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Results for 'Linda Schatkowski Schilcher'

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  1.  30
    Islamic Reform: Politics and Social Change in Late Ottoman Syria.LindaSchatkowskiSchilcher &David Dean Commins -1993 -Journal of the American Oriental Society 113 (1):119.
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  2.  23
    (1 other version)Feminist epistemologies.Linda Alcoff &Elizabeth Potter (eds.) -1993 - New York: Routledge.
    "First Published in 1992, Routledge is an imprint of Taylor & Francis, an informa company.".
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  3.  121
    Mayan morality: An exploration of permissible harms.Linda Abarbanell &Marc D. Hauser -2010 -Cognition 115 (2):207-224.
    Anthropologists have provided rich field descriptions of the norms and conventions governing behavior and interactions in small-scale societies. Here, we add a further dimension to this work by presenting hypothetical moral dilemmas involving harm, to a small-scale, agrarian Mayan population, with the specific goal of exploring the hypothesis that certain moral principles apply universally. We presented Mayan participants with moral dilemmas translated into their native language, Tseltal. Paralleling several studies carried out with educated subjects living in large-scale, developed nations, the (...) Mayan participants judged harms caused as the means to a greater good as more forbidden than harms caused as a side-effect (i.e., side-effect bias). However, unlike these other populations living in large-scale societies, as well as a more educated and less rural Mayan comparison group, the target rural Mayan participants did not judge actions causing harm as worse than omissions (i.e., omission bias). A series of probes targeting the action-omission distinction suggest that the absence of an omission bias among the rural Mayan participants was not due to difficulties comprehending the dilemmas, using the judgment scale, or in attributing a greater causal role for actions over omissions. Thus, while the moral distinction between means and side-effect may be more universal, the moral distinction between actions and omission appears to be open to greater cross-cultural variation. We discuss these results in light of issues concerning the role of biological constraints and cultural variation in moral decision-making, as well as the limitations of such experimental, cross-cultural research. (shrink)
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  4.  89
    Phenomenology and feminism: Perspectives on their relation.Linda Fisher -2000 - In Linda Fisher & Lester Embree,Feminist phenomenology. Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers, c. pp. 17--38.
  5.  63
    Remembering What One Knows and the Construction of the Past: A Comparison of Cultural Consensus Theory and Cultural Schema Theory.Linda C. Garro -2000 -Ethos: Journal of the Society for Psychological Anthropology 28 (3):275-319.
  6.  265
    A Dance Between the Reduction and Reflexivity: Explicating the "Phenomenological Psychological Attitude".Linda Finlay -2008 -Journal of Phenomenological Psychology 39 (1):1-32.
    This article explores the nature of "the phenomenological attitude," which is understood as the process of retaining a wonder and openness to the world while reflexively restraining pre-understandings, as it applies to psychological research. A brief history identifies key philosphical ideas outlining Husserl's formulation of the reductions and subsequent existential-hermeneutic elaborations, and how these have been applied in empirical psychological research. Then three concrete descriptions of engaging the phenomenological attitude are offered, highlighting the way the epoché of the natural sciences, (...) the psychological phenomenological reduction and the eidetic reduction can be applied during research interviews. Reflections on the impact and value of the researcher's stance show that these reductions can be intertwined with reflexivity and that, in this process, something of a dance occurs—a tango in which the researcher twists and glides through a series of improvised steps. In a context of tension and contradictory motions, the researcher slides between striving for reductive focus and reflexive self-awareness; between bracketing pre-understandings and exploiting them as a source of insight. Caught up in the dance, researchers must wage a continuous, iterative struggle to become aware of, and then manage, pre-understandings and habitualities that inevitably linger. Persistance will reward the researcher with special, if fleeting, moments of disclosure in which the phenomenon reveals something of itself in a fresh way. (shrink)
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  7. Comparative race, comparative racisms (2007).Linda Martin Alcoff -manuscript
  8.  918
    A Semantics-Based Common Operational Command System for Multiagency Disaster Response.Linda Elmhadhbi,Mohamed-Hedi Karray,Bernard Archimède,J. Neil Otte &Barry Smith -2022 -IEEE Transactions on Engineering Management 69 (6):3887 - 3901.
