Movatterモバイル変換

[0]ホーム
URL:

Skip to main page content
U.S. flag

An official website of the United States government

Dot gov

The .gov means it’s official.
Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

Https

The site is secure.
Thehttps:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

NIH NLM Logo
Log inShow account info
Access keysNCBI HomepageMyNCBI HomepageMain ContentMain Navigation
pubmed logo
Advanced Clipboard
User Guide

Full text links

Free PMC article
Full text links

Actions

Share

Review
doi: 10.12703/r/11-2. eCollection 2022.

Emergence of epidemic diseases: zoonoses and other origins

Affiliations
Review

Emergence of epidemic diseases: zoonoses and other origins

Robin A Weiss et al. Fac Rev..

Abstract

Infectious diseases emerge via many routes and may need to overcome stepwise bottlenecks to burgeon into epidemics and pandemics. About 60% of human infections have animal origins, whereas 40% either co-evolved with humans or emerged from non-zoonotic environmental sources. Although the dynamic interaction between wildlife, domestic animals, and humans is important for the surveillance of zoonotic potential, exotic origins tend to be overemphasized since many zoonoses come from anthropophilic wild species (for example, rats and bats). We examine the equivocal evidence of whether the appearance of novel infections is accelerating and relate technological developments to the risk of novel disease outbreaks. Then we briefly compare selected epidemics, ancient and modern, from the Plague of Athens to COVID-19.

Keywords: Infectious diseases; emergence; history of disease; origin; zoonosis.

Copyright: © 2022 Weiss RA et al.

PubMed Disclaimer

Conflict of interest statement

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.No competing interests were disclosed.No competing interests were disclosed.

Figures

Figure 1.
Figure 1.. A “Richter” scale of estimated global mortality in 2020.
Endemic diseases, including tuberculosis, cancer-causing viruses, bacteria, and malaria, account for a high proportion of mortality due to infections. But COVID-19 and fungal infections (including the recentCandida auris pandemic) top the list for the year 2020. Data are based on estimates from the World Health Organization and Our World in Data. EBV, Epstein–Barr virus; HBV, hepatitis B virus; HCV, hepatitis C virus; HPV, human papillomavirus; MERS, Middle East respiratory syndrome; MRSA, Methicillin-resistantStaphylococcus aureus.
Figure 2.
Figure 2.. Cross-species transmission of influenza A viruses (IAVs).
The typical reservoirs of IAVs are wild waterfowl where the virus replicates as an intestinal infection transmitted as a water-borne infection via the cloaca. Upon transfer to mammals and chickens, the virus adapts to subtly different sialic acid receptors on the cell surface which promote respiratory infection and aerosol transmission. IAVs may undergo genetic reassortment with endemic strains already present in an intermediate host to produce new variants more likely to transfer to humans. In turn, humans can be a reservoir for reintroduction to animals, as seen in the influenza pandemic in 2009 when pig farmers were a source of outbreaks in their livestock. (Copyright-free images from Pixabay.)
Figure 3.
Figure 3.. Proportions of novel infectious diseases in humans from 1940 to 2000.
Classified by (a) type of microbe and (b) origin. (c) Cumulative number of novel zoonoses by RNA viruses between 1900 and 2016. Figure (a) and (b) was reprinted with permission from Springer Nature, Global trends in emerging infectious diseases, Joneset al. 2008. Figure (c) was reproduced with permission from Mark Woolhouse. EID, emerging infectious disease.
Figure 4.
Figure 4.. The “bushmeat trade” on three continents.
(A)Eidolon helvum fruit bats for sale at a market in Accra, Ghana. (B) CookedPteropus sp. fruit bats on a market stall in Sulawesi, Indonesia. (C) Game for sale at Borough Market, London, UK. The potential zoonoses from the fruit bats include filoviruses, lyssaviruses, and paramyxoviruses as discussed in the text; the potential zoonoses from unscreened game species in Borough Market include influenza A virus (mallard duck),Psittacosis (pigeon),Salmonella (partridge),Leptospirosis (rabbit and hare), and hepatitis E virus (wild boar). Photographs courtesy of David T.S. Hayman (A,B) and Robin A. Weiss (C).
Figure 5.
Figure 5.. The polio epidemic.
Cases of symptomatic (mainly paralytic) poliomyelitis in the US from 1920 to 1962. The steep fall from 1955 shows the protective power of the Salk vaccine introduced that year. Figure reprinted from Journal of Theoretical Biology, 237, Bunimovich-Mendrazitsky S and Stone L, Modeling polio as a disease of development, 302–315, 2005 with permission from Elsevier.
Figure 6.
Figure 6.. The complex evolution and origins of HIV-1.
Many species of African primate harbor simian immunodeficiency viruses (SIVs) which are not present in Asian or New World primates. The proximate reservoirs of HIV-1 were the SIVs of chimpanzees (SIVcpz), giving rise to HIV-1 groups M and N, and gorillas (SIVgor), giving rise to HIV-1 groups O and P. These in turn probably came from an unidentified monkey species in which genetic recombination occurred between SIV strains of the red-capped mangabey and the white-nosed guenon. Two subspecies of chimpanzee are reservoirs of SIVcpz, the Central AfricanPan troglodytes troglodytes and the East AfricanP. t. schweinfurthii, but no human transmissions are known from the latter, whose SIV is inhibited by human cellular restriction factors. The infection of lowland gorillas is more likely to have come fromP. t. troglodytes than directly from the intermediate host because it is more closely related to that ofP. t. troglodytes than that ofP. t. schweinfurthii. Only HIV-1 group M generated a pandemic, although HIV-1 group O infected up to 10,000 people before regressing. (Copyright-free images from Pixabay)
See this image and copyright information in PMC

Similar articles

See all similar articles

Cited by

See all "Cited by" articles

References

    1. Honigsbaum M: The pandemic century. A history of global contagion from the Spanish flu to Covid-19. London, Penguin Books. 2020.
    1. Jones KE, Patel NG, Levy MA, et al. : Global trends in emerging infectious diseases. Nature. 2008; 451(7181): 990–3. 10.1038/nature06536 - DOI - PMC - PubMed

    2. Faculty Opinions Recommendation

    1. Quammen D: Spillover: Animal infections and the next human pandemic. London, Vintage Books. 2013. 10.3201/eid1902.121694 - DOI
    1. Colwell RR: Global climate and infectious disease: The cholera paradigm. Science. 1996; 274(5295): 2025–31. 10.1126/science.274.5295.2025 - DOI - PubMed
    1. Weiss RA, McMichael AJ: Social and environmental risk factors in the emergence of infectious diseases. Nat Med. 2004; 10(12 Suppl): S70–6. 10.1038/nm1150 - DOI - PMC - PubMed

Publication types

Related information

Grants and funding

The authors declare that no grants were involved in supporting this work.

LinkOut - more resources

Full text links
Free PMC article
Cite
Send To

NCBI Literature Resources

MeSHPMCBookshelfDisclaimer

The PubMed wordmark and PubMed logo are registered trademarks of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS). Unauthorized use of these marks is strictly prohibited.

[8]ページ先頭
©2009-2025 Movatter.jp