mother of the sea.Posidonius, on the other hand, tells us that the riverTimavus, after flowing from the mountains, precipitates itself into a chasm, and after flowing under ground about 130 stadia, discharges itself into the sea.

§ 5.1.9  ThatDiomedes did hold sovereignty over the country around this sea, is proved both by theDiomedean islands, and the traditions concerning theDaunii andArgos-Hippium. Of these we shall narrate as much as may be serviceable to history, and shall leave alone the numerous falsehoods and myths; such, for instance, as those concerningPhaethon and theHeliades changed into alders near the [river]Eridanus, which exists nowhere, although said to be near thePo; of the islandsElectrides, opposite the mouths of thePo, and theMeleagrides, found in them; none of which things exist in these localities. However, some have narrated that honours are paid toDiomedes amongst theHeneti, and that they sacrifice to him a whitehorse; two groves are likewise pointed out, one [sacred] to theArgianJuno, and the other to theAetolianDiana. They have too, as we might expect, fictions concerning these groves; for instance, that the wild beasts in them grow tame, that the deer herd withwolves, and they suffer men to approach and stroke them; and that when pursued bydogs, as soon as they have reached these groves, thedogs no longer pursue them. They say, too, that a certain person, well known for the facility with which he offered himself as a pledge for others, being bantered on this subject by some hunters who came up with him having awolf in leash, they said in jest, that if he would become pledge for thewolf and pay for the damage he might do, they would loose the bonds. To this the man consented, and they let loose thewolf, who gave chase to a herd ofhorses unbranded, and drove them into the stable of the person who had become pledge for him. The man accepted the gift, branded thehorses with [the representation of] awolf, and named them Lucophori. They were distinguished rather for their swiftness than gracefulness. His heirs kept the same brand and the same name for this race ofhorses, and made it a rule never to part with a single mare, in order that they might remain sole possessors of the race, which became famous. At the present day, however, as we have before remarked, this [rage for] horse-breeding has entirely ceased. After theTimavus comes the sea-coast ofIstria as far asPola, which appertains toItaly. Between [the two] is the fortress ofTergeste, distant fromAquileia 180 stadia.Pola is situated in a gulf forming a kind of port, and containing some small islands, fruitful, and with good harbours. This city was anciently founded by theColchians sent afterMedea, who not being able to fulfil their mission, condemned themselves to exile. AsCallimachus says, "It a Greek would call The town of Fugitives, but in their tongue 'TisPola named. " The different parts of Transpadana are inhabited by theHeneti and theIstrii as far asPola; above theHeneti, by theCarni, theCenomani, theMedoaci, and theSymbri. These nations were formerly at enmity with the Romans, but theCenomani andHeneti allied themselves with that nation, both prior to the expedition ofHannibal, when they waged war with theBoii and Symbrii, and also after that time.

§ 5.1.10  Cispadana comprehends all that country enclosed between theApennines and theAlps as far asGenoa and theVada-Sabbatorum. The greater part was inhabited by theBoii, theLigurians, theSenones, andGaesatae; but after the depopulation of theBoii, and the destruction of theGaesatae andSenones, theLigurian tribes and the Roman colonies alone remained. The nation of theOmbrici and certain of theTyrrheni are also mixed amongst the Romans. These two nations, before the aggrandizement of the Romans, had some disputes with each other concerning precedence. Having only the riverTiber between, it was easy to commence war upon each other; and if the one sent out an expedition against any nation, it was the ambition of the other to enter the same country with an equal force. Thus, theTyrrheni, having organized a successful expedition against the barbarians [dwelling in the countries] about thePo, but having speedily lost again through their luxury [all they had acquired], theOmbrici made war upon those who had driven them out. Disputes arose between theTyrrheni andOmbrici concerning the right of possessing these places, and both nations founded many colonies; those, however, of theOmbrici were most numerous, as they were nearest to the spot. When the Romans gained the dominion, they sent out colonies to different parts, but preserved those which had been formerly planted by their predecessors. And although now they are all Romans, they are not the less distinguished, some by the names ofOmbri andTyrrheni, others by those ofHeneti,Ligurians, andInsubri.