    Disaster response is a highly collaborative and critical process that requires the involvement of multiple emergency responders (ERs), ideally working together under a unified command, to enable a rapid and effective operational response. Following the 9/11 and 11/13 terrorist attacks and the devastation of hurricanes Katrina and Rita, it is apparent that inadequate communication and a lack of interoperability among the ERs engaged on-site can adversely affect disaster response efforts. Within this context, we present a scenario-based terrorism case study to (...) highlight the challenges of operational disaster command and response. In this article, which is based on the French emergency response doctrine, we outline a semantics-based common operational command system that is designed to guarantee an efficient information flow among ERs. Our focus is on offering to all ERs, a real-time operational picture of the situation in order to enable multilevel coordination among firefighters, police, healthcare units, public authorities, and other stakeholders. Our approach consolidates information to promote timely sharing of data among ERs. The proposed system is based on an ontology that has been developed to represent the different types of knowledge on the part of ERs, providing a shared vocabulary that covers a variety of interoperability concerns. (shrink)
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  9.  20
    Does the Public Intellectual Have Intellectual Integrity?Linda MartÍn Alcoff -2002 -Metaphilosophy 33 (5):521-534.
    This article is concerned with the devaluation of the work of public intellectuals within the academic community. The principal reason given for this devaluation is that the work of the public intellectual does not have intellectual integrity as independent thought and original scholarship. I develop three models of public intellectual work: the permanent–critic model, the popularizer model, and the public–theorist model. I then consider each model in relation to the concern with intellectual integrity and conclude that both independent thought and (...) original scholarship are possible within work that is engaged with nonacademic publics. (shrink)
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  10.  66
    Dirty Hands Defended.Linda Eggert -2023 -Journal of Moral Philosophy 22 (1-2):1-20.
    This paper defends the possibility of dirty hands against the longstanding skepticism that an action cannot be simultaneously right and wrong and that dirty hands cases are therefore impossible. While skeptics are right to recognize that moral duties may be overridden, they are wrong to deny that actions required by necessity may nevertheless remain wrong. Dirty hands cases capture the simultaneous necessity of disregarding moral duties in certain circumstances and the reprehensibility of wronging people even in cases in which this (...) is all-things-considered permissible. Rather than indicating any deficiency in our moral reasoning, the capacity to accommodate the possibility of dirty hands, along with the reality of moral conflict, is a strength of a moral theory. (shrink)
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  11. The ethics of managers and employees.Linda Klebe Treviño -2018 - In Eugene Heath, Byron Kaldis & Alexei M. Marcoux,The Routledge Companion to Business Ethics. New York: Routledge.
     
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  12.  148
    The intertwining of body, self and world: A phenomenological study of living with recently-diagnosed multiple sclerosis.Linda Finlay -2003 -Journal of Phenomenological Psychology 34 (2):157-178.
    This paper describes the lifeworld of one individual, Ann, in an attempt to elucidate the existential impact of early stage multiple sclerosis. Drawing on Ann's own reflections captured in a relatively unstructured interview, I construct a narrative around her first year of living with the diagnosis. Then, existential-phenomenological analysis reveals how Ann's life - lived in and through a particular body and lifeworld context - is disrupted. The unity between her body and self can no longer be taken for granted. (...) The existential possibilities inherent in her lived body are diminished and have to be renegotiated. Her sense of identity, project, relations with others and present/future plans are threatened. Ann's illness is encountered in the context of her life activities and relationships. This is the intertwining of body, self and world. To live with multiple sclerosis is to experience a global sense of disorder - a disorder which incorporates a changed relation with one's body, a transformation in the surrounding world, a threat to the self, and a change in one's relation to others. (shrink)
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  13.  51
    Charles Peirce's Alternative to the Skeptcial Dilemma.Linda Alcoff -unknown
  14. Foucault as epistemologist.Linda Alcoff -1993 -Philosophical Forum 25 (2):95-124.
     
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  15.  28
    Critical Thinking: Tools for Taking Charge of Your Learning and Your Life.Linda Elder &Richard Paul -2011 - The Foundation for Critical Thinking.
    Now available from Rowman & Littlefield, the third edition of this introductory critical thinking text features streamlined chapters, Think for Yourself activities, and a complete glossary of critical thinking terms.
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  16.  117
    Feminism, Speaking for Others, and the Role of the Philosopher.Linda Martín Alcoff -2016 -Stance 9:85-105.
  17.  284
    Professionalism, Professionality and the Development of Education Professionals.Linda Evans -2008 -British Journal of Educational Studies 56 (1):20-38.
