What’s a Character Encoding?

There are tens if not hundreds of character encodings. The best way to start understanding what they are is to cover one of the simplest character encodings, ASCII.

Whether you’re self-taught or have a formal computer science background, chances are you’ve seen an ASCII table once or twice. ASCII is a good place to start learning about character encoding because it is a small and contained encoding. (Too small, as it turns out.)

It encompasses the following:

• Lowercase English letters:a throughz
• Uppercase English letters:A throughZ
• Some punctuation and symbols:"$" and"!", to name a couple
• Whitespace characters: an actual space (" "), as well as a newline, carriage return, horizontal tab, vertical tab, and a few others
• Some non-printable characters: characters such as backspace,"\b", that can’t be printed literally in the way that the letterA can

So what is a more formal definition of a character encoding?

At a very high level, it’s a way of translating characters (such as letters, punctuation, symbols, whitespace, and control characters) to integers and ultimately to bits. Each character can be encoded to a unique sequence of bits. Don’t worry if you’re shaky on the concept of bits, because we’ll get to them shortly.

The various categories outlined represent groups of characters. Each single character has a correspondingcode point, which you can think of as just an integer. Characters are segmented into different ranges within the ASCII table:

The entire ASCII table contains 128 characters. This table captures the completecharacter set that ASCII permits. If you don’t see a character here, then you simply can’t express it as printed text under the ASCII encoding scheme.

# From lib/python3.7/string.pywhitespace='\t\n\r\v\f'ascii_lowercase='abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz'ascii_uppercase='ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ'ascii_letters=ascii_lowercase+ascii_uppercasedigits='0123456789'hexdigits=digits+'abcdef'+'ABCDEF'octdigits='01234567'punctuation=r"""!"#$%&'()*+,-./:;<=>?@[\]^_`{|}~"""printable=digits+ascii_letters+punctuation+whitespace

>>>importstring>>>s="What's wrong with ASCII?!?!?">>>s.rstrip(string.punctuation)'What's wrong with ASCII'

>>>defmake_bitseq(s:str)->str:...ifnots.isascii():...raiseValueError("ASCII only allowed")...return" ".join(f"{ord(i):08b}"foriins)>>>make_bitseq("bits")'01100010 01101001 01110100 01110011'>>>make_bitseq("CAPS")'01000011 01000001 01010000 01010011'>>>make_bitseq("$25.43")'00100100 00110010 00110101 00101110 00110100 00110011'>>>make_bitseq("~5")'01111110 00110101'

defn_possible_values(nbits:int)->int:return2**nbits

>>>frommathimportceil,log>>>defn_bits_required(nvalues:int)->int:...returnceil(log(nvalues)/log(2))>>>n_bits_required(256)8

>>>n_bits_required(110)7

>>>n_bits_required(128)# 0 through 1277>>>n_possible_values(7)128

>>>make_bitseq("bits")'01100010 01101001 01110100 01110011'

Covering All the Bases: Other Number Systems

In the discussion of ASCII above, you saw that each character maps to an integer in the range 0 through 127.

This range of numbers is expressed in decimal (base 10). It’s the way that you, me, and the rest of us humans are used to counting, for no reason more complicated than that we have 10 fingers.

But there are other numbering systems as well that are especially prevalent throughout theCPython source code. While the “underlying number” is the same, all numbering systems are just different ways of expressing the same number.

If I asked you what number the string"11" represents, you’d be right to give me a strange look before answering that it represents eleven.

However, this string representation can express different underlying numbers in different numbering systems. In addition to decimal, the alternatives include the following common numbering systems:

• Binary: base 2
• Octal: base 8
• Hexadecimal (hex): base 16

But what does it mean for us to say that, in a certain numbering system, numbers are represented in baseN?

Here is the best way that I know of to articulate what this means: it’s the number of fingers that you’d count on in that system.

If you want a much fuller but still gentle introduction to numbering systems, Charles Petzold’sCode is an incredibly cool book that explores the foundations of computer code in detail.

