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Coptic Egyptian priests
Copts are aChristian ethno-religious group primarily found living inEgypt. TheCoptic Orthodox Church is the largest denomination found in Egypt, the Middle East and North Africa (MENA-region). Copts have a distinct cultural practice and religiousdoctrine.
The Coptic Orthodox Church is believed to be founded bySaint Mark the Evangelist inAlexandria around 42 AD.[1] But already before that the holy family visited Egypt. Joseph and Mary had to flee from Bethlehem with babyJesus. It is believed that everywhere they came allpaegan depictures would vanish.[2]
After its foundation by Saint Markchristianity spread fast into the heartlands of Egypt with Alexandria as capital. Connecting theNile River,Red Sea, and theMediterranean Sea, Alexandria was one of the largest port cities in Egypt where local produces such as grains were exported to other parts of the word. Which made it easy to spread the Coptic message. Later in theCouncil of Nicaea organized by EmperorConstantine I in 325 C.E., theChurch of Alexandria was elevated to the rank ofPatriarchate alongside Rome and Jerusalem.[3]
Rooted in the crossroad between East and West, the Church of Alexandria consequently had a profound impact on spreading the faith to its surrounding areas. One greatest achievement of the Church of Alexandria was the spread of monasticism. The spread of monasticism can be traced back toSaint Anthony the Great. Having lived anascetic life for twenty years in a cave in a desert mountain called Mt. Pispir, only eating bread, salt, and water, Anthony’s action soon attracted followers who voluntarily vowed as his disciple. His disciples then carried his monastic style of teachings and approaches to all directions, including places like Palestine,Marseille,Mesopotamia,Asia Minor, Syria, Ethiopia, and even Ireland.[4]
Era of the Martyrs—Religious Persecution Under the Romans
The Coptic Orthodox Church is known as church of themartyrs, not only because of the many martyrs but also because of the desire of the believers to become a martyr. Under the Roman rule of Egypt the Copts were severely persecuted. Thispersecution came to a climax during the rule ofDiocletian. He personally came to Egypt to destroy christianity, around 800.000 Copts were killed.[5]
The death of Prophet Muhammad in 632 AD marked the start of theRashidun Caliphate era in the Middle East. The term Rashidun literally means rightly guided; it refers to the first four Islamic caliphs who were considered rightfully elected by theummah. Under the rule ofCaliph Uthman, Rashidun armies started to invade Syria, Mesopotamia, andFars regions, the former territories of theByzantine Empire, and theSassanid Empire.
A drastic change happened to the Egyptian religious milieux when Egypt was taken over by Muslim generalAmr ibn al-As in 639. Initially, Christians were tolerated because they were redeemed as theAhl al-Kitab, or the People of the Book. VIn return for tolerance, Christians had to pay theJizya tax and were forbidden from entering the army. Although tolerated by the system in theory, in practice, Copts in Egypt suffered economically, and several uprisings against their Muslim overlords happened occasionally as well. Meanwhile to suppress the uprisings, the muslim governments from time to time also confiscated church properties and imprisoned some important members of the Church. As a result, many of them converted to Islam to avoid the heavy tax. Eventually by the Ninth century, Muslims gained the majority in Egypt.
European Intervention, Enlightenment, and Nationalism
WhenNapoleon Bonaparte launched his expedition to Egypt in 1798 starting with Alexandria, several local Copts sought this as an opportunity. A formal tax collector of the Upper Egypt under the Ottoman-mamluk ruleMu'allam Ya'qub Tadrus, for instance, became a joint commander alongsidegeneral Desiax during his conquest of Upper Egypt. After Napoleon's retreat, Ya'qub was even in charge of a Coptic legion under the French army system.[6] Another former tax collector Mu'allim Girgis al-Gawhari served as the minister of finance under Napoleon's expedition. During his term, he donated some lands to the Coptic Church.[6]
Although individual Copts seek opportunities in the French occupation, the Coptic community as a whole remained the same as under the Ottoman rule. They were still marginalized and lack much political power outside their communities. There were only a few individual who could serve as tax collectors or government advisors occasionally, seeking for opportunities both for themselves and for their communities.
Under Muhammad Ali
Since the departure of Napoleon from Egypt, the Ottoman forces soon regain control over Egypt. Many Christian Egyptians were accused of cooperating with the French army, and many of them got sentenced to death.[7] AsMuhammad Ali took control of Egypt however, Copts, alongside Armenians and Jew enjoyed an unprecedented freedom and promotion in Muhammad Ali's government. Contrary to theMillet system under the Ottomans, Muhammad Ali promoted officers based on their merit and connection to local communities. Consequently as a power broker between the government and the regional population, former tax collectors, religious figures, and military officers got promoted to Ali's government as bureaucrats. Under Ali's reform, Copts such asal-Mu'allim Ghali got promoted to Ali's financial advisor.[7]
As a continuation of the Ottoman Millet System, Copticclergy continued to hold a great influence on its community. They were not only in charge of religious services but was also in control of meddling day-to-day activities such as legal disputes.[8] However, since Sharia court also coexisted alongside the Coptic Jurisdiction, and Copts often switched between different courts when the law serves their interests better.[9] In a societal sense, this can be seen as a competition between Islam and Coptic Christianity. Although to individuals, they were only opportunists who tried to maximize their rights and profits. Similar trend continues when the OttomanTanzimat Reforms got adopted by the Egyptian government. In this case, Copts continued to switch between affirming Coptic laws and State Laws when the terms suits their interests.[10]
Another important theological aspect of the Coptic Orthodox Church is the use oficons. An Icon can be a picture of Jesus or a saint. But it is not just art. An icon is believed to be a vessel through which you can see the light of God. Looking at it surrounds you with the kingdom of God which is accessible through Jesus. Through an icon you can see a glimpse ofeternity and God's divine light. Icons proclaim the faith of the church and serve to educate and edify.[11]
The pope of Alexandria is thepatriarch or leader of the Coptic Orthodox Church. The first patriarch was Anianus who was Saint Mark's successor. Since then there is a uninterrupted line of patriarchs.[2] The current patriarch is Theodore II.