    What purpose is served by renovation or redesign of professionalism, and how successful a process is it likely to be? This article addresses these questions by examining the effectiveness as a professional development mechanism of the imposition of changes to policy and/or practice that require modification or renovation of professionalism. The 'new' professionalisms purported to have been fashioned over the last two or three decades across the spectrum of UK education sectors and contexts have been the subject of extensive analysis, (...) and this article avoids going over old ground and revisiting issues that have already been much debated. Nevertheless, the example of UK government education policy during this period is used as a basis for considering the pitfalls associated with mechanisms for modifying professionalism through a reform and standards agenda. The article's analysis incorporates redefinition and examination of the concept and substance of professionalism and offers new perspectives in the form of three distinct conceptions: demanded, prescribed and enacted professionalism. Exploring the existentialist status of 'new' or 'modified' professionalisms and the relationship between professionality, professional culture and professionalism, it examines how professionalism may be interpreted and utilised for the development of education professionals. (shrink)
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  18.  10
    The Illness Experience.Linda Fisher -2014 - In Kristin Zeiler & Lisa Folkmarson Käll,Feminist Phenomenology and Medicine. State University of New York Press. pp. 27-46.
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  19.  726
    Ontology-driven multicriteria decision support for victim evacuation.Linda Elmhadhbi,Mohamed-Hedi Karray,Bernard Archimède,J. Neil Otte &Barry Smith -2021 -International Journal of Information Technology and Decision Making:1–30.
    Abstract In light of the complexity of unfolding disasters, the diversity of rapidly evolving events, the enormous amount of generated information, and the huge pool of casualties, emergency responders (ERs) may be overwhelmed and in consequence poor decisions may be made. In fact, the possibility of transporting the wounded victims to one of several hospitals and the dynamic changes in healthcare resource availability make the decision process more complex. To tackle this problem, we propose a multicriteria decision support service, based (...) on the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) method, that aims to avoid overcrowding and outpacing the capacity of a hospital to effectively provide the best care to victims by finding out the most appropriate hospital that meets the victims’ needs. The proposed approach searches for the most appropriate healthcare institution that can effectively deal with the victims’ needs by considering the availability of the needed resources in the hospital, the victim’s wait time to receive the healthcare, and the transfer time that represents the hospital proximity to the disaster site. The evaluation and validation results showed that the assignment of hospitals was done successfully considering the needs of each victim and without overwhelming any single hospital. (shrink)
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  20.  41
    Sexual Difference, Phenomenology, and Alterity.Linda Fisher -1999 -Philosophy Today 43 (Supplement):68-75.
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  21.  53
    Gadamer's Feminist Epistemology.Linda Martín Alcoff -2003 - In Lorraine Code,Feminist Interpretations of Hans-Georg Gadamer. Pennsylvania State University Press.
  22.  21
    Afterword.Linda Martín Alcoff -2013 -Critical Philosophy of Race 1 (1):121-124.
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  23.  23
    Editors' Introduction.Linda Martín Alcoff &Walter Brogan -1999 -Philosophy Today 43 (Supplement):3-10.
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  24.  11
    Editors' Introduction.Linda Martín Alcoff &Merold Westphal -1998 -Philosophy Today 42 (Supplement):3-6.
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  25.  33
    Gendering Embodied Memory.Linda Fisher -2011 - In Christina Schües, Dorothea E. Olkowski & Helen A. Fielding,Time in Feminist Phenomenology. Indiana University Press. pp. 14--91.
  26.  370
    Held Hostage: The Use of Noncompete Clauses to Exploit Workers and a Statutory Framework to Protect Them.Linda Ficht &Chris Tweedt -2023 -Journal of Law, Business, and Ethics 29 (Winter):77-96.
    Noncompete agreements are among the most commonly used methods to restrict employment. Upwards of 38% of American workers, many of which are low-wage workers, have signed noncompete agreements. These agreements effectively hold those workers hostage to their current employer. This project analyzes the use of noncompete clauses in employment contracts with low-wage workers. We show that noncompetes with low-wage workers are not enforceable in the U.S.; employers nevertheless continue to include noncompete clauses in employment contracts with low-wage workers. We survey (...) states’ attempts to regulate the use of (even unenforceable) noncompetes and argue that current legislation is ineffective at preventing employers from including noncompetes in low-wage worker contracts. We argue that employers’ use of (even unenforceable) noncompete agreements with low-wage workers is wrongfully exploitative of those workers, and we provide suggestions for how states can effectively regulate the use of noncompetes, and thus protect low-wage workers from exploitation, using Virginia’s recently passed noncompete bill as a model. (shrink)
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  27.  49
    Compensation and the Scope of Proportionality.Linda Eggert -2022 -Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society 122 (3):358-368.