One way to demonstrate how different numbering systems interpret the same thing is with Python’sint() constructor. If youpass astr toint(), Python will assume by default that the string expresses a number in base 10 unless you tell it otherwise:

>>>int('11')11>>>int('11',base=10)# 10 is already default11>>>int('11',base=2)# Binary3>>>int('11',base=8)# Octal9>>>int('11',base=16)# Hex17

There’s a more common way of telling Python that your integer is typed in a base other than 10. Python acceptsliteral forms of each of the 3 alternative numbering systems above:

All of these are sub-forms ofinteger literals. You can see that these produce the same results, respectively, as the calls toint() with non-defaultbase values. They’re all justint to Python:

>>>1111>>>0b11# Binary literal3>>>0o11# Octal literal9>>>0x11# Hex literal17

Here’s how you could type the binary, octal, and hexadecimal equivalents of the decimal numbers 0 through 20. Any of these are perfectly valid in a Python interpreter shell or source code, and all work out to be of typeint:

$grep-nri--include"*\.py"-e"\b0x"lib/python3.7

What’s the argument for using these alternateint literal syntaxes? In short, it’s because 2, 8, and 16 are all powers of 2, while 10 is not. These three alternate number systems occasionally offer a way for expressing values in a computer-friendly manner. For example, the number 65536 or2¹⁶, is just 10000 in hexadecimal, or0x10000 as a Python hexadecimal literal.

Enter Unicode

As you saw, the problem with ASCII is that it’s not nearly a big enough set of characters to accommodate the world’s set of languages, dialects, symbols, and glyphs. (It’snot even big enough for English alone.)

Unicode fundamentally serves the same purpose as ASCII, but it just encompasses a way, way,way bigger set of code points. There are a handful of encodings that emerged chronologically between ASCII and Unicode, but they are not really worth mentioning just yet because Unicode and one of its encoding schemes, UTF-8, has become so predominantly used.

Think of Unicode as a massive version of the ASCII table—one that has 1,114,112 possible code points. That’s 0 through 1,114,111, or 0 through17 * (2¹⁶) - 1, or0x10ffff hexadecimal. In fact, ASCII is a perfect subset of Unicode. The first 128 characters in the Unicode table correspond precisely to the ASCII characters that you’d reasonably expect them to.

In the interest of being technically exacting,Unicode itself isnot an encoding. Rather, Unicode isimplemented by different character encodings, which you’ll see soon. Unicode is better thought of as a map (something like adict) or a 2-column database table. It maps characters (like"a","¢", or even"ቈ") to distinct, positive integers. A character encoding needs to offer a bit more.

Unicode contains virtually every character that you can imagine, including additional non-printable ones too. One of my favorites is the pesky right-to-left mark, which has code point 8207 and is used in text with both left-to-right and right-to-left language scripts, such as an article containing both English and Arabic paragraphs.

Encoding and Decoding in Python 3

Python 3’sstr type is meant to represent human-readable text and can contain any Unicode character.

Thebytes type, conversely, represents binary data, or sequences of raw bytes, that do not intrinsically have an encoding attached to it.

Encoding and decoding is the process of going from one to the other:

In.encode() and.decode(), theencoding parameter is"utf-8" by default, though it’s generally safer and more unambiguous to specify it:

Python

>>>"résumé".encode("utf-8")b'r\xc3\xa9sum\xc3\xa9'>>>"El Niño".encode("utf-8")b'El Ni\xc3\xb1o'>>>b"r\xc3\xa9sum\xc3\xa9".decode("utf-8")'résumé'>>>b"El Ni\xc3\xb1o".decode("utf-8")'El Niño'

The results ofstr.encode() is abytes object. Both bytes literals (such asb"r\xc3\xa9sum\xc3\xa9") and the representations of bytes permit only ASCII characters.

This is why, when calling"El Niño".encode("utf-8"), the ASCII-compatible"El" is allowed to be represented as it is, but then with tilde is escaped to"\xc3\xb1". That messy-looking sequence represents two bytes,0xc3 and0xb1 in hex:

Python

>>>" ".join(f"{i:08b}"foriin(0xc3,0xb1))'11000011 10110001'

That is,the characterñ requires two bytes for its binary representation under UTF-8.

