The group of synthetic chemicals known as poly and per-fluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are currently of high concern to environmental regulators and the public due to their widespread occurrence, resistance to degradation and reported toxicity. However, little data exists on the effects of exposure to PFAS at environmentally relevant concentrations and this hampers the effective management of these compounds. This paper reviews current research on the occurrence and ecotoxicology of PFAS at environmentally relevant doses to assess their potential biological impacts. Hazard Quotient (HQ) analysis was undertaken as part of this assessment. Most PFAS detected in the environment were found to have a HQ risk value of <1 meaning their reported concentrations are below their predicted no effect concentration. This indicates many reported toxic effects of PFAS are, theoretically, unlikely to occur outside the laboratory. However, lack of information on new PFAS as well as their precursors and degradation products, coupled with lack of knowledge of their mixture toxicity means our understanding of the risks of PFAS is incomplete, especially in regard to sub-lethal and/or chronic effects. It is proposed that the development of molecular markers for PFAS exposure are needed to aid in the development of environmental PFAS regulations that are effective in fully protecting the environment.

Declaration of competing interest The authors declare no competing interests.