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Skepticism, also known asscientific skepticism, is the art of constantly questioning and doubting claims and assertions, and holding that the accumulation ofevidence is of fundamental importance. Skeptics use the methods and tools ofscience andcritical thinking to determine what is true. These methods are generally packaged with a scientific "attitude" or set of virtues like open-mindedness, intellectual charity, curiosity, and honesty.^[3] To the skeptic, the strength of belief ought to be proportionate to the strength of the evidence which supports it. As such, they tend to be quite critical ofwoo likeconspiracy theories,pseudoscience,alternative medicine, and theparanormal.

Skepticism should not be confused withpseudoskepticism, which is really a form ofdenialism.Steven Novella has made a better definition of skepticism that can differentiate pseudoskepticism andreal skepticism^[4] which appears to be rather widespread.^[5][6][7]

Skeptical Movement[edit]

While there were skeptics likeHarry Houdini andMark Twain challengingsnake oil salesmen and beliefs likespiritualism in the 19th and early 20th century, the modern skeptical movement started in the middle of the 20th century.Martin Gardner's 1952 work,Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science, was one of the earliest comprehensive works of skepticism and is considered a classic. In it, Gardner criticizes weird things likeUFOs,homeopathy, andScientology on the grounds that they lack supporting evidence. Another watershed moment in the skeptical movement's early history was the 1976 founding of theCommittee for Skeptical Inquiry. This non-profit, which was founded byPaul Kurtz,James Randi, Martin Gardner,Carl Sagan,Isaac Asimov,B.F. Skinner, and others, "promotes science and scientific inquiry, critical thinking, science education, and the use of reason in examining important issues."^[9] In the 1990s, several other noteworthy works of skepticism were released. These included James Randi'sFlim-Flam! (1991), Carl Sagan'sThe Demon-Haunted World (1995), andMichael Shermer'sWhy People Believe Weird Things (1997).

Public skeptics likeBill Nye andRichard Dawkins spend considerable time appearing in popularmedia andnews channels combatingpseudoscience anddenialism likecreationism andglobal warming denial. Sometimes, this involves their being opposed for the sake ofbalance by a totalcrank. Some skeptics, such asBrian Dunning and Dawkins, think that this is a bad idea because it creates the image that science and bullshit are equal, opposing views.^[10][11] Others, such as Bill Nye andMichael Shermer, are not opposed to such debates and have had many high-profile ones with pseudoscientists likeMarc Morano andKent Hovind.^[12][13]

Why skepticism[edit]

Skepticism, at its heart, holds that in order to understand theuniverse, it is best to actually look at it and find out. This means challenging those whomerely assert theirbeliefs aboutnature, and demanding that they show how they have derived their ideas. Theories and suggestions that can be, and are, backed by evidence and are deemed logically coherent are kept, while those that fail this test are rejected — but, very importantly,nothing is ever held above this challenge. Regardless of how often an idea or theory passes the test of evidence, skepticism holds that there is always a possibility, however slight, that it might be wrong. As a result, skepticism is the true meaning of having anopen mind, and in many respects is synonymous with thescientific method.

The skeptical method provides numerous protections againstcons andintentional malice by refusing to accept ideas until they have been demonstrated to be true. It is difficult to con someone who is skeptical about the situation because they will push for more evidence until they are convinced it is genuine. The ability for a skeptic to be convinced by evidence is also proportional to the claim being made, as said byCarl Sagan's famous soundbite "extraordinary claims require extraordinary evidence". Someone claiming to have gone shopping earlier in the morning is subject to less intense scrutiny than someone claiming adragon is living in their garage.

Skeptical responsibility[edit]

While it's much easier to reject a theory or conjecture wholesale once a key part of it is found to be false (fruit of the poisoned tree and all), it is also a skeptic's duty to pick through individual and specific claims put in the framework and examine them for truth value. Oftentimes, something will be half right or situationally right or even just pointing to something genuinely amiss. It's important not to throw the baby out with the bathwater, as even with movements one may find objectionable, there are stillindividual truth claims to be found and built upon.

Opposition to skepticism[edit]

The nature of skepticism is that no one's word can ever just be trusted and accepted without questions and without evidence. This can be a problem for people who don't like this because it is fundamentally distrustful, or the people whoknow that they cannot supplyevidence to back up their claims.^{[note 1]} This leads tostereotypes of skeptics being humourless killjoys who hatepeople with "open minds" and want to spoil all of theharmless fun that can be had in believing comforting things for their own sake.

Skepticism makes ideas difficult to spread and is thus the antithesis ofauthoritarianism. Someone attempting to solicit money or control a population can do it far easier if the audience doesn't question their actions, methods, motives, or reasoning. To turn a skeptic to one's ideas requires a lot of effort and evidence.

The increasing popularity of labeling oneself a "skeptic" has led to a surge inpeople who have a clear misunderstanding of the difference between healthy skepticism and denialism.