Note: If you typehelp(str.encode), you’ll probably see a default ofencoding='utf-8'. Be careful about excluding this and just using"résumé".encode(), because the defaultmay be different in Windows prior to Python 3.6.

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>>># Mac OS X High Sierra>>>importlocale>>>locale.getpreferredencoding()'UTF-8'>>># Windows Server 2012; other Windows builds may use UTF-16>>>importlocale>>>locale.getpreferredencoding()'cp1252'

>>>all(len(chr(i).encode("ascii"))==1foriinrange(128))True

>>>ibrow="🤨">>>len(ibrow)1>>>ibrow.encode("utf-8")b'\xf0\x9f\xa4\xa8'>>>len(ibrow.encode("utf-8"))4>>># Calling list() on a bytes object gives you>>># the decimal value for each byte>>>list(b'\xf0\x9f\xa4\xa8')[240, 159, 164, 168]

>>>letters="αβγδ">>>rawdata=letters.encode("utf-8")>>>rawdata.decode("utf-8")'αβγδ'>>>rawdata.decode("utf-16")# 😧'뇎닎돎듎'

>>>text="記者 鄭啟源 羅智堅">>>len(text.encode("utf-8"))26>>>len(text.encode("utf-16"))22

Python’s Built-In Functions

You’ve made it through the hard part. Time to use what you’ve seen thus far in Python.

Python has a group of built-in functions that relate in some way to numbering systems and character encoding:

• ascii()
• bin()
• bytes()
• chr()
• hex()
• int()
• oct()
• ord()
• str()

These can be logically grouped together based on their purpose:

• ascii(),bin(),hex(), andoct() are for obtaining a different representation of an input. Each one produces astr. The first,ascii(), produces an ASCII only representation of an object, with non-ASCII characters escaped. The remaining three give binary, hexadecimal, and octal representations of an integer, respectively. These are onlyrepresentations, not a fundamental change in the input.

• bytes(),str(), andint() are class constructors for their respective types,bytes,str, andint. They each offer ways of coercing the input into the desired type. For instance, as you saw earlier, whileint(11.0) is probably more common, you might also seeint('11', base=16).

• ord() andchr() are inverses of each other in that the Pythonord() function converts astr character to its base-10 code point, whilechr() does the opposite.

Here’s a more detailed look at each of these nine functions:

You can expand the section below to see some examples of each function.

>>>ascii("abcdefg")"'abcdefg'">>>ascii("jalepeño")"'jalepe\\xf1o'">>>ascii((1,2,3))'(1, 2, 3)'>>>ascii(0xc0ffee)# Hex literal (int)'12648430'

>>>bin(0)'0b0'>>>bin(400)'0b110010000'>>>bin(0xc0ffee)# Hex literal (int)'0b110000001111111111101110'>>>[bin(i)foriin[1,2,4,8,16]]# `int` + list comprehension['0b1', '0b10', '0b100', '0b1000', '0b10000']

>>># Iterable of ints>>>bytes((104,101,108,108,111,32,119,111,114,108,100))b'hello world'>>>bytes(range(97,123))# Iterable of intsb'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz'>>>bytes("real 🐍","utf-8")# String + encodingb'real \xf0\x9f\x90\x8d'>>>bytes(10)b'\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00'>>>bytes.fromhex('c0 ff ee')b'\xc0\xff\xee'>>>bytes.fromhex("72 65 61 6c 70 79 74 68 6f 6e")b'realpython'

>>>chr(97)'a'>>>chr(7048)'ᮈ'>>>chr(1114111)'\U0010ffff'>>>chr(0x10FFFF)# Hex literal (int)'\U0010ffff'>>>chr(0b01100100)# Binary literal (int)'d'

