IEEE Spectrum
FOR THE TECHNOLOGY INSIDER
Topics
More
For IEEE Members
For IEEE Members
Support IEEE Spectrum
IEEE Spectrum is the flagship publication of the IEEE — the world’s largest professional organization devoted to engineering and applied sciences. Our articles, videos, and infographics inform our readers about developments in technology, engineering, and science.
© Copyright 2026 IEEE — All rights reserved. A public charity, IEEE is the world's largest technical professional organization dedicated to advancing technology for the benefit of humanity.
Enjoy more free content and benefits by creating an account
Saving articles to read later requires an IEEE Spectrum account
The Institute content is only available for members
Downloading full PDF issues is exclusive for IEEE Members
Downloading this e-book is exclusive for IEEE Members
Access toSpectrum 's Digital Edition is exclusive for IEEE Members
Following topics is a feature exclusive for IEEE Members
Adding your response to an article requires an IEEE Spectrum account
Create an account to access more content and features onIEEE Spectrum , including the ability to save articles to read later, download Spectrum Collections, and participate in conversations with readers and editors. For more exclusive content and features, considerJoining IEEE .
Join the world’s largest professional organization devoted to engineering and applied sciences and get access to all of Spectrum’s articles, archives, PDF downloads, and other benefits.Learn more about IEEE →
Join the world’s largest professional organization devoted to engineering and applied sciences and get access to this e-book plus all ofIEEE Spectrum’s articles, archives, PDF downloads, and other benefits.Learn more about IEEE →
Charles Q. Choi
Charles Q. Choi is a science reporter who contributes regularly toIEEE Spectrum. He has written forScientific American,The New York Times,Wired, andScience, among others.
Charles Q. Choi
Charles Q. Choi is a science reporter who contributes regularly toIEEE Spectrum. He has written forScientific American,The New York Times,Wired, andScience, among others.
Articles by
© Copyright 2026 IEEE — All rights reserved. A public charity, IEEE is the world's largest technical professional organization dedicated to advancing technology for the benefit of humanity.