Despite the elevation of the Church of Alexandria, religious persecutions were still wide spread due to multiple theological controversies throughout the entire Christian world.
Before the concept ofHoly Trinity was publicly announced and accepted by most Christian schools in the council of Nicaea, most churches enjoyed freedom of interpretation to the Bible and religious doctrines. Consequently, as a hot topic among theologians, discussions over the essence of God and the Christ prevailed throughout the debates. In either year 318 or 320 AD, Arius, a former presbyter (priest who preaches) in Alexandria publicly announced that the Holy Father and the Christ are different by nature. Arius's idea, known asNontrinitarianism, holds that the Christ is distinct from the Holy Father himself and is therefore God's creation. Arius's opponentAthanasius of Alexandria andSaint Alexander on the other hand, believed that God the Father, Christ the Son, and the Holy Spirit are consubstantial, or same in their essences.
In the Council of Nicaea, Holy Trinity theory was publicly acclaimed; as a result, Arius was expelled from the council and condemned asheresy. Despite Arianism was denounced as heresy, a substantial group of followers in Egypt still believed in Arius's theory, and their influence in Alexandria was still prevalent. Therefore, dispute was inevitable. For instance,Athanasios of Alexandria, although being acclaimed as a great priest by later theologians, had a bad reputation for brutally suppressing his theological opponents in Alexandria while he was thePatriarch of Alexandria.[12] Nevertheless, as EmperorConstantine, the main supporter of theNicene Creed, died in 337, Arianist theologians in Alexandria led by Gregory of Cappadocia organized an uprising with the support of street mobs. They soon took over the city and chargedAthanasios for being an outlawed priest. As a result, Athanasios was forced to be expelled.[13]
Thecouncil of Chalcedon was about the natures of Christ.Nestorian taught that Christ was divided in two natures, God and human. His opponentEutyche believed there was only one Godly nature. The Coptic Orthodox Church teaches one nature, a whole of God and human.[5]
The word Copt is derived from the Greek word for an inhabitant of Egypt (Αἰγύπτιος): Qibt. The Copts seek to be a distinct ethnicity, both from other Christian denominations and other Egyptians. They view themselves as an ethnie, as the real descendants of the Pharaonic era and the original core of the Egyptian nation. In reality the differences between the Copts and other Egyptians are minor, due to many conversions toIslam and mixed marriages. Besides, some parts of the Coptic community identify as Egyptian, minimizing the ethnical distinction.[14]
The Copts comprise about 6 to 7 percent of the Egyptian population.[15] They are neither culturally nor ethnically distinctive from other Egyptians. Therefore, we can neither look at the Copts as a cultural nor an ethnical minority, but they are a religious minority within Egypt. The Copts usually stress their Egyptian national identity, which minimize the impact of them being a religious minority set against a muslim majority.[14]
There have been multipledisputes within the Coptic community regarding their identity andminority-status in the framework of the Egyptian nation. There is for example a discussion about whether the Copts should cooperate with the Egyptian government against radicalIslamist groups or not. This cooperation would lead to the minimization of the impact of being a minority, but the fighting of Muslimextremism coincides with stressing thesecular aspect of Egypt and supporting its government. Besides, a part of the Copts feel actively persecuted and discriminated against by the Egyptian government and would never cooperate with them.[14]
The Copts use theCoptic calendar. A Coptic year usually starts on the 29th of August and consists of 13 months.[16] It started in 284 CE in the Year of the Martyrs, which corresponded with the first year ofDiocletian's rule.[17]
The Coptic language is an Egyptian language consisting of both Greek and Demotic letters. It is nowadays only used as theliturgical language of the Coptic Church.
Copts can be found at all income levels. The biggest occupational group among them are the peasants who live a simple life in tents in the country, indistinguishable from Muslim peasants. In the cities, Copts are particularly numerous in the private sector, both as employers and as employees. The majority of the pharmacies in Egypt are owned by Copts and a lot of them are doctors, lawyers and engineers.[18]
Zabaleen working at night in Garbage City, Cairo
At the very bottom of the social scale are the zabaleen, Cairo's rubbish collectors, who are mainly Coptic christians. They set up an elaborate and efficient system of rubbish-collecting and recycling. The largest zabaleen-settlement is Mokattam village, better known as 'Garbage city'.[18]
↑2.02.1Khalil, Elham (1992).De Koptische Kerk Vraag en Antwoord. Kampen: Uitgeverij J.H. Kok. p. 15.ISBN90 242 6843 5.{{cite book}}:line feed character in|title= at position 18 (help)
↑14.014.114.2Smith, Charles D. (2005). "The Egyptian Copts: Nationalism, Ethnicity, and Definition of Identity for a Religious Minority".Nationalism and Minority Identities in Islamic Societies. McGill-Queen's University Press.
↑Fargues, Philippe.The Arab Christians of the Middle East. p. 59.
↑Declercq, Georges (2000).Anno Domini: The Origins of the Christian Era.ISBN978-2-503-51050-7..{{cite book}}:Check|isbn= value: invalid character (help)
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