§ 5.1.11  Both in Cispadana and around thePo there are some fine cities.Placentia andCremona, situated about the middle of the country, are close to each other. Between these andAriminum, areParma,Mutina, andBononia, which is near toRavenna; amongst these are smaller cities on the route toRome, as Acara,Regium Lepidum,Campi Macri, where a public festival is held every year,Claterna,Forum Cornelium; whileFaventia andCaesena, situated near to the river Savio and theRubicon, are adjacent toAriminum.Ariminum, likeRavenna, is an ancient colony of theOmbri. but both of them have received also Roman colonies.Ariminum has a port and a river of the same name as itself. FromPlacentia toAriminum there are 1300 stadia. About 36 miles abovePlacentia, towards the boundaries of the kingdom ofCottius, is the city ofTicinum, by which flows a river bearing the same name, which falls into thePo, while a little out of the route areClastidium,Derthon, andAquae Statiellae. But the direct route toOcelum, along thePo and the Doria river is full of precipices, intersected by numerous other rivers, one of which is theDruentia, and is about 160 miles long. Here commence theAlpine mountains andKeltica. Near to the mountains aboveLuna is the city ofLucca. Some [of the people of this part ofItaly] dwell in villages, nevertheless it is well populated, and furnishes the greater part of the military force, and of equites, of whom the senate is partly composed.Derthon is a considerable city, situated about half way on the road fromGenoa toPlacentia, which are distant 400 stadia from each other.Aquae Statiellae is on the same route. That fromPlacentia toAriminum we have already described, but the sail toRavenna down thePo requires two days and nights. A great part of Cispadana likewise was covered by marshes, through whichHannibal passed with difficulty on his march intoTyrrhenia. ButScaurus drained the plains by navigable canals from thePo to the country of the Parmesans. For theTrebia meeting thePo nearPlacentia, and having previously received many other rivers, is over-swollen near this place. I allude to theScaurus who also made theAemilian road throughPisa andLuna as far as Sabbatorum, and thence throughDerthon. There is another Aemilian road, which continues theVia Flaminia. ForMarcus Lepidus andCaius Flaminius being colleagues in the consulship [187 BCE], and having vanquished theLigurians, the one made theVia Flaminia fromRome acrossTyrrhenia andOmbrica as far as the territory ofAriminum, the other, the road as far asBononia, and thence toAquileia by the roots of theAlps, and encircling the marshes. The boundaries which separate from the rest ofItaly this country, which we designateCiteriorKeltica, were marked by theApennine mountains aboveTyrrhenia and the riverEsino, and afterwards by theRubicon. Both these rivers fall into theAdriatic.

§ 5.1.12  The fertility of this country is proved by its population, the size of its cities, and its wealth, in all of which the Romans of this country surpass the rest ofItaly. The cultivated land produces fruits in abundance and of every kind, and the woods contain such abundance of mast, thatRome is principally supplied from theswine fed there. Being well supplied with water, millet grows there in perfection. This affords the greatest security against famine, inasmuch as millet resists any inclemency of the atmosphere, and never fails, even when there is scarcity of other kinds of grain. Their pitch-works are amazing, and their casks give evidence of the abundance of wine: these are made of wood, and are larger than houses, and the great supply of pitch allows them to be sold cheap. The soft wool and by far the best is produced in the country roundMutina and the river Panaro; while the coarse wool, which forms the main article of clothing amongst the slaves inItaly, is produced inLiguria and the country of theSymbri. There is a middling kind grown aboutPatavium, of which the finer carpets, gausapi, and every thing else of the same sort, whether with the wool on one or on both sides, are made. The mines are not worked now so diligently, because not equally profitable with those of TransalpineKeltica andIberia; but formerly they must have been, since there were gold-diggings even inVercelli, near to Ictimuli, both which villages are near toPlacentia. Here we finish our description of the first part ofItaly, and pass on to the second.

§ 5.2.1  IN the second place, we shall treat of that portion ofLiguria situated in theApennines, between theKeltica already described andTyrrhenia. There is nothing worth mentioning about it, except that the people dwell in villages, ploughing and digging the intractable land, or rather, asPosidonius expresses it, hewing the rocks. The third division contains theTyrrhenians, who dwell next the former, and inhabit the plains extending to theTiber, which river, as far as its outlet, washes the side towards the east, the opposite side being washed by theTyrrhenian andSardinian sea. TheTiber flows from theApennines, and is swelled by many rivers; it flows partly throughTyrrhenia, dividing it in the first instance fromOmbrica, afterwards from theSabini and theLatini, who are situated nextRome as far as the sea-coast; so that these countries are bounded in their breadth by the river [Tiber] and theTyrrhenians, and in their length by each other. They extend upwards towards theApennines which approach theAdriatic. The first are theOmbrici, after these theSabini, and finally the inhabitants ofLatium. They all commence from the river. The country of theLatini extends on one side along the seacoast fromOstia to the city ofSinuessa, on the other it is bounded by the land of theSabini, (Ostia is the port ofRome, through which theTiber passes in its course,) it extends in length as far asCampania and theSamnitic mountains. The country of theSabini lies between theLatini and theOmbrici, it likewise extends to theSamnitic mountains, but approaches nearer to theApennines inhabited by theVestini, thePeligni, and theMarsi. TheOmbrici lie between the country of theSabini andTyrrhenia, but extend beyond the mountains as far asAriminum, andRavenna. TheTyrrheni, commencing from their own sea and theTiber, extend to the circular chain of mountains which stretches fromLiguria to theAdriatic. We will now enter into a detailed account, commencing with these.

