US20160180746A1 - System, Apparatus and Method for Mapping - Google Patents

Abstract

The present invention provides a novel apparatus and method for mapping of urban regions. An apparatus includes the remote sensing equipment that is connected to a computer processor. The remote sensing equipment gathers imaging data about an urban region. The computer processor interprets the imaging data to generate a map of the urban region comprising representations that identify a first set of indicia representing physiographic characteristics, a second set of indicia representing different types of built forms, and a third set of indicia representing patterns of human activity associated with both the physiographic characteristics and the built forms. The map can also include a fourth set of indicia representing an intensity level that at least one of the other types of indicia occurs.

Description

PRIORITY CLAIM
• The present application is a continuation of PCT Patent Application Number PCT/CA2004/002143, filed on Dec. 16, 2004, which claims priority from U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 60/530,283, filed on Dec. 18, 2003, the contents of which are incorporated herein by reference.
FIELD OF THE INVENTION
• The present invention relates generally to cartography and more particularly relates to mapping of urban regions.
BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION
• The twentieth century, particularly, saw the exponential growth of urban regions throughout the world, and in its latter half, the quantum development of suburban districts around the peripheries of cities, fuelled by expressways and the dominance of the automobile-based society. This condition, in which the majority of North Americans, for example, now live in suburbs with low rates of built density and human activity, is generally unable economically to sustain mass transportation. Residence, work, shopping and leisure are not only low in density, and highly land consuming, but activities are generally segregated and separate. In consequence, there is now widespread concern for the effects of such dependence on the automobile—in air pollution, greatly increasing delays, in the increasing aggregate traveling that decreases the quality of peoples lives in costs, time and difficulties in getting to jobs, and in many other respects.
• A range of policies and practices have been promoted to deal with this situation, developing forms of land use and transportation in combination, so as to conserve energy, minimize emissions of pollutants, encourage accessibility while minimizing mobility—for example, by developing intensive activity centres around public transport nodes. Regions around the globe are involved in efforts to translate these ambitions into regional strategic development frameworks.
• In general, as the world population becomes more concentrated in urban regions, the quality of life in any given urban region is greatly affected by how well the urban region is equipped with infrastructure to support the needs of the local population. Urban planning is a well-known discipline that is used to plan how such infrastructure is added, replaced and maintained. Urban planning also encompasses a number of other issues as will occur to those of skill in the art.
• At least in developed countries, most urban regions implement varying degrees of urban planning. The process is often heavily influenced by political factors, as issues around taxation and property rights are necessarily intertwined with the urban planning process. Recently in North America, there has been a trend towards “lean government” policies, wherein government-based centralized urban planning is largely abandoned in favour of allowing the urban region to grow in a laissez-faire manner, on the belief that the free market is the best determiner as to how the area should grow. Still other administrations may implement a more activist policies, involving a great deal of centralized planning, with the view that government controlled central planning is the most efficient way to serve the needs of the local population. Of course, the approach for any given region usually lies between these extremes. Regardless of the chosen approach, one problem with prior art urban mapping and data collection techniques is that there is little in the way of hard-data that can be analyzed to provide an objective view as to how urban planning can be implemented most effectively.
• The hard-data that exists today, which has been collected inconsistently across a region, suggests that more data, and the right kind of data, could be extremely effective in urban planning. For example, as of 2003, it is known that the city of Toronto has a subway system that supports itself largely out of the fare-box, with little reliance on government subsidies. It is hypothesized that a major factor contributing to this phenomenon is that there is a large population density that lives (“residential district”) adjacent to subway stations, and there is at least one concentrated area in the downtown core where that population works (“employment district”) that is also adjacent to subway stations. A similar phenomenon can be observed in New York. The effort required to generate a report to support this hypothesis, however, is enormous, complex, time-consuming and costly. As one approach, the effort could involve collecting street maps and subway maps of Toronto, and then conducting door-to-door surveys in both the residential and employment districts to verify that people are actually using the subways to commute to work. Finally, the data collected from the door-to-door surveys may then be correlated with the maps to ultimately arrive at a report with a conclusion that supports the hypothesis. However, it can be noted that the report includes only a few sets of data points, and does not include other data that may influence whether or not simple densities of residential districts and employment districts is sufficient to support subway lines. Such a report also does not describe the structure of the built environment which dictates the densities. Further, such a report is not readily comparable with how other Urban regions handle transport from residential districts to employment districts, to provide an objective assessment as to which urban region is best handling its transportation needs. More complex questions as to how a particular urban region functions in relation to another will occur to those of skill in the art, and the generation of reports to answer such questions will face similar hurdles and complexities.
• As previously mentioned, prior art urban maps are a very useful element in the generation of the above-described type of report for urban planning exercises. Prior art urban maps principally identify physical characteristics of transportation routes, and include identifiers like street names and station names on those maps. The maps may include indications as to whether a particular area is more dominated by residential, commercial or industrial activity, but little more. In general, such maps are very useful for navigating the urban region, but provide limited information when attempting to generate complex reports for urban planning.
• More recent urban maps of the prior art offer information that be used for more than simply navigating the urban region. These maps are generated at least in part, using remotely sensed data obtained from satellites, air-planes and the like. Baltsavias, Emmanuel P. and A. Gruen. “Resolution Convergence: A comparison of aerial photos, LIDAR and IKONOS for monitoring cities” inRemotely Sensed Cities,edited by Victor Mesev, Taylor & Francis, London, 2003 (“Baltsavias”) is one prior art reference that discloses an example of such an urban map. Baltsavias includes a review and evaluation of the use of current high-resolution remote sensing technologies including aerial/digital orthoimagery, Laser-Induced Detection and Ranging (“LIDAR”), IKONOS (4-meters per pixel colour and 1 meter per pixel black-and-white optical satellite imagery) to extract geo-spatial information such as:
• • 1) digital terrain models (“DTM”, an elevation model that is a representation of the bare surface of the earth with natural and manmade features removed.);
  • 2) digital surface models (“DSM”, also referred to as a “first surface” model in which man-made and natural features are captured in the elevation model.); and,
  • 3) an identification of urban objects such as buildings, roads, vegetation, etc, and reconstruction of three-dimensional urban objects such as buildings.