Such denialists mislabel themselves as skeptics, but skepticism by definition requires questioning and taking part in a constructive debate over the topic at hand. Refusing to accept any evidence put forward is not skepticism, but is a form of bias based on fear: a defense mechanism for dealing or coping with anxiety, if you will.^{[note 2]}

Examples include:

• Moon Landing Denialists
• Flat Earthers
• Christians,Muslims, and otherreligious individuals

Other types of skepticism[edit]

Historically, there have also been other various flavors of skepticism besides scientific skepticism. These have been endorsed by great (and not-so-great) thinkers throughout history, some with varying degrees of compatibility with the scientific method.

Philosophical skepticism[edit]

Philosophical skepticism, which is often associated with radical skepticism, denies the possibility of having justified beliefs. The school of thought traces back to antiquity, most notably inPyrrhonism. Pyrrho of Elis, the school's founder, was an ancient skeptic that believed any viewpoint could be opposed by arguments which are just as compelling. Given this, he thought that assent to all beliefs should be withheld. Pyrrho, however, did not consider the lack of justified beliefs as a bad thing. He thought that accepting that nothing is justified would lead to a state of mental tranquility known as "ataraxia". The Roman skeptic, Sextus Empiricus, later built on Pyrrho's ideas and created a rigorous skeptical methodology.^[16] In modern times, something like this was famously espoused in the "epistemological anarchism" ofPaul Feyerabend. Manypostmodernists have also argued in favor of radical forms of relativism in regards to knowledge.

Moral skepticism[edit]

Moral skepticism is a group ofmeta-ethical theories which hold that there are no objective moral truths or that no one has any moral knowledge. While this is a minority position among philosophers who study ethics, many prominent atheist philosophers have subscribed to some version of moral skepticism. This includes bothDavid Hume andFriedrich Nietzsche. A famous argument against the existence of moral truths, theargument from queerness, was given by atheist philosopher, J.L. Mackie. This argument states that

This argument hinges onDavid Hume's "is-ought" distinction.^[18] Since moral facts are "oughts" rather than "is", they would have to be totally different from the types of entities that exist in the world around us. This radical difference, Mackie thought, should make us question their existence.

Notable skeptics[edit]

In 1999,Skeptical Inquirer magazine named their top ten and other notable skeptics of the 20th Century.^[19]

1. James Randi — Former stage illusionist^{[note 3]} turned skeptical speaker. Founded the James Randi Educational Foundation (JREF) and as part of his "act" often consumed an overdose ofhomeopathic sleeping pills to show they don't work.
2. Martin Gardner — Mathematician that popularised mathematical tricks and games he called "recreational mathematics". Also wrote a great deal on theparanormal.
3. Carl Sagan —Popular science presenter for the seriesCosmos. Coined the phrase "Extraordinary claims require extraordinary evidence."
4. Paul Kurtz — Called "the father ofsecular humanism" by some in the skeptical community. Founded the Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal (CSICOP) among other things.
5. Ray Hyman — Member of CSICOP and has done a great deal of investigation into parapsychology and rationalist explanations for the claimed phenomena.
6. Philip J. Klass — Major skeptic ofUFO claims and general ufology. Like James Randi's famous prize, he offered $10,000 for anyone who could prove their claims about them. As of his death in 2005, it remained unclaimed.
7. Isaac Asimov — Science fiction author. Also known in the skeptical world for the concept of "wronger than wrong" and his essayThe Relativity of Wrong about how knowledge and thinking work.
8. Bertrand Russell — Mathematician, pacifist, and philosopher of science (logical positivism). Developed theteapot argument about theburden of proof.
9. Harry Houdini — Illusionist and escape artist. He dedicated his later life to debunking what he called "humbug". Later inspired stage magiciansPenn and Teller to do the same.
10. Albert Einstein — Scientist, socialist, and all-around quote machine. Einstein is credited with redefining modern physics.

Others[edit]

• Joe Nickell
• Steven Novella
• Richard Dawkins — Scientist and one of the Four Horsemen ofNew Atheism. Author ofThe God Delusion andThe Selfish Gene. Coined the term "meme" to form an analogy between the propagation of ideas and the propagation of phenotypes vianatural selection.
• Stephen Barrett
• Michael Shermer
• Adam Savage
• Yvette d’Entremont
• Ben Goldacre
• Tim Minchin — Musician, actor, and comedian. Specializes in taking the piss out of cranks and fundies.
• Derren Brown
• Harriet Hall
• Matt Dillahunty
• Brian Dunning
• Bill Nye — Pop science entertainer. His showBill Nye The Science Guy explains scientific concepts in ways that schoolchildren can understand.
• Massimo Pigliucci

See also[edit]

• Skeptics in the Pub
• The Skeptics' Guide to the Universe
• Pyrrhonism
• Essay:An opinion on the nature of the movement

External links[edit]

• Skepticism entry at the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
• A Skeptical Manifesto
• John Mashey on how to learn about science
• Rationally Speaking on The Varieties of Skepticism

Notes[edit]

References[edit]

• Skepticism
• Philosophy
• Science
• Philosophy of science

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