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.2024 Jun;109(6):926-938.
doi: 10.1113/EP091310. Epub 2024 Mar 19.

Distinct adaptations of muscle endurance but not strength or hypertrophy to low-load resistance training with and without blood flow restriction

Affiliations

Distinct adaptations of muscle endurance but not strength or hypertrophy to low-load resistance training with and without blood flow restriction

Akito Ida et al. Exp Physiol.2024 Jun.

Abstract

Low-load resistance training promotes muscle strength and hypertrophic adaptations when combined with blood flow restriction (BFR). However, the effect of BFR on muscle endurance remains unclear. The aim of this study was to clarify the effects of BFR on muscle performance and adaptation, with special reference to local muscle endurance. In experiment 1, eight healthy men performed unilateral elbow flexion exercise to failure at 30% of one-repetition maximum with BFR (at 40% of estimated arterial occlusion pressure) and free blood flow (FBF). During the exercise, muscle activity and tissue oxygenation were measured from the biceps brachii. In experiment 2, another eight healthy men completed 6 weeks of elbow flexion training with BFR and FBF. The number of repetitions to failure at submaximal load (Rmax), the estimated time for peak torque output to decay by 50% during repetitive maximum voluntary contractions (half-time), one-repetition maximum, isometric strength and muscle thickness of elbow flexors were measured pre- and post-training. Blood flow restriction resulted in fewer repetitions and lower muscle tissue oxygenation at the end of exercise than FBF, while the muscle activity increased similarly to repetition failure. Blood flow restriction also resulted in a smaller post-training Rmax, which was strongly correlated with the total exercise volume over the 6 week period. Despite the smaller exercise volume, BFR resulted in similar improvements in half-time, muscle strength and thickness compared with FBF. These results suggest that the application of BFR can attenuate muscle endurance adaptations to low-load resistance training by decreasing the number of repetitions during exercise, both acutely and chronically.

Keywords: chronic adaptations; electromyography; local muscle endurance; near‐infrared spectroscopy; strength training.

© 2024 The Authors. Experimental Physiology published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of The Physiological Society.

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Conflict of interest statement

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Figures

FIGURE 1
FIGURE 1
Representative data of peak torque output and the biceps brachii muscle activity (both averaged for every three contractions) plotted against time during a series of maximal voluntary isometric elbow flexions without blood flow restriction. Both the peak torque output and the muscle activity were normalized to their respective maximal values recorded during the isometric strength test. An exponential function was used to estimate the half‐time (i.e., the time for peak torque output to decay by 50%).
FIGURE 2
FIGURE 2
Number of repetitions to failure during unilateral elbow flexion exercise at 30% of one‐repetition maximum with blood flow restriction (BFR) or free blood flow (FBF). Values represent means and SD with individual data (n = 8 for each).*P < 0.05 by Student's pairedt‐test.
FIGURE 3
FIGURE 3
Changes in EMG data of the biceps brachii muscle during unilateral elbow flexion exercise at 30% of one‐repetition maximum (1RM) with blood flow restriction (BFR) or free blood flow (FBF). Root‐mean‐square amplitude in each repetition was normalized to that measured during the 1RM trial and used as an indicator of muscle activity. Mean power frequency was calculated by applying fast Fourier transformation to a series of 0.256 s segments (frequency resolution, 3.91 Hz) overlapping each other by 50%. (a) Representative data of the biceps brachii activity from one participant plotted against the number of repetitions. (b) Representative data of the biceps brachii activity from one participant plotted against the normalized time to failure. (c) Differences in the average biceps brachii activity over five repetitions from the beginning of the exercise (First5), right in the middle of the exercise duration (Mid5) and immediately before the task failure (Last5). (d) Differences in the average biceps brachii mean power frequency over First5, Mid5 and Last5. In (c) and (d), values represent means and SD with individual data (n = 8 for each).
FIGURE 4
FIGURE 4
Changes in the concentration of oxygenated, deoxygenated and total haemoglobin (Hb) of the biceps brachii muscle tissue during unilateral elbow flexion exercise at 30% of one‐repetition maximum with blood flow restriction (BFR) or free blood flow (FBF). (a) Representative data from one participant plotted against the number of repetitions. (b) Representative data from one participant plotted against the normalized time to failure. (c) Differences in the average tissue oxygen saturation (StO2) over five repetitions from the beginning of the exercise (First5), right in the middle of the exercise duration (Mid5) and immediately before the task failure (Last5). (d) Differences in the average oxygenated Hb concentration over First5, Mid5 and Last5. (e) Differences in the average deoxygenated Hb concentration over First5, Mid5 and Last5. (f) Differences in the average total Hb concentration over First5, Mid5 and Last5. In (c–f), values represent means and SD with individual data (n = 8 for each).*AdjustedP < 0.05 and**adjustedP < 0.01 by Student's pairedt‐test with the false discovery rate method.
FIGURE 5
FIGURE 5
Changes in the number of repetitions to failure in each exercise session (a) and total exercise volume over 6 weeks (b) of unilateral elbow flexion exercise training at 30% of one‐repetition maximum with blood flow restriction (BFR) or free blood flow (FBF). In (a), the number of repetitions is plotted in logarithmic scale for clarity. Values represent means and SD (n = 8 for each). In (b), values represent means and SD with individual data (n = 8 for each).*P < 0.05 by Student's pairedt‐test.
FIGURE 6
FIGURE 6
Changes in the number of repetitions (Rmax) achieved in a bout of elbow flexion exercise at 30% of one‐repetition maximum before (Pre) and after (Post) a 6 week training period (a) and the association of the percentage changes inRmax with the total exercise volume (b). The exercise training was performed with blood flow restriction (BFR) or free blood flow (FBF), whereas the pre‐ and post‐intervention measurements ofRmax were performed consistently without restricting blood flow. The data from the BFR and FBF conditions were combined before linear regression analysis. The total exercise volume and percentage changes inRmax were logarithmically transformed to account for non‐normal distribution. In (a), values represent means and SD with individual data (n = 8 for each).*AdjustedP < 0.05 and**adjustedP < 0.01 by Student's pairedt‐test with the false discovery rate method. In (b), raw percentage changes inRmax and total exercise volume data are plotted in logarithmic scale for clarity, whereas the linear regression equation is derived from the log‐transformed data.
FIGURE 7
FIGURE 7
Changes in the time for peak torque output to decay by 50% (half‐time) estimated from a series of maximum voluntary isometric contractions (MVCs) of elbow flexors before (Pre) and after (Post) a 6 week training period (a) and the association of the percentage changes in half‐time with the total exercise volume (b). The exercise training was performed with blood flow restriction (BFR) or free blood flow (FBF), whereas the pre‐ and post‐intervention measurements of half‐time were performed consistently without restricting blood flow. The data from the BFR and FBF conditions were combined before linear regression analysis. The total exercise volume was logarithmically transformed to account for non‐normal distribution. In (a), values represent means and SD with individual data (n = 8 for each). In (b), raw total exercise volume data are plotted in logarithmic scale for clarity.
FIGURE 8
FIGURE 8
Changes in one‐repetition maximum (1RM; a), isometric strength (b), muscle thickness (c) and echo intensity (d) of elbow flexors before (Pre) and after (Post) 6 weeks of unilateral elbow flexion exercise training with blood flow restriction (BFR) or free blood flow (FBF). Values represent means and SD with individual data (n = 8 for each).
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