    Baltsavias describes requirements for developing three-dimensional city models and briefly describes two commercial applications that have been developed, InJECT, a product of INPHO GmbH, Stuggart, Germany and CyberCity Modeler (CC-Modeler) marketed by CyberCity AG, Bellikon, Switzerland. Baltsavias describes a prototype system, CyberCity Spatial Information System (“CC-SIS”) which is an attempt to integrate three dimensional city models with a relational database that can be potentially linked to external Geographic Information Systems (“GIS”) data. In order to identify objects, the user manually identifies points onscreen, and only then will the application automatically build topology that includes the geometry needed to relate those points and identify an object. The application requires the use of digital orthophotos which are costly to acquire at the resolution that is necessary to build the city model. Further, Baltsavias does not explain how to derive building use or type and its relation to other buildings in its immediate proximity or at the city-wide scale. The application does not allow a user to assess how a region functions or compares to other urban regions. In general, Baltsavias is limited in how it offers to describe and visualize an urban region's composition and functions.
• Another example of increased urban map sophistication is found in Barnsley, Michael J., A. M. Steel, and S. Barr. “Determining urban land use through an analysis of the spatial composition of buildings identified in LIDAR and multispectral image data,” in Remotely Sensed Cities, edited by Victor Mesev. Taylor & Francis, London, 2003. (“Barnsley”). Barnsley uses a combination of IKONOS at 4 meters per pixel colour satellite imagery and LIDAR (2 m) image data at 0.4 point sampling density per square-meter, to extract the existence of building objects from other surrounding objects, such as trees or paved roads. The results of the extraction were compared to base data to gage accuracy of results. Four test areas are used where the predominant land use is either residential or industrial. Given the limitations of the data sets several thresholds were applied to the data to improve the results. Barnsley develops a graph-based pattern recognition system to infer land use by height and structural configuration. The technology and techniques used in Barnsley to extract building objects semi-automatically and to identify differences in morphological properties of buildings and the structural composition of built form patterns were successful in differentiating general land use types, (e.g. residential versus industrial), but there were problems in identifying and characterizing unique patterns within these general land use types, different residential and industrial patterns were not able to be characterized given the measurement techniques used. In general, Barnsley does not teach how to classify and describe the unique built form for different residential and industrial uses.
• An example of an as-yet unfulfilled attempt to provide a more sophisticated urban map is found in Eguchi, Ronald, C. Huyck, B. Houshmand, D. Tralli, and M. Shinozuka. “A New Application of Building Inventories using Synthetic Aperture Radar Technology.”, presented at the 2nd Multi-Lateral Workshop on Development of Earthquake and Tsunami Disasters Mitigation Technologies and their Integation for the Asia-Pacific region. March 1-2, 2000. Kobe, Japan. (“Eguchi”). Using Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (IFSAR) airborne technology, aerial photography and county tax assessment data, Eguchi attempts to identify building types based on building footprint and height which they extract from the remotely sensed data and validate results using county tax assessment data. The preliminary results of the techniques used and future research plans are presented in Eguchi, laying the groundwork to work towards a building inventory at a city-wide scale from which they can measure building density and development. Despite the groundwork that has been laid, there is no indication of success or how such success will be achieved.
• Another example is Mesev, Victor. “Urban Land Use Reconstruction: Image Pattern Recognition from Address Point Information.”, presented at the International Archives of Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences Conference, Regensburg, Germany, 27-29 Jun., 2003. (“Mesev”). Mesev examines the use of address point data collected by the Ordnance Survey in the UK to examine spatial patterns of development in Bristol UK. The address point data contains information on general land use types, residential versus commercial, and Mesev attempts to identify differences between different areas of the same land use type, e.g.residential #1 andresidential #2, based on a various spatial indices/techniques, i.e. density of points and nearest neighborhood analysis. This information from this spatial recognition system is used to inform multispectral image classifications of urban regions. Mesev introduces some preliminary results used on fine resolution aerial photography provided by a company called Cities Revealed (The GeoInformation Group, Telford House, Fulboum, Cambridge, CB1 5HB, United Kingdom—http://www.crworld.co.uk). The remote sensed imagery for Cities Revealed is quite costly to acquire for a large urban region. The data used for the pattern recognition is unique to the UK but not available for all regions, since the UK can rely so heavily on the UK Ordnance Survey. Likewise the spatial indices are not fully successful on other urban land use classes such as commercial and industrial where information on building characteristics would be more useful than just the arrangement of buildings.
SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION
• It is an object of the present invention to provide a novel method and system for mapping that obviates or mitigates at least one of the above-identified disadvantages of the prior art.
• An aspect of the invention provides a map of an urban region comprising a first set of indicia representing physiographic characteristics of said region and a second set of indicia representing a plurality of different types of built forms, and their locations, that are located within said region. The map also includes a third set of indicia representing patterns of human activity associated with both said physiographic characteristics and said built forms.
• Another aspect of the invention provides an apparatus that includes remote sensing equipment that is connected to a computer processor. The remote sensing equipment gathers imaging data about an urban region. The computer processor interprets the imaging data to generate a map of the urban region comprising representations that identify a first set of indicia representing physiographic characteristics, a second set of indicia representing different types of built forms, and a third set of indicia representing patterns of human activity associated with both the physiographic characteristics and the built forms. The map can also include a fourth set of indicia representing an intensity level that at least one of the other types of indicia occurs.
BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS
• The present invention will now be explained, by way of example only, with reference to certain embodiments and the attached Figures in which:
• FIG. 1 is a representation of a section of a geographic territory containing a number of urban regions;
• FIG. 2 is a representation of an area within an urban region in the territory ofFIG. 1 being remotely sensed;
• FIG. 3 is a representation of the remote sensing being performed inFIG. 2 in greater detail;
• FIG. 4 is a representation of the remote sensing being performed inFIG. 3 in greater detail;
• FIG. 5 is a representation of the data sensed inFIGS. 2-4 being inputted into an apparatus for generating a map in accordance with an embodiment of the invention;
• FIG. 6 is a representation of a database stored in the storage device inFIG. 5 that can be used to interpret raw data sensed inFIGS. 2-4;
• FIG. 7 shows the objects in the database inFIG. 6 in greater detail;
• FIG. 8 is a flowchart depicting a method of generating a map in accordance with an embodiment of the invention;
• FIG. 9 shows sensed data representing an area within a region that is being parsed in accordance with a performance of the method inFIG. 8;
• FIG. 10 shows a small block within the area shown inFIG. 9;
• FIG. 11 shows a map of the block inFIG. 10 that was generated using the method ofFIG. 8;
• FIG. 12 shows the map ofFIG. 11, generated using a variation on the method ofFIG. 8 to produce a different map format;
• FIG. 13 shows a map in the same format as the map ofFIG. 12, wherein the map shows the area inFIG. 9;
• FIG. 14 shows a map of the same format as the map ofFIG. 13 expanded to the regional level;
• FIG. 15 shows an apparatus for generating a map in accordance with another embodiment of the invention;
• FIG. 16 shows a map of the area inFIG. 9 generated by the apparatus ofFIG. 15 and depicting the density of residence in the area;
• FIG. 17 shows flowchart depicting a method of generating a map in accordance with another embodiment of the invention; and.
• FIG. 18 shows an exemplary graph that can be generated when performing the method inFIG. 17.
DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION
