Catetan: di handap ieu mangrupa ihtisar ringkes tumuwuhna fisika. Pikeun leuwih jéntré, baca artikel utama subjék ieu,Sajarah fisika.
Geus ti jaman baheula manusa nyoba neuleuman paripolah zat: naha apel bet ragrag kana taneuh, naha barang nu béda boga sipat nu béda, jeung saterusna. Ogé ngeunaan karaktermayapada, samodél bentuk Bumi jeung paripolahcelestial object samodélpanonpoé jeungbulan. Sababaraha téori geus diajukeun, tétéla lolobana salah. Téori-téori ieu umumna kedal dina istilahfilosofis, teu kungsi dibuktikeun maké uji éksperimén nu sistematis. There were exceptions and there areanachronisms: for example, theGreek thinkerArchimedes derived many correct quantitative descriptions of mechanics and hydrostatics.
Munggaranabad ka-17,Galiléo naratas dipakéna ékspérimén pikeun ngabuktikeun téori-téori fisik, nu jadi ide konci dinamétode ilmiah. Galiléo geus sacara suksés ngarumuskeun jeung nguji sababaraha hasil panalungtikan ngeunaandinamika, utamana HukumInersia. Dina taun1687,Newton published thePrincipia Mathematica, detailing two comprehensive and successful physical théories:Newton's laws of motion, from which ariseclassical mechanics; andNewton's Law of Gravitation, which describes thefundamental force ofgravity. Both théories agreed well with experiment. Classical mechanics would be exhaustively extended byLagrange,Hamilton, and others, who produced new formulations, principles, and results. The Law of Gravitation initiated the field ofastrophysics, which describesastronomical phenomena using physical théories.
From the18th century onwards,thermodynamics was developed byBoyle,Young, and many others. In1733,Bernoulli used statistical arguments with classical mechanics to derive thermodynamic results, initiating the field ofstatistical mechanics. In1798,Thompson demonstrated the conversion of mechanical work into héat, and in1847Joule stated the law of conservation ofenergy, in the form of héat as well as mechanical energy.
The behavior ofelectricity andmagnetism was studied byFaraday,Ohm, and others. In1855,Maxwell unified the two phenomena into a single théory ofelectromagnetism, described byMaxwell's equations. A prediction of this théory was thatlight is anelectromagnetic wave.
In1895,Roentgen discoveredX-rays, which turned out to be high-frequency electromagnetic radiation.Radioactivity was discovered in1896 byHenri Becquerel, and further studied byPierre Curie andMarie Curie and others. This initiated the field ofnuclear physics.
In1897,Thomson discovered theelectron, the elementary particle which carries electrical current in circuits. In1904, he proposed the first modél of theatom, known as theplum pudding model. (The existence of the atom had been proposed in1808 byDalton.)
In1905, Einstein formulated the théory ofspecial relativity, unifying space and time into a single entity,spacetime. Relativity prescribes a different transformation betweenreference frames than classical mechanics; this necessitated the development of relativistic mechanics as a replacement for classical mechanics. In the regime of low (relative) velocities, the two théories agree. In1915, Einstein extended special relativity to explain gravity with thegeneral theory of relativity, which replaces Newton's law of gravitation. In the regime of low masses and énérgies, the two théories agree.
In1911,Rutherford deduced fromscattering experiments the existence of a compact atomic nucleus, with positively charged constituents dubbedprotons.Neutrons, the neutral nucléar constituents, were discovered in1932 byChadwick.
Beginning in1900,Planck,Einstein,Bohr, and others developedquantum théories to explain various anomalous experimental results by introducing discrete energy levels. In1925,Heisenberg and1926,Schrödinger andDirac formulatedquantum mechanics, which explained the preceding quantum théories. In quantum mechanics, the outcomes of physical méasurements are inherentlyprobabilistic; the théory describes the calculation of these probabilities. It successfully describes the behavior of matter at small distance scales.
Quantum mechanics also provided the théoretical tools forcondensed matter physics, which studies the physical behavior of solids and liquids, including phenomena such ascrystal structures,semiconductivity, andsuperconductivity. The pioneers of condensed matter physics includeBloch, who créated a quantum mechanical description of the behavior of electrons in crystal structures in1928.
DuringWorld War II, reséarch was conducted by éach side intonuclear physics, for the purpose of créating anuclear bomb. The German effort, led by Heisenberg, did not succeed, but the AlliedManhattan Project réached its goal. In America, a téam led byFermi achieved the first man-madenuclear chain reaction in1942, and in1945 the world's firstnuclear explosive was detonated atTrinity site, néarAlamogordo,New Mexico.
Quantum field theory was formulated in order to extend quantum mechanics to be consistent with special relativity. It achieved its modérn form in the late1940s with work byFeynman,Schwinger,Tomonaga, andDyson. They formulated the théory ofquantum electrodynamics, which describes the electromagnetic interaction.
Quantum field théory provided the framework for modérnparticle physics, which studiesfundamental forces and elementary particles. In1954,Yang andMills developed a class ofgauge theories, which provided the framework for theStandard Model. The Standard modél, which was completed in the1970s, successfully describes almost all elementary particles observed to date.
As of2003, reséarch is progressing on a large number of fields of physics.
Incondensed matter physics, the biggest unsolved théoretical problem is the explanation forhigh-temperature superconductivity. Strong efforts, largely experimental, are being put into making workablespintronics andquantum computers.
In particle physics, the first pieces of experimental evidence for physics beyond theStandard Model have begun to appéar. Foremost amongst this are indications thatneutrinos have non-zeromass. These experimental results appéar to have solved the long-standingsolar neutrino problem in solar physics. The physics of massive neutrinos is currently an aréa of active théoretical and experimental reséarch. In the next several yéars,particle accelerators will begin probing energy scales in theTeV range, in which experimentalists are hoping to find evidence for thehiggs boson andsupersymmetric particles.
Théoretical attempts to unifyquantum mechanics andgeneral relativity into a single théory ofquantum gravity, a program ongoing for over half a century, has yet to béar fruit. The current léading candidates areM-theory andloop quantum gravity.
Manyastronomical phenomena have yet to be explained, including the existence ofultra-high energy cosmic rays and theanomalous rotation rates of galaxies. Théories that have been proposed to resolve these problems includedoubly-special relativity,modified Newtonian dynamics, and the existence ofdark matter. In addition, the cosmological predictions of the last several decades have been contradicted by recent evidence that theexpansion of the universe is accelerating.
TingaliMasalah nu teu bisa dipeupeuskeun pikeun "fuller treatment" tina subjek ieu.
See the definition ofphysical.