§ 5.2.2  TheTyrrheni have now received from the Romans the surname ofEtrusci andTusci. The Greeks thus named them fromTyrrhenus the son ofAtys, as they say, who sent hither a colony fromLydia.Atys, who was one of the descendants ofHercules andOmphale, and had two sons, in a time of famine and scarcity determined by lot thatLydus should remain in the country, but thatTyrrhenus, with the greater part of the people, should depart. Arriving here, he named the country after himself,Tyrrhenia, and founded twelve cities, having appointed as their governor Tarcon, from whom the city ofTarquinia [received its name], and who, on account of the sagacity which he had displayed from childhood, was feigned to have been born with hoary hair. Placed originally under one authority, they became flourishing; but it seems that in after-times, their confederation being broken up and each city separated, they yielded to the violence of the neighbouring tribes. Otherwise they would never have abandoned a fertile country for a life ofpiracy on the sea. roving from one ocean to another; since, when united they were able not only to repel those who assailed them, but to act on the offensive, and undertake long campaigns. After the foundation ofRome,Demaratus arrived here, bringing with him people fromCorinth. He was received atTarquinia, where he had a son, namedLucumo, by a woman of that country.Lucumo becoming the friend ofAncus Marcius, king of the Romans, succeeded him on the throne, and assumed the name ofLucius Tarquinius Priscus. Both he and his father did much for the embellishment ofTyrrhenia, the one by means of the numerous artists who had followed him from their native country; the other having the resources ofRome. It is said that the triumphal costume of the consuls, as well as that of the other magistrates, was introduced from theTarquinii, with the fasces, axes, trumpets, sacrifices, divination, and music employed by the Romans in their public ceremonies. His son, the secondTarquin, named Superbus, who was driven from his throne, was the last king [ofRome ].Porsena, king ofClusium, a city ofTyrrhenia, endeavoured to replace him on the throne by force of arms, but not being able he made peace with the Romans, and departed in a friendly way, with honour and loaded with gifts.

§ 5.2.3  Such are the facts concerning the celebrity of theTyrrheni, to which may be added the exploits of theCaeretani, who defeated theGalatae after they had takenRome. Having attacked them as they were departing through the country of theSabini, they took from them, much against their will, the ransom which the Romans had willingly paid to them; besides this, they took under their protection those who fled to them out ofRome, the sacred fire and the priestesses ofVesta. The Romans, influenced by those who then misgoverned the city, seem not to have been properly mindful of this service; for although they conferred on them the rights of citizenship, they did not enrol them amongst the citizens; and further, they inscribed upon the same roll with theCaeretani, others who did not enjoy as great privileges as they did. However, amongst the Greeks this city was highly esteemed both for its bravery and rectitude of conduct; for they refrained frompiracy, with favourable opportunities for engaging in it, and dedicated atDelphi the treasure, as it was called, of theAgyllaei; for their country was formerly namedAgylla, though nowCaerea. It is said to have been founded byPelasgi fromThessaly. TheLydians, who had taken the name ofTyrrheni, having engaged in war against theAgyllaei, one of them, approaching the wall, inquired the name of the city; when one of theThessalians from the wall, instead of answering the question, saluted him with χαῖρε. TheTyrrheni received this as an omen, and having taken the city they changed its name. This city, once so flourishing and celebrated, only preserves the traces [of its former greatness]; the neighbouring hot springs, named Caeretana, being more frequented than it, by the people attracted thither for the sake of their health.