• FIG. 1 shows aterritory40 containing a plurality ofurban regions44. In the example inFIG. 1,territory40 is a section of North America roughly bisected by the US-Canada border, but it is to be understood that this is merely an example of a territory to which the teachings herein can apply. Thus, theurban regions44 interritory40 include various well-known urban regions, including Toronto, indicated at44₁, Detroit indicated at44₂, and New York at44₃—other areas are simply indicated by thereference44. It should be understood that, in a present embodiment,area44 is not intended in its political sense, but rather to indicate urban regions in a geographic sense. Thus, an area likeToronto44₁refers to the Greater Toronto Area, or the entire “Golden Horseshoe”, spanning the municipalities from Hamilton to Bowmanville along the north shore of Lake Ontario. In like fashion,Detroit44₂, andNew York44₃refer to their respective greater metropolitan areas.
• FIG. 1 also shows tworemote sensing devices48, namely anairplane48₁and asatellite48₂passing overterritory40.Devices48 include imaging equipment to enabledevice48 to be operable to remotely sense data associated withurban regions44, according to a desired and appropriate remote sensing modality such as aerial photography, aerial/digital orthoimagery, LIDAR, IKONOS, RADAR. Other types ofdevices48, and modalities respective thereto, will occur to those of skill in the art.
• FIG. 2 shows device48 (i.e. airplane48₁) remotely sensing data respective to aparticular area52 within a region44 (i.e. Toronto44₁). In general,device48 is operable to sense data associated with a plurality of areas within aparticular region44, thereby remotely sensing data that comprises theentire region44. Thus, it is to be understood thatarea52 is shown as an example for purposes of explaining various embodiments of the invention.
• FIG. 3 showsarea52 in greater detail, and in a present embodiment,area52 is sensed bydevice48 as a photograph. Area52 (and/or portions thereof and/or other portions of region44 ) can be characterized in terms of a number of indicia, including physiographic forms, built forms, activity patterns, and use intensity, and various degrees thereof. Physiographic forms includes the natural physical features ofarea52, including landscape and physical objects such as terrain, trees, rivers, and streams. More specific terms ways of describing physiographic forms can be found in Anderson, James R., E. E. Hardy, J. T. Roach, and R. E. Witmer, 1976. “A Land Use And Land Cover Classification System For Use With Remote Sensor Data.” Geological Survey Professional Paper 964, the contents of which are incorporated herein by reference. In contrast, built forms include anything artificially constructed upon the physiographic forms, such as roads, houses, buildings, parks, parking lots, monuments, etc. (Table I, hereinbelow, provides a detailed list of potential built form types.) Activity patterns include the nature of the human activity/activities occurring withinarea52, and can include information about employment, residency, recreation, industry, commerce and/or combinations thereof. Finally, use intensity is a metric identifying the extent or amount of a particular activity is occurring. Intensity can also include the degree of a particular activity, or mix of activities, in order to describe the possibility of a varying range to the activity indicium of the classification scheme. Further details about these indicia will be discussed in greater detail below.
• FIG. 4 shows a small portion ofarea52 in further detail, withdevice48 passing over, and sensingphysiographic forms56, in the form oftrees56₁and astream56₂, and builtforms60, in the form ofhouses60₁, anoffice tower60₂, and anapartment building60₃.
• FIG. 5 shows the transfer ofdata64 sensed bydevice48 that includes a photograph ofarea52 being transferred fromdevice48 to anapparatus68 for mapping in accordance with an embodiment of the invention.Apparatus68 is generally operable to interpretdata64 to generate a map ofarea52 that is based on, at least in part, some or all of the above-identified indicia. In the present embodiment,apparatus68 is a server, but can be a desktop computer, client, terminal, personal digital assistant or any other computing device.Apparatus68 comprises atower72, connected to anoutput device76 for presenting output to a user and one ormore input devices80 for receiving input from a user. In the present embodiment,output device76 is a monitor, andinput devices80 include akeyboard80₁and amouse80₂. Other output devices and input devices will occur to those of skill in the art.Tower72 is also connected to astorage device84, such as a hard-disc drive or redundant array of inexpensive discs (“RAID”), which contains reference data for use in interpretingdata64, further details of which will be provided below.Tower72 typically houses at least one central processing unit (“CPU”) coupled to random access memory via a bus. In the present embodiment,tower72 also includes a network interface card and connects to anetwork88, which can be the intranet, internet or any other type of network for interconnecting a plurality of computers, as desired.Apparatus68 can output maps generated byapparatus68 to network88 and/orapparatus68 can receive data, in addition todata64, to be used to generate a map ofarea52 that is based on, at least in part, some or all of the above-identified indicia.
• FIG. 6 shows a simplified representation of the kind of databases and tables that can be stored onstorage device84 to assist the CPU intower72 with the interpretation ofdata64. InFIG. 6,storage device84 stores a two-dimensional table92. Table92 includes built form data, comprised of aleft column96, labelled “Raw Data”, and aright column100, labelled “Interpretation”. Thus, each record in table92 includes, inleft column96, anobject104 corresponding to raw data that may be found in remotely senseddata64, and inright column100, anobject108 identifying a corresponding interpretation ofobject104. More specifically,object104₁corresponds to a house,object104₂corresponds to an office tower, and object104, corresponds to an apartment building.
• It is expected that the raw data found indata64 will include a number artefacts and other unique identifiers, and table92 will include information about such identifiers to provide CPU intower72 with additional information to use when distinguishing between various types of built forms found indata64.FIG. 7 showsobjects104 in greater detail, to provide examples of the kinds of identifiers that can be associated with each object in table92. For example, it is to be noted that eachobject104 includes ashadow112. Note thatshadow112₂is the longest,shadow112_nis shorter thanshadow112₂andshadow112₁is shorter thanshadow112_n. Such shadow length as found indata64 can be used to infer the height of a givenobject104, and therefore can assist CPU intower72 with inferring the type of built form that is associated with a given object found indata64. By determining relative heights of objects indata64, the CPU intower72 can make relative decisions about the appropriate interpretation to be given to aparticular object104. In this example, ashadow112 is used to determine the height of a given object, but it should be understood that more sophisticated means can be used to infer height—such as through the use of LIDAR. Thus, whendata64 is collected, it can be desired to use a combination of sensing modalities, i.e. photography and LIDAR, and to combine that sensed data to derive even further information and identification about objects inarea52.
• It should now be understood that a variety of different identifiers can be used in computing operations performed by the CPU intower72 to further assist in the distinguishing of various built forms found inarea52. For example, the presence of twosquares116 on each end ofobject104_nare indicative of the presence of elevator shafts, and the rectangular shape ofobject104_n, in combination with the presence of the elevator shafts and its shorter height thanobject104₂can be used to determine thatobject104_nis an apartment building. As an additional example, object104₁includes apeak line120 of its roof, as further indication that object104₁is a house.
• As another example of an identifier, close groupings of elements indata64 that resembleobjects104₁can be used as a further indicator that such an element is in fact ahouse60₁. As still a further example of an identifier, large open spaces detected around a given element found indata64 can be indicative of parking lots, thereby eliminating the likelihood that a given element indata64 is actually ahouse60₁.
• As an additional identifier, in certain geographic regions, particularly in North America, there is a limited number of built form types that recur. Due to this limited number, probability formulations can be used, in addition to the identifiers such as the identifiers listed above (or such other identifiers as may be determined to be useful from time to time), to improve the likelihood of an accurate determination of a particular built form type. Table I shows a list of such built form types and identifiers that can accompany each type that can be used in databases on storage device84 (such as table92 ) and in conjunction with software executing ontower72 to actually distinguish certain built form types from others.