    This paper examines whether the prospect of compensation may render otherwise disproportionate harms proportionate. It argues that we should reject this possibility. Instead, it distinguishes duties of compensation as a requirement of rectificatory justice from a harm’s degree of compensability, and argues that only the latter is relevant to proportionality. On this view, failing to compensate constitutes a distinct wrong, while harms that are not adequately compensable carry extra weight in proportionality calculations. This explains how the prospect of compensation affects (...) permissions to harm, without relying on the dubious assumption that disproportionate harms may be rendered proportionate by future compensation. (shrink)
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  28.  18
    Comparing Student Learning in Traditional and Distance Sections of Introduction to Philosophy.Renée Smith &Linda Palm -2007 -Discourse: Learning and Teaching in Philosophical and Religious Studies 6 (2):205-225.
  29.  27
    Proactive interference in infant recognition memory.Donald J. Tyrrell,Linda G. Snowman,Julie A. Beier &Christine M. Blanck -1990 -Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society 28 (3):188-190.
  30.  55
    Philosophy of biology: About the fossilization of disciplines and other embryonic thoughts.Linda Van Speybroeck -2007 -Acta Biotheoretica 55 (1):47-71.
    This paper focuses on a running dispute between Werner Callebaut’s naturalistic view and Filip Kolen and Gertrudis Van de Vijver’s transcendentalist view on the nature of philosophy of biology and the relation of this discipline to biological sciences. It is argued that, despite differences in opinion, both positions agree that philosophy of biology’s ultimate goal is to ‘move’ biology or at least be ‘meaningful’ to it. In order to make this goal clear and effective, more is needed than a polarizing (...) debate which hardly touches upon biology. Therefore, a redirection in discussion is suggested towards a reflection on the possibilities of incorporating philosophy in interdisciplinary research, and on finding concrete research questions which are of interest both to the philosopher and to the biologist. (shrink)
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  31.  12
    Replies to Comments on Omnisubjectivity.Linda Zagzebski -2025 -Roczniki Filozoficzne 73 (1):99-111.
    In my paper I respond to comments regarding my book Omnisubjectivity: An Essay on God and Subjectivity.
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  32.  104
    Critical Thinking and Emotional Intelligence.Linda Elder -1996 -Inquiry: Critical Thinking Across the Disciplines 16 (2):35-49.
  33.  135
    Merleau-Ponty’s Hermeneutics of Philosophical Engagement.Linda Fisher -2005 -Chiasmi International 6:173-189.
  34.  612
    An ontological approach to enhancing information sharing in disaster response.Linda Elmhadhbi,Mohamed-Hedi Karray,Bernard Archimède,J. Neil Otte &Barry Smith -2021 -Information 12 (10).
    Managing complex disaster situations is a challenging task because of the large number of actors involved and the critical nature of the events themselves. In particular, the different terminologies and technical vocabularies that are being exchanged among Emergency Responders may lead to misunderstandings. Maintaining a shared semantics for exchanged data is a major challenge. To help to overcome these issues, we elaborate a modular suite of ontologies called POLARISCO that formalizes the complex knowledge of the ERs. Such a shared vocabulary (...) resolves inconsistent terminologies and promotes semantic interoperability among ERs. In this work, we discuss developing POLARISCO as an extension of Basic Formal Ontology and the Common Core Ontologies. We conclude by presenting a real use-case to check the efficiency and applicability of the proposed ontology. (shrink)
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  35.  13
    The Damned and the Elect: Guilt in Western Culture.Linda Archibald (ed.) -2010 - Cambridge University Press.
    The stark theological polarities of damnation and salvation have haunted representations of guilt in Western culture for thousands of years. Friedrich Ohly's classic study The Damned and the Elect, first published in English in 1992, offers a comparative cultural history of figures such as Oedipus, Judas and Faust, from antiquity, through the Middle Ages, into modern times. Looking at the works of writers such as Sophocles, Dante, Marlowe, Bunyan, Goethe, and Thomas Mann, Ohly's wide-ranging arguments weave deftly across different cultures (...) and periods to illuminate one of the most salient themes in Western literature. (shrink)
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  36.  58
    Ambiguous Encounters: A Relational Approach to Phenomenological Research.Linda Finlay -2009 -Indo-Pacific Journal of Phenomenology 9 (1):1-17.
