Ablack hole is a region of space-time from which nothing, not even light, can escape. According to thegeneral theory of relativity,[3] it starts existing whenspacetime gets curved by a hugemass. There is asphere around the black hole. If something goes inside the sphere, it cannot leave. This sphere is called theevent horizon. A black hole is black because it absorbs all the light that hits it. It reflects nothing, just like a perfectblack body inthermodynamics. Underquantum mechanics, black holes have atemperature and emitHawking radiation, which makes them slowly get smaller.
Because black holes are very hard to see, people find them by the way they affect other things near them. The place where there is a black hole can be found by tracking the movement of stars that orbit somewhere in space. Or people can find it when gas falls into a black hole, because the gas heats up and is very bright. This can be found by telescopes on Earth or byEarth-orbitingtelescopes such as Chandra or XMM Newton. Inside a black hole the rules of physics are very different.[4]
In 1783, anEnglishclergyman named John Michell wrote that it might be possible for something to be so heavy you would have to go at thespeed of light to get away from its gravity.[6] Gravity gets stronger as something gets moremassive. For a small thing, like arocket, to escape from a larger thing, likeEarth, it has to escape the pull of the Earth's gravity or it will fall back. The speed that it must travel to get away is calledescape velocity. Bigger planets (likeJupiter) and stars have more mass, and have stronger gravity than Earth. Therefore, the escape velocity would need to be much faster. John Michell thought it was possible for something to be so big that the escape velocity would need to be faster than thespeed of light, so even light could not escape.[7] In 1796,Pierre-Simon Laplace wrote about the same idea in the first and second editions of his bookExposition du système du Monde (it was removed from later editions).[8][9]
Some scientists thought Michell might be right, but others thought that light had no mass and would not be pulled by gravity. His theory was forgotten.
Mass causes space (andspacetime) to bend, or curve. Moving things "fall along" or follow the curves in space. This is what we call gravity.
Light always travels at the same speed, and is affected by gravity. If it seems to change speed, it is really traveling along a curve in spacetime.
A few months later, while serving inWorld War I, the German physicistKarl Schwarzschild used Einstein's equations to show that a black hole could exist.[10] TheSchwarzschild radius is the size of the event horizon of a non-rotating black hole.[11] This radius was the measurement where the escape velocity was equal to the speed of light. If the radius of a star is smaller, then light is unable to escape, and it would be a dark star, or black hole.
In 1930,Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar predicted that stars heavier than the sun could collapse when they ran out ofhydrogen or other nuclear fuels to burn.[12][13] In 1939,Robert Oppenheimer and H. Snyder calculated that a star would have to be at least three times as massive as the Sun to form a black hole. In 1967,John Wheeler invented the name "black hole" for the first time.[14] Before that, they were called "dark stars".
In 1970,Stephen Hawking andRoger Penrose showed that black holesmust exist. Although the black holes areinvisible (they cannot be seen), some of the matter that is falling into them is very bright.[15]
As of spring 2019, there was an image of a black hole, or rather, the things orbiting the black hole. The image required many photos from different locations. One of the team members (Katie Bouman) made a compilation of all the images into one singular image.[16]
The gravitational collapse of huge (high-mass) stars cause "stellar mass" black holes. This happens when really big stars run out of fuel.
Star formation in the early universe may have created very big stars. These stars were so large that their cores collapsed into black holes. The black hole at the center of these stars slowly consumed the star from within making black holes of up to 103 solar masses. These black holes may be the seeds of thesupermassive black holes found in the centers of most galaxies.[18] If these stars really existed, they may even explain where supermassive black holes come from.
Most of the energy released in gravitational collapse is given off very quickly. A distant observer sees the material falling in slowly and then stop just above the event horizon because ofgravitational time dilation. The light given off just before the event horizon is delayed an infinite amount of time. So the observer never sees the formation of the event horizon. Instead, the collapsing material seems to become dimmer and increasinglyred-shifted, eventually fading away.[19]
Black holes have also been found in the middle of almost everygalaxy in the knownuniverse. These are calledsupermassive black holes (SBH), and are the biggest black holes of all. They formed when the Universe was very young, and also helped to form all the galaxies.
Quasars are believed to be powered by gravity collecting material into supermassive black holes in the centers of distant galaxies. Light cannot escape the SBHs at the center of quasars, so the escaping energy is made outside theevent horizon by gravitational stresses and immensefriction on the incoming material.[20]
Huge central masses (106 to 109 solar masses) have been measured in quasars. Several dozen nearby large galaxies, with no sign of a quasar nucleus, have a similar central black hole in their nuclei. Therefore, it is thought that all large galaxies have one, but only a small fraction are active (with enough accretion to power radiation) and so are seen as quasars.