• TABLE I
  Built form types

  		Activity Type
  		(Inferred From
  		Built Form
  Built Form Type	Description And Identifiers	Identification)
  Detached House	Single family dwelling,	Residential
  	commonly found in sub-urban
  	districts (residential
  	neighbourhoods).
  Semi-Detached	One to four storeys, each a	Residential
  House	discreet building on a fenced
  	parcel. Usually ridge-roofed
  Row House Or	As above, but with one wall,	Residential
  Town House	shared with another house.
  Mid-rise Apartment	A building consisting of joined	Residential
  Building	single family dwellings, as above.
  	One to four storeys with shared
  	walls.
  High-Rise Apart-	Multiple family apartment	Residential
  ment Building	building of five to eight floors,
  	often located (in north america)
  	along main streets, normally with
  	an elevator core and predictable
  	dimensions.
  Low To Mid-Rise	Free-standing buildings of 2 to 8	Office/
  Office Building	storeys, most commonly in	Administration
  	suburban locations and main
  	streets. Distinguished usually by
  	entrance and surface parking
  	patterns around them.
  High-Rise Office	Free-standing building of 8 or	Office/
  Tower	more storeys, identified	Administration
  	particularly by plate dimensions
  	and shape.
  Main Street Shop	2 to 4 storey buildings with party	Retail
  Building	walls, characterized by relatively
  	narrow street frontages,
  	composing shopping streets.
  Strip Mall	Single-storey buildings arranged	Retail
  	along or around surface parking
  	lots.
  Shopping Mall	A building composed of larger	Retail
  	and smaller elements (department
  	stores and shops, surrounded by
  	surface parking and with specific
  	truck loading patterns.
  Big Box Store	Free-standing retail store of	Retail
  	characteristic dimensions, with
  	surface parking adjacent.
  Factory	Large-plate, deep-space building	Manufacturing
  	of one or two storeys, with
  	characteristic track access and
  	loading patterns.
  Road/Highway	Long, continuous pathway that	Transportation
  	separates other discrete built form
  	types.
  Railway	Long, continuous pathway that	Transportation
  	separates other discrete built form
  	types.

• Thus, oncetower72 receivesdata64, it can perform a progressive scan (or other suitable analytical technique) thereof, parsing elements found in thedata64 representingarea52, and compare those parsed elements with the information in table92, particularly, the raw data left column86 to ultimately identify the type of built form at that particular location inarea52. More particularly, oncedata64 is parsed and objects therein are isolated, CPU intower72 can detect the presence and location ofhouses60₁, office towers60₂andapartment building60₃. In general, those of skill in the art will recognize that the tasks being performed by CPU intower72 can be based on known techniques found in commercially available software that are currently applied to determining types of terrain and modelling of buildings. See for example http://www.tec.army.mil/TD/tvd/survey/index.html of the US Army Corps of Engineers. Those of skill in the art will now understand that such known techniques provide operations and software procedures for recognizing the presence, and showing the configuration of, various physiographic forms and built forms, but are not generally suitable, in their current form, to perform the task of identifying different types of built forms. (i.e. In the military context, the purpose of gathering such information is for gaining battlefield advantage to invade or defend an urban region, and not for the purpose of planning improvements to the region.)
• Referring now toFIG. 8, a method for generating a map is indicated generally at300. In order to assist in the explanation of the method, it will be assumed thatmethod300 is operated usingapparatus68 and the above-described aspects relating thereto. Furthermore, the following discussion ofmethod300 lead to further understanding ofapparatus68. (However, it is to be understood thatapparatus68 and/ormethod300 can be varied, and need not work exactly as discussed herein in conjunction with each other, and that such variations are within the scope of the present invention.)
• Beginning first atstep310, remotely sensed data of an urban region is received. This step is essentially performed as previously described, withremote sensing device48 passing over a givenurban region44 and, with its imaging technology activated, thedevice48 gathers data, such asdata64, of aparticular region44. Thedata64 is then transferred to tower72 ofapparatus68 using appropriate network interfaces—such as via wireless directly from thedevice48, or by means of a physical media that is removed fromdevice48 and inserted into a reading device ontower72, or by any other means as desired.
• Next, atstep320, the remotely sensed data is parsed into objects with location coordinates. This step can be done according to any known or desired technique of analyzingdata64 to extract individual objects, and assign coordinates thereto, as will occur to those of skill in the art. For example,FIG. 9 showsarea52 indata64 being divided into alogical grid124, with an (X,Y) coordinate system, and with anorigin128 at the coordinates (0,0).FIG. 9 also shows four squares ingrid124 highlighted asblock132.Block132 begins at coordinate (6, 2) ongrid124. To help further explainmethod300, block132 will be discussed in greater detail as an example of howmethod300 can processdata64.
• FIG. 10 shows block132 ofdata64 in greater detail. Thus, whenstep320 is performed onblock132, image processing performed on thatblock132 leads to the identification ofobjects136₁,136₂,136₃. . .136₆as labelled onFIG. 10. Note that, the manner in which objects136₁,136₂,136₃. . .136₆are shown inblock132 is to be representative of the appearance ofobjects136₁,136₂,136₃. . .136₆of such objects as raw collected data bydevice48, as packaged withindata64. Thus objects136₁,136₂,136₃. . .136₆include a number of artefacts and other identifiers, but objects136₁,136₂,136₃. . .136₆are otherwise currently unidentified. Thus, also whenstep320 is performed onblock132, a database is created that lists those objects and their locations. Table II shows a list of location coordinates that would be created during the performance ofstep320 onblock132.