    This paper offers an account of how to engage one phenomenologically orientated version of relational research based on ideas from existential phenomenological philosophy as well as Gestalt theory, relational psychoanalysis, intersubjectivity theory and feminist methodology. Relational dynamics (both conscious and unconscious) between researcher and co-researcher are explored reflexively using illustrations from various phenomenological projects in which the author has been involved. The relational approach to phenomenology described involves attending to four interlinked dimensions: open presence, embodied intersubjectivity, dialogic co-creation and entangled (...) selves. The paper aims to show the importance of retaining an open, empathic, embodied presence to another's personhood while acknowledging the power of dialogue to bring to life new realities. Data is seen to emerge out of the researcher/co-researcher relationship and is mutually co-created in this encounter as each touches and impacts on the other. What we can learn and know about another arises within the intersubjective space between. In this zone of ambiguity and uncertainty, the unforeseen hovers and layered meanings invite discovery. (shrink)
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  37.  44
    Gender and Other Categories.Linda Fisher -1992 -Hypatia 7 (3):173 - 179.
    In my discussion of Bordo's paper I leave aside the particulars of her detailed critique of Grimshaw and the issue of the "maleness" of philosophy and focus instead on some questions raised by her analysis of heterogeneity and generality. I find this analysis very persuasive, particularly her counterarguments to the "theoretics of heterogeneity." However, I am less persuaded by her concluding points and suggestions for future directions.
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  38.  53
    riassunto: Ermeneutica merleau-pontiana dell’impegno filosofico.Linda Fisher -2005 -Chiasmi International 6:190-190.
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  39. Business and an information shortage.Linda S. French -1976 - In David Batty,Knowledge and its organization. [College Park]: College of Library and Information Services, University of Maryland. pp. 8--54.
     
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  40. Iconic agents : visualizations as tools of epistemology.Linda Freyberg -2024 - In Elize Bisanz, Stephanie Schneider & Charles S. Peirce,On the logic of drawing history from symbols, especially from images. New York: Peter Lang.
     
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  41.  20
    Has Higher Education Fallen Down the Rabbit Hole?Linda Weiser Friedman &Hershey H. Friedman -2022 -The Philosophy of Humor Yearbook 3 (1):271-298.
    Most Americans believe that higher education is heading in the wrong direction. In Lewis Carroll’s Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland, the eponymous heroine’s tumble into a rabbit hole immerses her in a bizarre, surreal, disorienting universe. Has higher education fallen down the rabbit hole? This paper will examine the many ways that academe has become a peculiar, illogical, and topsy-turvy world where things are often the opposite of what we call them and of what we expect them to be. To restore (...) the credibility of our education system and make it of value to most students, it must be completely reimagined and, in fact, totally rebuilt from the ground up. (shrink)
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  42.  37
    The neural underpinnings of self and other and layer 2 of the shared circuits model.Linda Furey &Julian Paul Keenan -2008 -Behavioral and Brain Sciences 31 (1):25-26.
    Differentiating self from other has been investigated at the neural level, and its incorporation into the model proposed Hurley is necessary for the model to be complete. With an emphasis on the feed-forward model in layer 2, we examine the role that self and other disruptions, including auditory verbal hallucinations (AVHs), may have in expanding the model proposed by Hurley.
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  43.  22
    The 85% Solution: How Personal Accountability Guarantees Success: No Nonsense, No Excuses.Linda Galindo -2009 - Jossey-Bass.
    A guide to personal accountability-the fundamental key to leadership success With the toughest economic downturn in recent history, the issue of accountability has taken center stage. However accountability is often confused with punishment, fault, blame and guilt. In this book, the author argues that the only true accountability is "personal accountability" and the only way to achieve it is to take responsibility for the outcomes of your choices, behaviors and actions. The 85% Solution reveals that to be truly accountable, leaders (...) must accept no less than 85% of the responsibility for the outcomes of your actions; Empower themselves to take the risks and actions you must in order to get what they want; and Show they are willing to answer for the outcomes that result from their choices and actions. Offers a practical guide to personal accountability and reveals how this leads to personal and business success Guides readers to take the risks and actions to reach their goals Contains self-assessments for determining personal accountability index The author is an experienced consultant who works with organizations, teams, and individuals to improve their personal and work lives. (shrink)
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  44.  32
    Clarifying Distinctions between Contemplating and Completing Physician-Assisted Suicide.Linda Ganzini &S. K. Dobscha -2004 -Journal of Clinical Ethics 15 (2):119-122.
