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Conflict resolution is a set of ideas and ways to reduce sources ofconflict. The term "conflict resolution" is sometimes used interchangeably with the term "dispute resolution". The termsconflict anddispute overlap. As a term,conflict is broader thandispute, more concerned with physical action, and less concerned with verbal arguments.
Processes of conflict resolution generally includenegotiation,mediation, anddiplomacy. The processes ofarbitration,litigation, and formal complaint processes such asombudsman processes, are usually described with the termdispute resolution, although some refer to them as "conflict resolution".
Conflict resolution as both aprofessional practice andacademic field is highly sensitive tocultural background. In Western cultural contexts, such asCanada and theUnited States, successful conflict resolution usually involves fostering communication among disputants and problem solving that meet their underlying needs. In these situations, conflict resolvers often talk about finding thewin-win solution, or mutually satisfying scenario, for everyone involved (see Fisher and Ury (1981),Getting to Yes). In many non-Western cultural contexts, such asAfghanistan,Vietnam, andChina, it is also important to find "win-win" solutions; however, getting there can be very different. In these contexts, direct communication between disputants that explicitly addresses the issues at stake in the conflict can be perceived as very rude, making the conflict worse and delaying resolution. Rather, it can make sense to involvereligious,tribal orcommunity leaders, communicate difficult truths indirectly through athird party, and make suggestions through stories (see David Augsberger (1992),Conflict Mediation Across Cultures). Intercultural conflicts are often the most difficult to resolve because the expectations of the disputants can be very different, and there are many possibilities for misunderstanding.
Conflict resolution has also been studied in non-humans, like dogs, cats,monkeys,snakes,elephants, andprimates (see Frans de Waal, 2000).Aggression is more common among animal relatives and within a group, than between groups. Instead of creating a distance between the individuals, however, the primates were more intimate in the period after the aggressive incident. These intimacies consisted ofgrooming and various forms of body contact.Stress responses, like an increased heart rate, usually decrease after these reconciliatory signals. Different types of primates, as well as many other species who are living in groups, show different types ofconciliatory behaviour. Resolving conflicts that threaten the interaction between individuals in a group is necessary for survival, so has a strongevolutionary value. These findings contradicted previous existing theories about the general function of aggression, i.e. creating space between individuals (first proposed byKonrad Lorenz), which seems to be more the case in conflicts between groups than it is within groups.
In addition to research inprimates, biologists are beginning to explorereconciliation in other animals. Up until recently, the literature dealing with reconciliation in non-primates have consisted of anecdotal observations and very little quantitative data. Although peaceful, post-conflict behavior had been documented going back to the 1960s, it was not until 1993 that Rowell made the first explicit mention of reconciliation inferalsheep. Reconciliation has since been documented inspotted hyenas,[1]lions,dolphins,[2]dwarf mongooses, domesticgoats,[3] and domestic dogs.[4]
Conflict resolution is an expanding field of professional practice. The escalating costs of conflict have increased use of third parties who may serve asarbitrators,mediators,facilitators, andombudsmen or conflict specialists to resolve conflicts.Relief and development organizations have added peace-building specialists to their teams. Many of the major internationalNGOs have seen a growing need to hire practitioners trained in conflict analysis and resolution. Conflict resolution practitioners work in a variety of settings such as inbusinesses,court systems,government agencies,nonprofit organizations, and educational institutions.
Universities worldwide offer programs of study pertaining to conflict research, analysis, and practice. TheCornell University School of Industrial and Labor Relations houses the Scheinman Institute on Conflict Resolution, which offers undergraduate, graduate, and professional training on conflict resolution.[5] Graduate programs are offered atGeorgetown University,Eastern Mennonite University andTrinity College Dublin.[6]George Mason University’s Institute of Conflict Analysis and Resolution offers undergraduate, certificate and masters programs in Conflict Analysis and Resolution and a Ph.D. program in The Philosophy in Conflict and Conflict Resolution.[7] Many students completing adoctoral program enter the field as researchers, theorists, analysts, policy makers and professors in higher education. ThePax Ludens Foundation based in theNetherlands is an organization that puts together conflict resolution simulations set in an International Relations scenario to help students learn about the intricacies of where conflict emerges in the world of international politics.
Conflict resolution is a growing area of interest in UKpedagogy, with teachers and students both encouraged to learn about mechanisms that lead toaggressive action, and those that lead topeaceful resolution. In many schools in the UK, conflict resolution has now become an integral part of the SEAL (Social and Emotional Aspects of Learning) programme, chiming, as it does, with the SEAL principles of developing social skills and an understanding of ones own feelings.
In India, masters in conflict analysis and peace building is offered by Nelson Mandela Centre for Peace, inJamia Millia Islamia university in New Delhi.[8]