• TABLE II
  Objects and locations inBlock 132

  		Location Coordinates
  	Object Number	(X, Y)
  	Object 1361	(6.3, 3.3)
  	Object 1362	(7.1, 3.6)
  	Object 1363	(6.4, 2.8)
  	Object 1364	(7,7, 3.2)
  	Object 1365	(7.3, 2.9)
  	Object 1366	(7.5, 2.3)

• Referring againFIG. 8,method300 advances fromstep320 to step325, at which point the objects parsed atstep320 are compared with a set of expected built forms. Thus, having identifiedobjects136₁,136₂,136₃. . .136₅, each one is then compared with an expected set of built forms stored indevice84, and in particular, in table92. Using table92 and the aforementioned interpretation techniques (or such other interpretation techniques as may be desired), an interpretation of the raw data associated with eachobject136 can be obtained. During such a comparison, it will be determined thatobject136₁resemblesobject104₂;objects136₂resemblesobject104_n; and objectsobjects136₃,136₄,136₅and136₆resembleobject104₁.
• Atstep330, the type of built forms of each object is determined. Thus, using the results of the comparison atstep325,tower72 makes a determination as to the identity of each of theobjects136 identified atstep320, and adds to the information in Table II to produce a new table, of the form of Table III, that includes the built form type of that particular object.

• TABLE III
  Built form type of each object inblock 132

  		Location
  		Coordinates	Built form
  	Object Number	(X, Y)	Type
  	Object 1361	(6.3, 3.3)	Office Tower
  	Object 1362	(7.1, 3.6)	Apartment Building
  	Object 1363	(6.4, 2.8)	House
  	Object 1364	(7.7, 3.2)	House
  	Object 1365	(7.3, 2.9)	House
  	Object 1366	(7.5, 2.3)	House

