doi: 10.1073/pnas.1934526100. Epub 2003 Sep 18.
The origin of war: new 14C dates from ancient Mexico
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- PMID:14500785
- PMCID: PMC208841
- DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1934526100
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The origin of war: new 14C dates from ancient Mexico
Kent V Flannery et al. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A..
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Abstract
New 14C dates from archaeological sites in Oaxaca, Mexico, support R. C. Kelly's observation that intervillage raiding may begin as soon as a region has segmentary societies. The oldest defensive palisade dates to 3260-3160 B.P. in conventional radiocarbon years, only a few centuries after village life was established. Over the next millennium raiding evolved into war, with residences and temples burned, captives killed, and populations moving to defensible hills. 14C dates are now available for the first use of hieroglyphic writing to record a captive's name, military victories leading to the consolidation of the Zapotec state, the first skull rack, and the building of a fortress in conquered territory.
Figures
The Oaxaca region, Mexico, showing places mentioned.
Six burned postholes in an early palisade at San José Mogote (3260–3160 B.P.). Scale (right side of arrow) is marked in centimeters.
Landmarks in the development of Zapotec warfare. (a) Structure 28 of San José Mogote, a temple burned at 2550 B.P. (b) Monument 3 of San José Mogote, a carved stone showing a sacrificed captive with his hieroglyphic name between his feet (see Fig. 4). (c) Carved stone from early Monte Albán, showing a slain (and sexually mutilated) captive with his hieroglyphic name on his chest. (d) Monte Albán, showing walls defending its most vulnerable NW slopes. (e) Tilcajete, showing walls defending its most vulnerable southern slopes. (f) Effigy vessel showing a warrior in a raptorial bird helmet. (g) Hieroglyph for “place of the chile peppers”; the inverted head indicates it was “conquered” by Monte Albán. (h) Skull rack erected at 1960 B.P. Redrawn from refs. , , and .
Monument 3 of San José Mogote lay stratigraphically below 1.72 m of later strata, only the lowest of which are shown here. Two hearths in the old soil horizon above the monument, F. 18 and F. 19, date to 2510 B.P. and 2580 B.P., respectively (Table 1). The charcoal layer below Monument 3 dates to 2670 ± 40 B.P. (β179879). The14C date of the San José phase surface is 2960 ± 40 B.P. (β176907).
Comment in
- War and early state formation in Oaxaca, Mexico.Spencer CS.Spencer CS.Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2003 Sep 30;100(20):11185-7. doi: 10.1073/pnas.2034992100. Epub 2003 Sep 23.Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2003.PMID:14506292Free PMC article.No abstract available.
References
- Wendorf, F. (1968) Prehistory of Nubia (Southern Methodist Univ. Press, Dallas), Vol. 2, pp. 954–995.
- Carneiro, R. L. (1991) Anthropol. Pap. Mus. Anthropol. Univ. Mich. 85, 167–190.
- Keeley, L. H. (1996) War Before Civilization (Oxford Univ. Press, New York).
- Redmond, E. M. (1994) Tribal and Chiefly Warfare in South America (Museum of Anthropology, Univ. of Michigan, Ann Arbor).
- Kelly, R. C. (2000) Warless Societies and the Origin of War (Univ. of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor).
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