A black hole is separated from the rest of the Universe by itsevent horizon. Anything which crosses it cannot escape, not even light. Anything that happens inside this boundary can't be seen from the outside.
Near a black hole, time appears to slow down. This is known asgravitational time dilation. This happens because gravity affects time. The stronger the gravity, the slower time passes. Objects seem to turn red and fade away when they reach the event horizon. This is known asgravitational redshift.
The shape of the event horizon for non-rotating black holes is spherical and slightly flattened for spinning ones.
The photon sphere is a spherical boundary of zero thickness in which photons that move on tangents to that sphere would be trapped in a circular orbit about the black hole.
Artist's image: a black hole pulling off the outer layer of a nearby star. It is surrounded by an energy disk, which is making a jet ofradiation.Einstein's Cross: four images from onequasar
At the middle of a black hole, there is a gravitational center called asingularity. It is impossible to see into it because the gravity prevents any light escaping.
Outside the event horizon, light and matter will still be pulled toward the black hole. If a black hole is surrounded by matter, the matter will form an "accretion disk" around the black hole. An accretion disk looks something like the rings ofSaturn. As it gets sucked in, the matter gets very hot and shootsx-rayradiation into space. Think of this as the water spinning around the hole before it falls in.
Most black holes are too far away for us to see the accretion disk and jet. The only way to know a black hole is there is by seeing howstars,gas and light behave around it. With a black hole nearby, even objects as big as a star move in a different way, usually faster than they would if the black hole was not there.
Since we cannot see black holes, they must be detected by other means. When a black hole passes between us and a source of light, the light bends around the black hole creating a mirror image. This effect is calledgravitational lensing.[21][22][23]
Hawking radiation reduces the mass and the energy of the black hole and is therefore also known asblack hole evaporation. This happens because of the virtual particle-antiparticle pairs. Due to quantum fluctuations, this is when one of the particles falls in and the other gets away with the energy/mass. Because of this, black holes that lose more mass than they gain through other means are expected to shrink and ultimately vanish.Micro black holes (MBHs) are predicted to be larger net emitters of radiation than larger black holes and should shrink and dissipate faster.
Theno hair theorem basically says that once a black hole has formed, it only has three physical properties that we can measure:mass,charge, andspin. If this is true, then if two black holes had the same mass, charge and spin then they will look the same. As of 2020, it is unclear if the no hairtheorem is true for real black holes.[25]
The properties are special, because all of them can be measured from outside the black hole. For example, a charged black hole repels other like charges just like any other charged object. Similarly, the total mass inside a sphere containing a black hole can be found by using the gravitational analog ofGauss's law, far away from the black hole.[26] The angular momentum or spin can also be measured from far away.[27]
When anything falls into a black hole, any property that isn't part of the three properties of a black hole, like shape or charge distribution, gets erased and can't be seen from outside. This is a very big problem because we lose a lot of information about what went into the black hole, including certain quantum properties and physics tells us that information cannot be destroyed. This puzzle is called theblack hole information loss paradox.[28][29]
↑Schwarzschild, Karl 1916.Über das Gravitationsfeld eines Massenpunktes nach der Einstein’schen Theorie. Reimer, Berlin 1916, S. 189 ff. Sitzungsberichte der Königlich-Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften; 1916.
↑ Schwarzschild, Karl 1916.Über das Gravitationsfeld einer Kugel aus inkompressibler Flussigkeit nach der Einsteinschen Theorie. Sitzungsberichte der Deutschen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, Klasse fur Mathematik, Physik, und Technik (1916) p424.
↑Chandrasekhar S. 1991. Selected Papers, vol 6:The mathematical theory of black holes and of colliding plane waves. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.ISBN 9780226101019
↑Penrose, Roger 1996. Chandrasekhar, black holes and singularities.Journal of Astrophysics and Astronomy.17 (3–4): 213–231. Bibcode:1996JApA...17..213P. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.496.2529. doi:10.1007/BF02702305. S2CID 119807977. Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 July 2018. Retrieved 4 September 2017.
↑Wheeler, John Archibald 1998.Geons, black holes, and quantum foam: a life in physics. New York: W.W. Norton & Co.ISBN 0-393-04642-7
↑Thomsen D.E. 1987. End of the World: you won't feel a thing.Science News131 (25): 391.
↑Soldner J.G.V. 1804. On the deflection of a light ray from its rectilinear motion, by the attraction of a celestial body at which it nearly passes by.Berliner Astronomisches Jahrbuch: 161–172.
↑Dyson F.W; Eddington A.S. & Davidson C. 1920. A determination of the deflection of light by the Sun's gravitational field, from observations made at the total eclipse of 29 May 1919.Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences. 220 (571–581): 291–333.
↑A brief history of gravitational lensing — Einstein Online.[1].