• Atstep335, a built form map is generated based on the results of the performance of steps320-330. Thus,tower72 uses the information in Table III to redrawblock132. As shown inFIG. 11,tower72 thereby generates block132afromblock132 and Table III, and outputs block132aontooutput device76. (It should be understood thatblock132acan also be saved onstorage device84, or sent to another computing device onnetwork88, or output in other ways.)Block132athus represents the built forms inarea52 in iconographic form, and provides a legend as to the built form type of each icon present inblock132a.In a similar manner,tower72 can thus present all ofarea52, and/or all ofregion44 ondisplay76. In a present embodiment, it is contemplated that a full range of navigational tools are provided, to allow a user to useinput devices80 to move around area52 (or region44 ), and to zoom in or zoom out as desired.
• As additional step to step335, or as a variation to step335, block132 can be generated in the form shown inFIG. 12, indicated asblock132b,wherein a particular square bounded by a set of coordinates ongrid124 is marked in accordance with the most prevalent type of building form found within that particular square.
• The methodology used to generate the map inFIG. 12 can also be applied to generation of maps of area52 (in the form shown inFIG. 13 asarea52a) and/or the entirety of region44 (in the form shown inFIG. 14 as region44₁a.InFIG. 13,area52 has been rendered onoutput device76 intoarea52a,and is divided into fourprecincts136₁,136₂, . . .136₄. Eachprecinct136 is shaded according to the type of built form that is predominant in thatPrecinct136. Thus,precinct136₁, is shown to consist predominantly of office towers60₂;precinct136, is shown to consist predominantly ofapartment buildings60₃; whileprecincts136₃, and136₄are shown to consist predominantly ofhouses60₁. It is to be understood that other built form precinct types can be included, such as hybrids of office towers60₂and houses60₁, where a given precinct consists of more than one predominant type of built form. It is also to be understood that the criteria used to determine where oneprecinct136 begins, and another ends, is not particularly limited, and can be based on any number of factors such as user selection, political boundaries, physiography, transportation routes, combinations thereof, and/or can be based on more “fuzzy” types of logic wheretower72 is configured to create precincts according to groupings of squares inarea52 that are characterized by a predominance of a particular built form types. It should be understood that the particular shapes of precincts are thus not limited, and such shapes will depend on the criteria used to define a precinct. As an example, in a city such as Toronto, Danforth Avenue exhibits common indicia along the stretch known as “Greektown”—this oblong stretch could be selected as a criteria for a particular precinct. So too, any area where a street exhibits common indicia such that it is desirable or logical to define that street as a precinct. It is also contemplated that new maps can be quickly generated based on user inputted changes to such criteria.
• It will now be understood that where a map of the type shown inFIG. 13 is generated for anentire region44, comparisons of precincts characterized by predominant built form types, and distributions thereof, betweendifferent regions44 can be readily compared. For example, where a map of the type inFIG. 14 is created forToronto44₁, and another forNew York44₃, (not shown) a comparison can be made of the predominant built form types and their distribution throughout eachrespective region44. It should now also be understood that the example map inFIG. 14 includes a broad range of built form types based on the list of built form types shown in Table I. It should be noted, however, that the list in Table I is non-exhaustive, and that other built forms will now occur to those of skill in the art, For example, a semi-permanent, single detached, trailer is an additional type of built form not listed in Table I.
• The maps shown inFIGS. 11-14 are primarily directed to built form. In other embodiments of the invention, however, maps can be generated that include information in addition to built form. Such maps include other indicia that can used to be characterize a particular region, including physiographic forms, activity patterns, and use intensity. The addition of physiographic forms is relatively straightforward using existing remote sensing and mapping techniques. Examples of existing commercial packages that can be used as part of performing this addition of physiographic forms include ERDAS Imagine (from Leica Geosystems GIS & Mapping, LLC, Worldwide Headquarters, 2801 Buford Highway, N.E., Atlanta, Ga. 30329-2137 USA) and PCI Geomatics (from50 West Wilmot Street, Richmond Hill, Ontario Canada, L4B 1M5) for image processing. The commercial packages from ESRI ArcGIS (from ESRI, 380 New York Street, Redlands, Calif. 92373-8100, USA) and Mapinfo (from Mapinfo, 26 Wellington Street East,Suite 500, Toronto, ON M5E 1S2) can be used for mapping.
• In the previous embodiment, a certain degree of activity pattern was inferable due to the process of recognizing the built form types—i.e. that houses and apartments indicate an activity of “residence”, while office towers indicate an activity pattern of “employment”. However, in other embodiments, activity patterns and/or use intensity is added using geospatial and/or demographic data corresponding to the region being mapped. Geospatial data can include information that identifies the geographic location and characteristics of natural or constructed features and boundaries on the earth. Geospatial data information may be derived from, among other things, remote sensing, mapping, and surveying technologies. Demographic data which can be considered a subset of geospatial data, and can include statistics relating births, deaths, ages, incomes etc. that illustrate the conditions of life in a givenregion44.
• As an example of the foregoing, inFIG. 15demographic data140 is input intotower72 in conjunction withdata64 to be used in the generation of an enhanced map. As used herein, the sources ofdemographic data140 can be multi-fold, to include data that is collected and maintained by government organizations, such as census data, taxation data, land registry data, employment surveys, and to include data that is collected and maintained by non-government organizations. Thus, the means by whichdemographic data140 is actually inputted intotower72 will depend on the form in which it currently exists, and with appropriate consideration to privacy laws. Thus, astower72 receives bothdemographic data140 and remote senseddata64,tower72 will include further functionality to correlate the physical areas inregion44 and/orarea52 that correlate with thedemographic data140 being collected. (It should be noted that for the sake of privacy, readily-available census data is often aggregated to a spatial unit, e.g. census tract or enumeration area, rather than by address. In order to correlate it with the built form types, the data can be disaggregated and related to the individual buildings.)
• Thus, one significant source ofdemographic data140 that can be used to determine activity patterns and/or intensity of use withinregion44,area52, block132, or any given built form therein is census data. Census data that includes addresses can be correlated to the built forms detected usingmethod300. Census data can be used to determine, for example, how many individuals reside in the house identified asobject136₃inFIG. 10. In this manner, the density of the population residing within anyprecinct136 can be determined. Theprecinct136 can then be iconographically represented as a residential precinct, and in a manner that indicates the actual density of people living in that precinct. An example of a map outputted using this data is shown inFIG. 16.Precinct136a₁is indicated to have zero to ten persons per square meter residing in thatprecinct136a₁.Precinct136a₂is indicated to have greater than100 persons per square meter residing in thatprecinct136a₂.Precincts136a₃and136a₄is indicated to have ten to one-hundred persons per square meter residing in those precincts. It should now be understood that the type of map inFIG. 16 can be expanded to the regional scale, and again readily permit comparisons betweendifferent regions44 for which maps of that type are generated. (Note that while the units of persons per square meter is chosen, and suitable unit can be used, such as persons per hectare, etc.)
• As an additional comment however, while the map inFIG. 16 is described as having been generated usingdemographic data140, it can also be possible to infer average levels of occupancy based on the determined built form type from Table I, and use that inferred level to develop the map inFIG. 16.
• By the same token, other types ofdemographic data140 can be used to determine the number of employees working at the office tower identified asobject136₁inFIG. 10. Other types of ,activity patterns, intensity of uses and other indicia to create specific precincts will now occur to those of skill in the art. Table IV below, however, provides an exemplary list of activity patterns, and metrics for intensity of use to accompany those patterns that can be used to generate maps using the teachings herein.

• TABLE IV
  Activity Patterns and Use Intensity

  	Activity	Use Intensity Metric
  	Residence	Average number of persons
  		per square meter residing
  		in precinct
  		Average number of persons
  		residing per cubic meter in
  		precinct
  	Employment	Average number of persons
  		per square meter employed
  		in precinct
  	Retail	Number of stores per
  		square meter in precinct
  	Transport	Number of persons using
  		transport through corridor
  		per day

