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.2012 Apr 7;279(1732):1351-8.
doi: 10.1098/rspb.2011.1731. Epub 2011 Nov 2.

Neurotoxin localization to ectodermal gland cells uncovers an alternative mechanism of venom delivery in sea anemones

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Neurotoxin localization to ectodermal gland cells uncovers an alternative mechanism of venom delivery in sea anemones

Yehu Moran et al. Proc Biol Sci..

Abstract

Jellyfish, hydras, corals and sea anemones (phylum Cnidaria) are known for their venomous stinging cells, nematocytes, used for prey and defence. Here we show, however, that the potent Type I neurotoxin of the sea anemone Nematostella vectensis, Nv1, is confined to ectodermal gland cells rather than nematocytes. We demonstrate massive Nv1 secretion upon encounter with a crustacean prey. Concomitant discharge of nematocysts probably pierces the prey, expediting toxin penetration. Toxin efficiency in sea water is further demonstrated by the rapid paralysis of fish or crustacean larvae upon application of recombinant Nv1 into their medium. Analysis of other anemone species reveals that in Anthopleura elegantissima, Type I neurotoxins also appear in gland cells, whereas in the common species Anemonia viridis, Type I toxins are localized to both nematocytes and ectodermal gland cells. The nematocyte-based and gland cell-based envenomation mechanisms may reflect substantial differences in the ecology and feeding habits of sea anemone species. Overall, the immunolocalization of neurotoxins to gland cells changes the common view in the literature that sea anemone neurotoxins are produced and delivered only by stinging nematocytes, and raises the possibility that this toxin-secretion mechanism is an ancestral evolutionary state of the venom delivery machinery in sea anemones.

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Figures

Figure 1.
Figure 1.
Nv1 expression in various life stages ofN. vectensis. Nv1 antibody and an Alexa Fluor-conjugated secondary antibody were used to localize Nv1 in whole-mounts of threeN. vectensis developmental stages: 5 day-old planula, 9 day-old primary polyp and an adult. Scale bars: 100, 50 and 200 µm.
Figure 2.
Figure 2.
Nv1 is accumulated in gland cells ofN. vectensis and is released to the water during preying. Nv1 antibody and an Alexa Fluor-conjugated secondary antibody were used to localize Nv1 (appear in red). Nuclei were stained with 4′,6-diamidino-2-phenylindole dihydrochloride (DAPI) (blue). (a) Nv1 is localized to thick gland cells inside the tentacle and to clumped structures at the tentacle surface (indicated by arrowheads). (b) Double immunostaining of Nv1 (red) and chondroitin (green; a proteoglycan involved in nematocyst tubule formation) shows that these molecules are also localized to different cells. Cells with Nv1-positive vesicles are designated by arrowheads. (c) Double immunostaining of Nv1 (red) and Nv-Ncol 3 (green; a minicollagen component of the nematocyst capsule) clearly shows that these peptides are localized to different cells. (d) An Nv1-containing gland cell inN. vectensis tentacle macerate. The vesicular structures suggest toxin accumulation in vesicles. (e,f) Nomarski and fluorescent images localize Nv1 to the surface of interaction betweenN. vectensis tentacles (shown as Nv) andArtemia salina (shown as As) during feeding. Scale bars: (a) 100 µm; (b) 25 µm; (c) 10 µm; (d) 20 µm and (e,f) 50 µm.
Figure 3.
Figure 3.
Anemonia viridis Type I neurotoxins are localized to both gland cells and nematocytes. Nv1 antibody and an Alexa Fluor 568-conjugated secondary antibody were used to localize Nv1 homologues inA. viridis (appear in red). Nuclei were stained with DAPI (blue). (a) In whole-mount tentacles, anti-Nv1 staining is observed in thick gland cells. (b) After treatment with acetic acid, numerous thread-like structures are stained in whole-mount tentacles. (c) Maceration ofA. viridis tentacles reveals the structure of the gland cells (indicated by an arrowhead) and suggests that the neurotoxin is packed in vesicles (a non-merged image is provided as an inset). (d) Maceration reveals that the thread-like stained structures are tubules ofA. viridis nematocysts (shown as Tu). Unlike the tubule, the capsule and the barbed shaft (indicated as Ca and Sh, respectively) are not stained. (e) The Nv1 immunostaining in charged nematocytes indicates that the tubule is coiled, and that the neurotoxin is probably packed on or inside the tubule prior to discharge (a non-merged image is provided as inset). (f) Cryosectioning of the tentacle enables anti-Nv1 immunostaining of a charged nematocyte (indicated by an arrowhead) without maceration. Scale bars: (a,b,d,f) 20 µm; (c) 50 µm and (e) 10 µm.
Figure 4.
Figure 4.
Anthopleura elegantissima Type I neurotoxins are localized to gland cells. (a) Phylogeny ofA. elegantissima,A. viridis andN. vectensis based on previous analysis [32]. (b) Nv1 antibody staining ofA. elegantissima tentacles localizes the toxin to granule-rich gland cells and suggests that the neurotoxin is packed in vesicles (a non-merged image is provided as an inset). Scale bar, 10 µm. (c) Mass spectrometry analysis of extracts fromA. elegantissima tentacle soft tissue reveals mass to charge ratios (m/z) identical (approx. 8 ppm) to those of the APE 2-1 Type I neurotoxin (expectedm/z of 1219.56 Da whenz = 4).
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