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Review
.2023 Sep 24;9(10):e19788.
doi: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e19788. eCollection 2023 Oct.

A review on the fate and effects of contaminants in biosolids applied on land: Hazards and government regulatory policies

Affiliations
Review

A review on the fate and effects of contaminants in biosolids applied on land: Hazards and government regulatory policies

Lekan Taofeek Popoola et al. Heliyon..

Abstract

The increase in world population growth and its resultant increase in industrial production to meet its need, have continued to raise the volume of wastewater received by treatment plant facilities. This has expectedly, led to an upsurge in the volume of sewage sludge and biosolids generated from wastewater treatment systems. Biosolids are best managed by application on land because of their agronomic benefits. However, this usage has been discovered to negatively affect humans and impact the environment due to the accumulation of minute concentrations of contaminants still present in the biosolid after treatment, hence the need for government regulations. This review article examined the fate and effects of pollutants, especially persistent organic pollutants (PoPs) of concern and emerging contaminants found in biosolids used for land applications, and also discussed government regulations on biosolid reuse from the perspectives of the two major regulations governing biosolid land application-the EU's Sludge Directive and USEPA's Part 503 Rule, in an attempt to draw attention to their outdated contents since enactment, as they do not currently meet the challenges of biosolid land application and thus, require a comprehensive update. Any update efforts should focus on USEPA's Part 503 Rule, which is less stringent on the allowable concentration of biosolid pollutants. Furthermore, an update should include specific regulations on new and emerging contaminants and persistent organic pollutants (PoPs) such as microplastics, pharmaceutical and personal care products (P&PCPs), surfactants, endocrine-disrupting chemicals, flame retardants, pathogens, and organic pollutants; further reduction of heavy metal standard limits, and consideration of soil phosphate-metal interactions to regulate biosolid agronomic loading rate. Future biosolid research should focus on the concentration of TCS, TCC, and emerging pharmaceuticals, as well as Microplastic transport in biosolid-amended soils, soil-plant transfer mechanism, and metabolism of PFAs in the soils; all of which will inform government policies on biosolid application on land.

Keywords: Agronomic loading rate; Biosolid; Effect of contaminants; Government regulation; Land application.

© 2023 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.

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Conflict of interest statement

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Figures

Fig. 1
Fig. 1
Projected increase in global wastewater generation since 2015 [11].
Fig. 2
Fig. 2
Comparison of yearly sewage sludge generation per person in Europe [24].
Fig. 3
Fig. 3
Block flow diagram showing biosolid production from wastewater treatment [49].
Fig. 4
Fig. 4
Biosolid management and disposal practice in the U.S [5].
Fig. 5
Fig. 5
The UK biosolid disposal pathways [50].
Fig. 6
Fig. 6
Flow chart of research concept.
Fig. 7
Fig. 7
Microbeads used as abrasive in toothpaste [130].
Fig. 8
Fig. 8
Chemical structure of (a) acetaminophen (b) sulfadiazine (c) sulfapyridine (d) diclofenac (e) ibuprofen (f) atenolol (g) metoprolol (h) bezafibrate (i) clofibric acid (j) ethynylestradiol (k) gestodene (l) testosterone (m) fluoxetine (n) carbamazepine (o) caffeine and (p) cortisone which are commonly found pharmaceuticals in Biosolid [84].
Fig. 9
Fig. 9
Structure of (a) Triclocarban (b) Triclosan, and (c) Triclocarban [143].
Fig. 10
Fig. 10
Heavy metal improvement in biosolid in the UK over a period of two decades [50].
Fig. 11
Fig. 11
World population data from 1950 and projections up to the year 2100 [157].
Fig. 12
Fig. 12
a: Comparison of the limits of (i) Cadmium and (ii) Copper in biosolid for land application set by EU member states and that set by the EU council's Sludge Directive. Red dotted lines represent the EU Sludge Directive's lower and upper limits. b: Comparison of the limits (in mg/kg dw) of (i) Nickel and (ii) Lead in biosolid for land application set by EU member states and that set by the EU council's Sludge Directive. Red dotted lines represent the EU Sludge Directive's lower and upper limits. c: Comparison of the limits (in mg/kg dw) of (i) Mercury and (ii) Chromium in biosolid for land application set by EU member states and that set by the EU council's Sludge Directive. Red dotted lines represent the EU Sludge Directive's lower and upper limits. d: Comparison of the limits (in mg/kg dw) of (i) Zinc and (ii) Arsenic in biosolid for land application set by EU member states and that set by the EU council's Sludge Directive. Red dotted lines represent the EU Sludge Directive's lower and upper limits [35].
Fig. 12
Fig. 12
a: Comparison of the limits of (i) Cadmium and (ii) Copper in biosolid for land application set by EU member states and that set by the EU council's Sludge Directive. Red dotted lines represent the EU Sludge Directive's lower and upper limits. b: Comparison of the limits (in mg/kg dw) of (i) Nickel and (ii) Lead in biosolid for land application set by EU member states and that set by the EU council's Sludge Directive. Red dotted lines represent the EU Sludge Directive's lower and upper limits. c: Comparison of the limits (in mg/kg dw) of (i) Mercury and (ii) Chromium in biosolid for land application set by EU member states and that set by the EU council's Sludge Directive. Red dotted lines represent the EU Sludge Directive's lower and upper limits. d: Comparison of the limits (in mg/kg dw) of (i) Zinc and (ii) Arsenic in biosolid for land application set by EU member states and that set by the EU council's Sludge Directive. Red dotted lines represent the EU Sludge Directive's lower and upper limits [35].
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