• In general, it should now be understood that maps ofregions44 can be generated using the teachings herein in an automated and relatively efficient manner. Further, it should be understood that such maps, at the regional level, can be generated to include a plurality of precincts, where each of those precincts is uniquely identifiable according to a set of trends or commonalities between a set of indicia that can be used to characterize an urban region. Such precinct maps ofregions44 can be used for urban planning purposes, to compare with other urban regions, and/or in their own right, to determine how best to add, replace and/or maintain infrastructure in an urban region. Precinct maps can be generated according to a specific urban planning project or question. For example, if it is to be determined whether a particular region can support a new subway line, then a precinct map can be generated that identifies residential precincts and employment precincts, with the view to choosing a path for the subway line between such precincts provided that such precincts appear to have populations that are able to support the new subway line. Such precinct maps can also be used for a variety of other planning purposes, including airports, cell phone deployments, new highway construction, sewage and water treatment facilities, power line and supply requirements and the like. Other types of precinct maps for other types of planning purposes will now occur to those of skill in the art.
• Referring now toFIG. 17, a method for generating a map is indicated generally at500.Method500 can he operated usingapparatus68 and the above-described aspects relating thereto. It is to be understood thatapparatus68 and/ormethod500 can be varied, and need not work exactly as discussed herein in conjunction with each other. Atstep510, geographic data is received. The data can be received as previously described, based on satellite images, or it can be received as existing GIS data. Atstep515, the received data is parsed. The data is parsed using any technique that corresponds with the desired types of indicia to be presented in the final map to be generated. One way to parse the data is as previously described withmethod300, however, any types of processing techniques, including known image processing and GIS processing techniques can be used. Next, atstep520, indicia are generated and associated with their respective geospatial location in the region of geographic data that was received atstep510. Any type of indicium, or indicia or combinations thereof, can be generated, including built form, activity pattern, intensity of use etc,. Atstep525, precinct boundaries in the region of geographic data received atstep510 are defined using any desired criteria, such as the criteria previously described. Atstep530, the indicia generated atstep520 are aggregated and overlayed onto the defined precincts boundaries to generate a map of the region comprised of precincts that are identified according to the particular chosen set of indicia.
• It is to be reiterated that the criteria or other means used to define a precinct are not particularly limited. For example, Tables V-VII show an example of measurements that can be could be generated byapparatus68, and/or bymethod500 for an exemplary precinct onarea52, called “Precinct 1”. Precinct “1”, may, for example, appear in a map such as the type shown inFIG. 14. Table V relates to intensity measurements of physiography; Table VI relates to intensity measurements of built form; while Table VII relates to intensity measurements of activity. The values associated with each field in the respective table reflect an intensity level, expressed in terms of percentage.

• TABLE V
  Physiography and Intensity For Precint “1”

  	Soil	Tree	Water	Rock
  	70%	10%	10%	10%

• TABLE VI
  Built Form and Intensity For Precint “1”

  	House	Office Tower	Apartment	Road/Highway
  	60%	0%	15%	25%

• TABLE VII
  Activity and Intensity For Precint “1”

  Residential	Commercial	ResidentialRoad	Major Road
  80%	0%	10%	10%

• The data gathered in Tables V-VII, when tabulated byapparatus68, can result in a graph of the type shown inFIG. 18, which is characterized as a precinct of type “A”. Such characterizing of Precinct “1” as of being type “A” can be based on certain threshold percentages for each type/category of indicia and associated intensity. An example of such threshold values is shown in Table VIII.

• TABLE VIII
  Threshold values for Precincts of type “A”

  	Soil	Tree	Water	Rock
  Physiography	Minimum
  60%,	Minimum 0%	Minimum	0%	Minimum	0%
  	Maximum
  80%	Maximum	10%	Maximum	10%	Maximum	10%
  	House	Office Tower	Apartment	Road/Highway
  BuiltForm	Minimum	50%,	Minimum 0%	Minimum	0%	Minimum 15%
  	Maximum 90%	Maximum	10%	Maximum	20%	Maximum	40%
  	Residential	Commercial	Residential Road	MajorRoad
  Activity	Minimum
  70%	Minimum	0%	Minimum	10%	Minimum	0%
  	Maximum
  100%	Maximum	10%	Maximum	20%	Maximum	10%

• Thus, using the threshold values for a precinct of type “A”, (and/or a plurality of different precinct types) maps of different urban regions can be generated to locate where there are common precincts of type “A”. Other uses for obtaining maps that identify precincts will now occur to those of skill in the art. By the same token, it will now occur to those of skill in the art that any number and combinations of different types of indicia can be used. Furthermore, while Tables V-VIII all refer to percentages of intensity, it should also be understood that Tables can merely look for the presence or absence of a particular type of indicia.
• While only specific combinations of the various features and components of the present invention have been discussed herein, it will be apparent to those of skill in the art that desired subsets of the disclosed features and components and/or alternative combinations of these features and components can be utilized, as desired. For example, other means of remotely sensing data can be used—e.g. electronic survey conducted by internet, involving the distribution of a survey to individual subscribers who own a particular building within the region being surveyed.
• It should now be apparent to those of skill in the art that the present invention provides a novel Geographic Information System (“GIS”). It is also to be understood thatmethod300 is but one particular way of interpreting remotely sensed data to generate the types of maps inFIGS. 11, 12, 13, 14 and 16 and variations and/or combinations thereof, and that additional methodologies can be employed, as desired. For example, another approach is to first use geospatial data to segment or parse areas in the remotely sensed data into “manageable” units that exhibit similar characteristics. Next, census tracts are located in the region that have a high population density by analyzing that variable for the entire region using an off-the-shelf GIS. Next, if it is assumed that that high population densities are the result of a high built form density, e.g. high-rise tower or slab apartments, the RS data for those same census tracts can be isolated and examined. The derived built form can then be verified using other imagery data (e.g. aerial photography) and presented using metrics that characterize a particular built form, i.e. high-rise tower or slab apartments. In this instance geospatial data informs the remotely sensed data and is usable in the assumptions about characteristics of built form. In general, any geospatial feature and tabular data that can be obtained and used to infer built form can be employed in other embodiments of the invention.
• Further, while the built form maps ofFIGS. 13 and 14 are one type of output that can be generated using the present invention, it should now also be understood that determined built forms can also be used to infer certain activities, and/or intensities thereof, and/or other indicia used to generate other types precinct maps forregion44.
• In a further embodiment of the invention, maps of type shown inFIGS. 11, 12, 13, 14 and 16, and other maps showing other indicia, can be generated for a given period of time, and then “played back” to the viewer to show an animation of change over time of a particular region, or portion thereof.
• Another particular embodiment of the present invention is the standardization of measurements used to create precincts formultiple regions44, so that ready comparisons can be made betweendifferent regions44. The measurements used to identify any particular precinct can be based on any one or more of the indicia of physiographics, built form, activity patterns, etc. and/or intensities and/or combinations thereof, in conjunction with area, volume or other geographic metrics of a particular region. For example, a measurement can include a ratio of one type of an activity pattern to another type of activity pattern for a give area.
• The teachings herein can have a broad range of applications, in particular for use in urban planning and commercial applications. For example:
• • 1. Standardized maps can be provided of the indicia associated with different regions. These can be useful to urban specialists and to the general public, in providing an understanding.
  • 2. Comparisons between these regions can be readily performed due to the standardized approach to create such maps.
  • 3. Growth patterns of a particular region can be recognized through the identification at regular intervals of the extent and classification of new precincts and of changes in established areas (with regard to built form, activities and intensities).
  • 4. Strategic investment decisions can be made for an urban regions—in office, retail or residential development, or in land, or for house or other built form purchases
  • 5. Measuring the densities of development, both gross and net, and in particular for measuring new development.
  • 6. Identification of opportunities across a region for urban intensification can be performed. For example, by identifying vacant or underused lands around subway or light-rail stations.
  • 7. As a means of assessing effects of new investments in infrastructure (e.g. a rail line) or a sectoral investment (such as a “big box” retail centre).
  • 8. At the urban regional level, the embodiments herein can be used as a basis and tool for constructing consistent, comprehensive and sufficiently informative regional growth plans for infrastructural investments (public transport, roads, sewerage, water, etc.) and the necessary accompanying strategies for the deployment of buildings and activities. An example of the importance of this understanding is that the United States government has recently begun to require of all urban regions that they have regional strategies that promote increased reliance on public transportation if they are to receive allocations from the Highway Fund for capital transportation, purposes. This requires a region to obtain regional understandings of its component precincts, activities and movement patterns, and the present and anticipated intensities. Thus, the teachings herein can be incorporated into broader methodologies used to perform actual urban planning and as part of formulas used to calculate government grant allocations.
• The present invention provides a novel system and method for mapping. The maps generated according to the teachings herein provide frameworks to understand, at the regional scale, the existing patterns and trends of built form and activities, and their intensity; and the patterns of communications. Since, in these respects, urban regions vary greatly, prior art technique do not allow for ready comparisons of different urban regions. For example, the Ranstadt region (composed of Amsterdam, Rotterdam, the Hague and other cities) is poly-nuclear. The London region is highly concentric. The Pearl River Delta (probably the world's largest urban region) tends to be a carpet of highly mixed activity, with several highly compact and intensive nodes (Hong Kong, Shenzhen, Guangzhou, Zhuhai). Again, Toronto has an unusually compact centre and low-density suburban periphery, a pattern that appears to be in the process of reinforcement with very low density exurban extensions and a great wave of central urban intensification. Toronto, like virtually all North American urban regions has, in the past four decades, experienced an explosion of suburban office space, most of it located in a large number of small and moderately-sized low density clusters along major highways and freeways. In North American urban regions this kind of office sprawl now constitutes, more or less, half of the regional office space. The present invention provides a novel system and method for generating maps to understand the aforementioned conditions and patterns. Maps generated using the teachings herein can be provided that allow ready comparisons between different regions, on a consistent, comprehensive, efficient and/or low cost basis. This is generally not possible using prior art mapping techniques of in urban regions, nor is it possible to provide a level of information that provides a ready and proper basis for land use/transport policy and program formulation.
• The above-described embodiments of the invention are intended to be examples of the present invention and alterations and modifications may be effected thereto, by those of skill in the art, without departing from the scope of the invention which is defined solely by the claims appended hereto.