>>>hex(100)'0x64'>>>[hex(i)foriin[1,2,4,8,16]]['0x1', '0x2', '0x4', '0x8', '0x10']>>>[hex(i)foriinrange(16)]['0x0', '0x1', '0x2', '0x3', '0x4', '0x5', '0x6', '0x7', '0x8', '0x9', '0xa', '0xb', '0xc', '0xd', '0xe', '0xf']

>>>int(11.0)11>>>int('11')11>>>int('11',base=2)3>>>int('11',base=8)9>>>int('11',base=16)17>>>int(0xc0ffee-1.0)12648429>>>int.from_bytes(b"\x0f","little")15>>>int.from_bytes(b'\xc0\xff\xee',"big")12648430

>>>ord("a")97>>>ord("ę")281>>>ord("ᮈ")7048>>>[ord(i)foriin"hello world"][104, 101, 108, 108, 111, 32, 119, 111, 114, 108, 100]

>>>str("str of string")'str of string'>>>str(5)'5'>>>str([1,2,3,4])# Like [1, 2, 3, 4].__str__(), but use str()'[1, 2, 3, 4]'>>>str(b"\xc2\xbc cup of flour","utf-8")'¼ cup of flour'>>>str(0xc0ffee)'12648430'

Python String Literals: Ways to Skin a Cat

Rather than using thestr() constructor, it’s commonplace to type astr literally:

>>>meal="shrimp and grits"

That may seem easy enough. But the interesting side of things is that, because Python 3 is Unicode-centric through and through, you can “type” Unicode characters that you probably won’t even find on your keyboard. You can copy and paste this right into a Python 3 interpreter shell:

>>>alphabet='αβγδεζηθικλμνξοπρςστυφχψ'>>>print(alphabet)αβγδεζηθικλμνξοπρςστυφχψ

Besides placing the actual, unescaped Unicode characters in the console, there are other ways to typeUnicode strings as well.

One of the densest sections of Python’s documentation is the portion on lexical analysis, specifically the section onstring and bytes literals. Personally, I had to read this section about one, two, or maybe nine times for it to really sink in.

Part of what it says is that there are up to six ways that Python will allow you to type the same Unicode character.

The first and most common way is to type the character itself literally, as you’ve already seen. The tough part with this method is finding the actual keystrokes. That’s where the other methods for getting and representing characters come into play. Here’s the full list:

Here’s some proof and validation of the above:

>>>(..."a"==..."\x61"==..."\N{LATIN SMALL LETTER A}"==..."\u0061"==..."\U00000061"...)True

Now, there are two main caveats:

1. Not all of these forms work for all characters. The hex representation of the integer 300 is0x012c, which simply isn’t going to fit into the 2-hex-digit escape code"\xhh". The highest code point that you can squeeze into this escape sequence is"\xff" ("ÿ"). Similarly for"\ooo", it will only work up to"\777" ("ǿ").

2. For\xhh,\uxxxx, and\Uxxxxxxxx, exactly as many digits are required as are shown in these examples. This can throw you for a loop because of the way that Unicode tables conventionally display the codes for characters, with a leadingU+ and variable number of hex characters. The key is that Unicode tables most often do not zero-pad these codes.

For instance, if you consultunicode-table.com for information on the Gothic letter faihu (or fehu),"𐍆", you’ll see that it is listed as having the codeU+10346.

How do you put this into"\uxxxx" or"\Uxxxxxxxx"? Well, you can’t fit it in"\uxxxx" because it’s a 4-byte character, and to use"\Uxxxxxxxx" to represent this character, you’ll need to left-pad the sequence:

>>>"\U00010346"'𐍆'

This also means that the"\Uxxxxxxxx" form is the only escape sequence that is capable of holdingany Unicode character.

>>>defmake_uchr(code:str):...returnchr(int(code.lstrip("U+").zfill(8),16))>>>make_uchr("U+10346")'𐍆'>>>make_uchr("U+0026")'&'

Other Encodings Available in Python

So far, you’ve seen four character encodings:

1. ASCII
2. UTF-8
3. UTF-16
4. UTF-32

There are a ton of other ones out there.

