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.2021 Jun 11:9:684278.
doi: 10.3389/fcell.2021.684278. eCollection 2021.

Scaling Laws for Mitotic Chromosomes

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Scaling Laws for Mitotic Chromosomes

Eric M Kramer et al. Front Cell Dev Biol..

Abstract

During mitosis in higher eukaryotes, each chromosome condenses into a pair of rod-shaped chromatids. This process is co-regulated by the activity of several gene families, and the underlying biophysics remains poorly understood. To better understand the factors regulating chromosome condensation, we compiled a database of mitotic chromosome size and DNA content from the tables and figures of >200 published papers. A comparison across vertebrate species shows that chromosome width, length and volume scale with DNA content to the powers ∼1/4, ∼1/2, and ∼1, respectively. Angiosperms (flowering plants) show a similar length scaling, so this result is not specific to vertebrates. Chromosome shape and size thus satisfy two conditions: (1) DNA content per unit volume is approximately constant and (2) the cross-sectional area increases proportionately with chromosome length. Since viscous drag forces during chromosome movement are expected to scale with length, we hypothesize that the cross-section increase is necessary to limit the occurrence of large chromosome elongations that could slow or stall mitosis. Lastly, we note that individual vertebrate karyotypes typically exhibit a wider range of chromosome lengths as compared with angiosperms.

Keywords: angiosperm; chromosome; mitosis; scaling analysis; spindle; vertebrate.

Copyright © 2021 Kramer, Tayjasanant and Cordone.

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Conflict of interest statement

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Figures

FIGURE 1
FIGURE 1
Chromosome length scaling in vertebrates.(A) Average chromosome length vs average chromosomal DNA content. The regression line (violet) corresponds to a power law, Lavg = aLavg (cavg)α, with the constant aLavg = 5.93 and the exponent α = 0.492 (95% confidence intervals 5.81–6.16 and 0.480–0.510, respectively,N = 281).(B) Length of longest chromosome vs. estimated DNA content. The regression line (violet) corresponds to a power law, Lmax = aLmax (cmax)α, with the constant aLmax = 9.07 and the exponent α = 0.465 (95% confidence intervals 8.80–9.22 and 0.458–0.484 respectively,N = 256). All regressions calculated using Siegel’s repeated medians (Siegel, 1982), a nonparametric technique that is insensitive to outliers.
FIGURE 2
FIGURE 2
Additional vertebrate scaling results.(A) Chromosome width vs. estimated DNA content for longest chromosome. The regression line (violet) is a power law, w = aw (cmax)β, with the constant aw = 1.68 and the exponent β = 0.234 (95% confidence intervals 1.64–1.74 and 0.211–0.243, respectively,N = 158).(B) Estimated volume of longest chromosome vs. estimated DNA content. The regression line (violet) is a power law, V = aV (cmax)γ, with the constant aV = 9.55 and the exponent γ = 0.942 (95% confidence intervals 9.09–10.33 and 0.877–0.960, respectively,N = 158).
FIGURE 3
FIGURE 3
Chromosome length scaling in angiosperms (flowering plants).(A) Average chromosome length vs average chromosomal DNA content. The regression line (orange) corresponds to a power law, Lavg = aLavg (cavg)α, with the constant aLavg = 4.64 and the exponent α = 0.506 (95% confidence intervals 4.61–4.72 and 0.498–0.509, respectively,N = 504).(B) Length of longest chromosome vs estimated DNA content. The regression line (orange) corresponds to a power law, Lmax = aLmax (cmax)α, with the constant aLmax = 5.37 and the exponent α = 0.485 (95% confidence intervals 5.33–5.46 and 0.479–0.491, respectively,N = 380).(C,D) Overlay of the length scaling plots for vertebrates (blue) and angiosperms (green).
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