Claims (18)

1. A map of an urban region comprising:

a first set of indicia representing physiographic characteristics of said region;

a second set of indicia representing a plurality of different types of built forms, and their locations, that are located within said region; and

a third set of indicia representing patterns of human activity associated with both said physiographic characteristics and said built forms.

2. The map ofclaim 1 further comprising a fourth set of indicia representing an intensity level associated with at least one of said sets of indicia representing a degree to which said indicia occurs.

3. A map of an urban region comprising representations that identify at least two different precincts, each of said precincts comprising a first set of indicia representing physiographic characteristics of said region; a second set of indicia representing at least three different types of built forms, and their locations, that are located within said region; a third set of indicia representing patterns of human activity associated with both said physiographic characteristics and said built forms.

4. The map ofclaim 3 further comprising a fourth set of indicia representing an intensity level that at least one of said sets of indicia occurs and wherein said at least a portion of said sets of indicia respective to each of said precincts are different.

5. A method of generating a map comprising the steps of:

receiving remotely sensed data of an urban region that includes a plurality of built forms;

determining a type of each said built form in said remotely sensed data based on a comparison of said built forms found in said remotely sensed data with a known database of a plurality of different types of built forms; and

generating user output containing indicia identifying said determined type of each built form in said region, said user output presented in a graphical form that represents said region and including a location of each said built form according to said determined type.

6. The method ofclaim 5 wherein said database contains data representing at least one of a detached house, a semi-detached house, a row house, a mid-rise apartment building, a high-rise apartment building, and a single detached trailer, a mid-rise office building, a high-rise office tower, a main street shop building, a strip mall, a shopping mall, a big box store, a factory, a road, a highway, an electricity transmission right of way, a railway.

7-16. (canceled)

17. The method according toclaim 5 wherein said user output is in a graphical form that represents said region; said graphical form including a plurality of squares bounded by a set of coordinates on a grid; said squares representing a predominance of said determined type of built form located in each said square.

18. The method ofclaim 5 wherein said graphical user output further includes a plurality of precincts, each said precinct formed based on groupings of substantially identical built forms within a predefined area of said region.

19. The method ofclaim 18 wherein said precinct is formed based on at least one additional criteria in addition to built forms.

20. The method ofclaim 19 wherein said at least one additional criteria includes at least one of a user selection, political boundaries, physiography, and human activity.

21. The method ofclaim 5 wherein said determining step additionally includes determining said type of said built forms based on at least one artifact within said remotely sensed data; said at least one artifact corresponding to at least one identifier stored in said known database; said identifier associated with a corresponding known type of a built form.

22. The method ofclaim 21 wherein said known type of a built form is an apartment building; said artifact including plurality of squares within a rectangular; said at least one identifier corresponding to said artifact being a pair elevator shafts.

23. The method ofclaim 21 wherein said at least one artifact including a shadow; said at least one identifier corresponding to a first one of said artifacts being a first shadow of a first length; said at least one additional identifier corresponding to a second one of said artifacts being a second shadow of a second length greater than said first length; wherein said determining step includes corresponding said shadows to a respective one of said built form types.

24. The method ofclaim 23 wherein said first shadow corresponds with a house and said second shadow corresponds with an apartment building.

25. The method ofclaim 23 wherein said first shadow corresponds with an apartment building and said second shadow corresponds with an office tower.

26. The method ofclaim 21 wherein said known type of a built form is a house; said artifact is an inclined roof; said at least one identifier corresponding to said artifact being a peak line in said roof.

27-39. (canceled)

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