§ 5.2.4  Almost every one is agreed that thePelasgi were an ancient race spread throughout the whole of Greece, but especially in the country of theAeolians near toThessaly.Ephorus, however, says that he considers they were originallyArcadians, who had taken up a warlike mode of life; and having persuaded many others to the same course, imparted their own name to the whole, and became famous both among the Greeks, and in every other country where they chanced to come.Homer informs us that there were colonies of them inCrete, for he makesUlysses say toPenelope — " Diverse their language is;Achaians some, And some indigenous are;Cydonians there, Crest-shakingDorians, andPelasgians dwell." [Od. xix. 175.] And that portion ofThessaly between the outlets of thePeneius and theThermopylae, as far as the mountains ofPindus, is named Pelasgic Argos, the district having formerly belonged to thePelasgi. The poet himself also gives toDodonaeanJupiter, the epithet ofPelasgian: — "Pelasgian,DodonaeanJove supreme." Iliad xvi. 223. Many have likewise asserted that the nations of theEpirus are Pelasgic, because the dominions of thePelasgi extended so far. And, as many of the heroes have been namedPelasgi, later writers have applied the same name to the nations over which they were the chiefs. ThusLesbos has been called Pelasgic, andHomer has called the people bordering on theCilices in theTroad Pelasgic: — "Hippothous fromLarissa, for her soil Far-famed, the spear-expertPelasgians brought." Iliad ii. 840Ephorus, when he supposes that they were a tribe ofArcadians, followsHesiod, who says, "The sons born of the divineLycaon, whom formerlyPelasgus begot. " LikewiseAeschylus in his Suppliants, orDanaids, makes their race to be ofArgos nearMycenae.Ephorus likewise says thatPeloponnesus was namedPelasgia; andEuripides, in theArchelaus, says, "Danaus, who was the father of fifty daughters, having arrived inArgos inhabited the city ofInachus, and made a law that those who had before borne the name ofPelasgiotae throughout Greece should be calledDanai."Anticlides says, that they first colonized aboutLemnos andImbros, and that some of their number passed intoItaly withTyrrhenus, the son ofAtys. And the writers on theAthenian Antiquities, relate of thePelasgi, that some of them came toAthens, where, on account of their wanderings, and their settling like birds in any place where they chanced to come, they were called by theAthenians Pelargi.

§ 5.2.5  They say that the greatest length ofTyrrhenia, which is along the coast fromLuna toOstia, is about 2500 stadia; and that its breadth in the direction of the mountains is less than half that number. Then fromLuna toPisa there are more than 400 stadia; from thence toVolaterrae 280; thence toPoplonium 270; and fromPoplonium to Cossanear 800, or as some say, 600.Polybius, however, says that there are not in all 1330. Of theseLuna is a city and harbour; it is named by the Greeks, the harbour and city ofSelene. The city is not large, but the harbour is very fine and spacious, containing in itself numerous harbours, all of them deep near the shore; it is in fact an arsenal worthy of a nation holding dominion for so long a time over so vast a sea. The harbour is surrounded by lofty mountains, from whence you may view the sea andSardinia, and a great part of the coast on either side. Here are quarries of marble, both white and marked with green, so numerous and large, as to furnish tablets and columns of one block; and most of the material for the fine works, both inRome and the other cities, is furnished from hence. The transport of the marble is easy, as the quarries lie near to the sea, and from the sea they are conveyed by theTiber.Tyrrhenia likewise supplies most of the straightest and longest planks for building, as they are brought direct from the mountains to the river. BetweenLuna andPisa flows theMacra, a division which many writers consider the true boundary ofTyrrhenia andLiguria.Pisa was founded by thePisatae of thePeloponnesus, who went underNestor to the expedition againstTroy, but in their voyage home wandered out of their course, some toMetapontium, others to thePisatis; they were, however, all calledPylians. The city lies between the two riversArno andAesar, at their point of confluence; the former of which, though very full, descends fromArretium not in one body, but divided into three; the second flows down from theApennines. Where they fall into one current, the shock between them is so great as to raise the water to that height, that people standing on either bank are not able to see each other; so that necessarily the voyage up from the sea is difficult. This voyage is about 20 stadia. There is a tradition, that when these rivers first descended from the mountains they were impeded by the inhabitants of the district, lest falling together they should inundate the country; however, they promised not to inundate it, and they have kept their word. This city appears to have been formerly flourishing, and at the present day it still maintains its name, on account of its fertility, its marble-quarries, and its wood for building ships, which formerly they employed to preserve themselves from danger by sea; for they were more warlike than theTyrrheni, and were constantly irritated by theLigurians, troublesome neighbours, who dwelt on the coast. At the present day the wood is mostly employed for building houses inRome, and in the country villas [of the Romans], which resemble in their gorgeousnessPersian palaces.