Movatterモバイル変換

Most people who are regular consumers of psychoactive drugs are not drug addicts, nor will they ever become addicts. In neurobiological theories, non-addictive drug consumption is acknowledged only as a “necessary” prerequisite for addiction, but not as a stable and widespread behavior in its own right. This target article proposes a new neurobiological framework theory for non-addictive psychoactive drug consumption, introducing the concept of “drug instrumentalization.” Psychoactive drugs are consumed for their effects on mental states. Humans are able to learn (...) that mental states can be changed on purpose by drugs, in order to facilitate other, non-drug-related behaviors. We discuss specific “instrumentalization goals” and outline neurobiological mechanisms of how major classes of psychoactive drugs change mental states and serve non-drug-related behaviors. We argue that drug instrumentalization behavior may provide a functional adaptation to modern environments based on a historical selection for learning mechanisms that allow the dynamic modification of consummatory behavior. It is assumed that in order to effectively instrumentalize psychoactive drugs, the establishment of and retrieval from a drug memory is required. Here, we propose a new classification of different drug memory subtypes and discuss how they interact during drug instrumentalization learning and retrieval. Understanding the everyday utility and the learning mechanisms of non-addictive psychotropic drug use may help to prevent abuse and the transition to drug addiction in the future. (shrink)

Direct download(4 more)   Export citation   Bookmark   22 citations  

Proposing a change to the view on psychoactive drug use in non-addicts touches a sensitive issue because of its potential implications to addiction prevention, therapeutic practice, and drug policy. Commentators raised nine questions that ranged from clarifications, suggested extensions of the model to supporting data previously not regarded, to assumptions on the implications of the model. Here, we take up the suggestions of the commentators to expand the model to behavioral addictions, discuss additional instrumentalization goals, and review the evidence from (...) laboratory animal studies on drug instrumentalization. We consider further the role of sociocultural factors and individual development in the establishment in drug instrumentalization and addiction. Finally, we clarify which implications we think this model may have. We conclude that drug instrumentalization theory can be further applied to other behaviors but will require a sensitive debate when used for drug and addiction policy that directly affects prevention and treatment. (shrink)

Direct download(5 more)   Export citation   Bookmark   2 citations  

[es] La muerte violenta del sabio Abū Marwān al-Ṭubnī en 457/1065 despertó una gran curiosidad dadas las circunstancias excepcionales en las que se produjo: al-Ṭubnī fue encontrado muerto en su lecho, atravesado por más de sesenta puñaladas, recayendo sobre los miembros de su propia familia, que vivían en diversas partes de la casa, las principales sospechas. Basado en una serie de fuentes historiográficas y jurídicas, este artículo reconstruye las investigaciones llevadas a cabo por las autoridades policiales así como las discusiones (...) de los juristas sobre los castigos a aplicar. Estos datos permiten analizar las relaciones en el seno de una familia, relaciones cuya complejidad podría explicar la violencia de la que fue objeto el patriarca. [fr] La mort violente du savant Abū Marwān al-Ṭubnī en 457/1065 éveilla la curiosité vu les circonstances exceptionnelles de son décès: on l'avait retrouvé dans son lit, percé de plus de soixante coups de poignard, et c'est vers les membres de sa famille, qui vivaient dans diverses parties de la maison, que se portèrent les soupçons. Basé sur un ensemble de sources historiographiques et juridiques, cet article reconstitue les enquêtes menées par les autorités policières et les discussions des juristes sur les peines à infliger. Ces données permettent d'analyser les relations au sein d'une famille, relations dont la complexité peuvent expliquer cette violence contre le patriarche. (shrink)

Direct download(4 more)   Export citation   Bookmark  

Este artículo examina el desarrollo histórico y la jurisdicción del "inspector de la policía y del mercado" (sahib al-surta wa-l-suq) en Córdoba a través de los casos judiciales tomados de la colección de dictámenes jurídicos de Ibn Sahl al-Ahkam al-Kubrà y de fuentes biográficas e históricas. Durante el período de Taifas, esta expresión omeya dio paso al "inspector de sentencias jurídicas" (sahib al-ahkam). A través de más de veinte casos, datables entre los años 456 / 1064 y 464 / 1072, (...) se demuestra cómo este juez, que no era qadi, seguía en sus sentencias el fiqh malikí, tanto en las leyes procesales como en la ley sustantiva. (shrink)

Direct download(3 more)   Export citation   Bookmark  

Science has needed a dispassionate valuation of psychoactive drugs, but a motivational analysis should be conducted with respect to long-term reward rather than reproductive fitness. Because of hyperbolic overvaluation of short-term rewards, an individual's valuation depends on the time she forms it and the times she will revisit it, sometimes making her best long-term interest lie in total abstinence.