One example is Latin-1 (also called ISO-8859-1), which is technically the default for the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), perRFC 2616. Windows has its own Latin-1 variant called cp1252.

Thecomplete list of accepted encodings is buried way down in the documentation for thecodecs module, which is part of Python’s Standard Library.

There’s one more useful recognized encoding to be aware of, which is"unicode-escape". If you have a decodedstr and want to quickly get a representation of its escaped Unicode literal, then you can specify this encoding in.encode():

>>>alef=chr(1575)# Or "\u0627">>>alef_hamza=chr(1571)# Or "\u0623">>>alef,alef_hamza('ا', 'أ')>>>alef.encode("unicode-escape")b'\\u0627'>>>alef_hamza.encode("unicode-escape")b'\\u0623'

You Know What They Say About Assumptions…

Just because Python makes the assumption of UTF-8 encoding for files and code thatyou generate doesn’t mean that you, the programmer, should operate with the same assumption for external data.

Let’s say that again because it’s a rule to live by: when you receive binary data (bytes) from a third party source, whether it be from a file or over a network, the best practice is to check that the data specifies an encoding. If it doesn’t, then it’s on you to ask.

All I/O happens in bytes, not text, and bytes are just ones and zeros to a computer until you tell it otherwise by informing it of an encoding.

Here’s an example of where things can go wrong. You’re subscribed to an API that sends you a recipe of the day, which you receive inbytes and have always decoded using.decode("utf-8") with no problem. On this particular day, part of the recipe looks like this:

>>>data=b"\xbc cup of flour"

It looks as if the recipe calls for some flour, but we don’t know how much:

>>>data.decode("utf-8")Traceback (most recent call last):  File"<stdin>", line1, in<module>UnicodeDecodeError:'utf-8' codec can't decode byte 0xbc in position 0: invalid start byte

Uh oh. There’s that peskyUnicodeDecodeError that can bite you when you make assumptions about encoding. You check with the API host. Lo and behold, the data is actually sent over encoded in Latin-1:

>>>data.decode("latin-1")'¼ cup of flour'

There we go. InLatin-1, every character fits into a single byte, whereas the “¼” character takes up two bytes in UTF-8 ("\xc2\xbc").

The lesson here is that it can be dangerous to assume the encoding of any data that is handed off to you. It’susually UTF-8 these days, but it’s the small percentage of cases where it’s not that will blow things up.

If you really do need to abandon ship and guess an encoding, then have a look at thechardet library, which uses methodology from Mozilla to make an educated guess about ambiguously encoded text. That said, a tool likechardet should be your last resort, not your first.

Odds and Ends:unicodedata

We would be remiss not to mentionunicodedata from the Python Standard Library, which lets you interact with and do lookups on the Unicode Character Database (UCD):

>>>importunicodedata>>>unicodedata.name("€")'EURO SIGN'>>>unicodedata.lookup("EURO SIGN")'€'

Wrapping Up

In this article, you’ve decoded the wide and imposing subject of character encoding in Python.

You’ve covered a lot of ground here:

• Fundamental concepts of character encodings and numbering systems
• Integer, binary, octal, hex, str, and bytes literals in Python
• Python’s built-in functions related to character encoding and numbering systems
• Python 3’s treatment of text versus binary data

Now, go forth and encode!

Resources

For even more detail about the topics covered here, check out these resources:

• Joel Spolsky:The Absolute Minimum Every Software Developer Absolutely, Positively Must Know About Unicode and Character Sets (No Excuses!)
• David Zentgraf:What every programmer absolutely, positively needs to know about encodings and character sets to work with text
• Mozilla:A composite approach to language/encoding detection
• Wikipedia:UTF-8
• John Skeet:Unicode and .NET
• Charles Petzold:Code: The Hidden Language of Computer Hardware and Software
• Network Working Group, RFC 3629:UTF-8, a transformation format of ISO 10646
• Unicode Technical Standard #18:Unicode Regular Expressions

The Python docs have two pages on the subject:

• What’s New in Python 3.0
• Unicode HOWTO