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  45. Lessons from legalized physician assisted death in Oregon and Washington.Linda Ganzini -2014 - In Timothy E. Quill & Franklin G. Miller,Palliative care and ethics. New York: Oxford University Press.
     
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  46.  19
    Response to Denny and Emanuel.Linda Ganzini -2006 -Journal of Clinical Ethics 17 (1):42-45.
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  47.  41
    By the will of others or by one's own action?Linda C. Garro -2010 - In Keith M. Murphy & C. Jason Throop,Toward an Anthropology of the Will. Stanford University Press. pp. 69--100.
    This chapter contains a brief review of some relevant literature by American scholars that mostly reference to American cultural settings. This literature ranges from viewing will as universal psychological phenomena and others discuss some features of willing that can be found within a certain sociocultural milieu. This chapter also reveals the variable and dynamic nature of assessments and attributions of volitional states in connection to events within the social world.
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  48. On the evolution of queer studies : lesbian feminism, queer theory, and globalization.Linda Garber -2006 - In Diane Richardson, Janice McLaughlin & Mark E. Casey,Intersections between feminist and queer theory. New York: Palgrave-Macmillan.
  49.  756
    PROMES: An ontology‐based messaging service for semantically interoperable information exchange during disaster response.Linda Elmhadhbi,Mohamed‐Hedi Karray,Bernard Archimède,J. Neil Otte &Barry Smith -2020 -Journal of Contingencies and Crisis Management 28 (3):324-338.
    Disaster response requires the cooperation of multiple emergency responder organizations (EROs). However, after‐action reports relating to large‐scale disasters identity communication difficulties among EROs as a major hindrance to collaboration. On the one hand, the use of two‐radio communication, based on multiple orthogonal frequencies and uneven coverage, has been shown to degrade inter‐organization communication. On the other hand, because they reflect different areas of expertise, EROs use differing terminologies, which are difficult to reconcile. These issues lead to ambiguities, misunderstandings, and inefficient (...) exchange of data and information among those involved, which can impede the response process and slow decision making. We, therefore, hypothesize that promoting semantic interoperability across ERO information systems might improve information exchange among stakeholders and thereby allow a more coherent response to the disaster. We propose an ontology‐based messaging service on the basis of the Emergency Data Exchange Language (EDXL) standards. The parties involved will continue to use the terminologies to which they are accustomed, but the system will resolve inconsistencies and thereby enhance mutual understanding among EROs by ensuring semantic translation of the exchanged information. The evaluation of the semantic translation demonstrated the effectiveness and accuracy of the proposed service. (shrink)
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  50.  30
    Compensating beneficiaries.Linda Eggert -2024 -Philosophical Studies 181 (6):1681-1701.
    This paper illuminates a typically obscured ground for rectificatory obligations: harms justified as ‘lesser evils.’ Lesser-evil harms are not the result of overall morally prohibited acts but of acts permissibly carried out to prevent significantly greater harm. The paper argues that harms caused as unintended side effects of acting on lesser-evil justifications, notably in military rescue operations, may give rise to claims to compensation, even if (1) the military acts that caused the harms in question were justified on lesser-evil grounds (...) and (2) the victims in question are no worse off as a result; they may even owe their survival to the act of rescue. The paper defends three claims. First, being better off as a result of a harmful rescue than one would otherwise have been does not preclude claims to be compensated for harms suffered as a side effect. Second, identifying the relevant counterfactual for purposes of compensatory justice is sometimes a prescriptive, rather than a descriptive, matter. Rather than relying on empirical speculations about what _would_ have happened had a harm not occurred, we must, in certain cases, consider what agents _ought_ to have done. Finally, duties of compensation need not fall on those who caused the to-be-compensated harms. That infringing rights is permissible in certain cases does not imply that no compensation is owed, but merely that it is not necessarily rights-infringers on whom duties of compensation fall. (shrink)
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