Direct download(4 more)   Export citation   Bookmark  

Hyperplasia and hypertrophy are elements of phenotypic plasticity adjusting organ size and function. Because they are costly, we assume that they are beneficial. In this review, the authors discuss examples of tissue and organ systems that respond with plastic changes to osmotic stress to raise awareness that we do not always have sufficient experimental evidence to conclude that such processes provide fitness advantages. Changes in hydranth architecture in the hydroid Cordylophora caspia or variations in size in the anal papillae of (...) insect larvae upon changes in medium salinity may be adaptive or not. The restructuring of salt glands in ducklings upon salt‐loading is an example of phenotypic plasticity which indeed seems beneficial. As the genomes of model species are recently sequenced and the animals are easy to rear, these species are suitable study objects to investigate the biological significance of phenotypic plasticity and to study potential epigenetic and other mechanisms underlying phenotypic changes. (shrink)

Direct download(2 more)   Export citation   Bookmark  

No categories

Direct download   Export citation   Bookmark  

Direct download(3 more)   Export citation   Bookmark  

The formation of citizenship as a concept to define the rights of participation in the formation processes of modern territorial states is well known. But the transnational dimensions of defining citizenship and how to combine national legislations with enlightened universal and natural law rules in the mid-19th century is not very well known. The article aims to explore the transnational discourses on the political, economic and moral rights and duties of the citizen in the pan—European liberal Association Internationale pour le (...) Progrès des Sciences Sociales. During the 1860s, its congresses should serve as a vast commission of enquiry and should eventually lead to a general definition of citizenship in Europe which could be implemented in national legislations. The article shows how the Association Internationale tried to deduce universal moral rules from national legislations and peculiarities by the means of moral or positive social science. In combining moral unity with national and regional diversities, the Association Internationale tried to give an elastic framework for a European civil society in which national subjects should become active citizens. (shrink)

Direct download(3 more)   Export citation   Bookmark  

No categories

Direct download(3 more)   Export citation   Bookmark  

Behavioural phenotypes have been explained by genetic and environmental factors (E) and their interaction. Here we suggest a rethinking of the E factor. Passively incurred environmental influences (E pass) and actively copied information and behaviour (E act) may be distinguished at shared and non-shared level. We argue that E act underlies mutation and selection and is the base of gene-independent heritability.

Direct download(5 more)   Export citation   Bookmark   1 citation  

No categories

Direct download(2 more)   Export citation   Bookmark  

Hat die Scharia eine Geschichte? Und welche gesellschaftliche Rolle spielt das Rechtsdenken im Islam? Hierauf bietet dieses Buch fundierte Antworten aufgrund neuer Fakten und Fragestellungen. Die chronologisch ausgerichtete Grundlagenforschung des Autors in Bereichen der Rechtsregeln, juristischer Hermeneutik und Rechtsurkunden ermöglicht eine Revision bisheriger Überzeugungen vom islamischen Recht. Die umfassende Synthese stellt das Juristenrecht aus dogmatischer sowie anwendungsbezogener Sicht zudem in den Rahmen historischer Rechtsordnungen seit der Frühzeit bis zu den Umbrüchen im 19. Jahrhundert. Nachgezeichnet wird die Entwicklung von Institutionen, Regelverständnis (...) und Legitimation durch Rechtsgelehrte. Die Wandlung „islamischen Rechts“ vom Kalifatsrecht zum Juristenrecht und dessen schariatischer Phase ab dem 13. Jahrhundert sind Ausdruck der gewandelten Bedeutung des Rechtsdenkens für die Praxis. Die juristische Ausgestaltung des Offenbarungsrechts, die auch in Theologie und Philosophie hineingriff, widerspricht der Vorstellung des prophetischen Vorbilds als alleinige Richtschnur im Frühislam – und damit Teilen des heutigen Verständnisses von „Scharia“. (shrink)

No categories

Direct download(2 more)   Export citation   Bookmark  

No categories

Direct download   Export citation   Bookmark  

Direct download(3 more)   Export citation   Bookmark  

Hegels Kritik an Kants praktischer Philosophie wurde in der Rezeptionsgeschichte zumeist anhand des Begriffspaares "Moralit t und Sittlichkeit" er rtert. Die Frage, welche Auswirkungen diese Kritik auf die einzelnen Kategorien der Rechtsmetaphysik hat, wurde demgegen ber kaum gestellt. Bestehen Unterschiede zwischen den Ausf hrungen beider Philosophen hinsichtlich der einzelnen Rechtsbegriffe? Lassen sich etwaige Differenzen auf die Verschiedenartigkeit der Freiheitskonzeptionen zur ckf hren? Und l sst sich Hegels allgemein gehaltene Kritik an Kant auf dessen Einzelausf hrungen in den "Metaphysischen Anfangsgr nden (...) der Rechtslehre" bertragen? Das Buch untersucht diese Fragen mit Blick auf die f r Kant wie Hegel zentrale Rechtskategorie des Eigentums. (shrink)

No categories

Direct download(2 more)   Export citation   Bookmark  

Arguably, the religious use of hallucinogenic drugs stems from a human search of metaphysical insight rather than from a direct need for cognitive, emotional, social, physical, or sexual improvement. Therefore, the sacramental and spiritual intake of hallucinogenic drugs goes so far beyond other biopsychosocial functions that it deserves its own category in the drug instrumentalization list.

Direct download(3 more)   Export citation   Bookmark  

The drug-reinforcement theory explains why humans get engaged in drug taking behavior. This theory posits that drugs of abuse serve as biological rewards by activating the reinforcement system. Although from a psychological and neurobiological perspective this theory is extremely helpful, it does not tell us about the drug-taking motives and motivation of an individual. The definition of drug instrumentalization goals will improve our understanding of individual drug-taking profiles.

Direct download(3 more)   Export citation   Bookmark