US20140170753A1 - Crispr-cas systems and methods for altering expression of gene products - Google Patents

Abstract

The invention provides for systems, methods, and compositions for altering expression of target gene sequences and related gene products. Provided are vectors and vector systems, some of which encode one or more components of a CRISPR complex, as well as methods for the design and use of such vectors. Also provided are methods of directing CRISPR complex formation in eukaryotic cells and methods for utilizing the CRISPR-Cas system.

Description

RELATED APPLICATIONS AND INCORPORATION BY REFERENCE
• This application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/054,414 filed Oct. 15, 2013 which claims priority to U.S.provisional patent application 61/842,322 having Broad reference BI-2011/008A, entitled CRISPR-CAS SYSTEMS AND METHODS FOR ALTERING EXPRESSION OF GENE PRODUCTS filed on Jul. 2, 2013. Priority is also claimed to U.S.provisional patent applications 61/736,527, 61/748,427, 61/791,409 and 61/835,931 having Broad reference BI-2011/008/WSGR Docket No. 44063-701.101, BI-2011/008/WSGR Docket No. 44063-701.102, Broad reference BI-2011/008/VP Docket No. 44790.02.2003 and BI-2011/008/VP Docket No. 44790.03.2003 respectively, all entitled SYSTEMS METHODS AND COMPOSITIONS FOR SEQUENCE MANIPULATION filed on Dec. 12, 2012, Jan. 2, 2013, Mar. 15, 2013 and Jun. 17, 2013, respectively.
• The foregoing applications, and all documents cited therein or during their prosecution (“appln cited documents”) and all documents cited or referenced in the appln cited documents, and all documents cited or referenced herein (“herein cited documents”), and all documents cited or referenced in herein cited documents, together with any manufacturer's instructions, descriptions, product specifications, and product sheets for any products mentioned herein or in any document incorporated by reference herein, are hereby incorporated herein by reference, and may be employed in the practice of the invention. More specifically, all referenced documents are incorporated by reference to the same extent as if each individual document was specifically and individually indicated to be incorporated by reference.
STATEMENT AS TO FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH
• This invention was made with government support under NIH Pioneer Award DP1MH 100706, awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention.
FIELD OF THE INVENTION
• The present invention generally relates to systems, methods and compositions used for the control of gene expression involving sequence targeting, such as genome perturbation or gene-editing, that may use vector systems related to Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats (CRISPR) and components thereof.
SEQUENCE LISTING
• The instant application contains a Sequence Listing which has been submitted in ASCII format via EFS-Web and is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety. Said ASCII copy, created on Sep. 6, 2013, is named 44790.05.2003_SL.txt and is 56,781 bytes in size.
BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION
• Recent advances in genome sequencing techniques and analysis methods have significantly accelerated the ability to catalog and map genetic factors associated with a diverse range of biological functions and diseases. Precise genome targeting technologies are needed to enable systematic reverse engineering of causal genetic variations by allowing selective perturbation of individual genetic elements, as well as to advance synthetic biology, biotechnological, and medical applications. Although genome-editing techniques such as designer zinc fingers, transcription activator-like effectors (TALEs), or homing meganucleases are available for producing targeted genome perturbations, there remains a need for new genome engineering technologies that are affordable, easy to set up, scalable, and amenable to targeting multiple positions within the eukaryotic genome.
SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION
• There exists a pressing need for alternative and robust systems and techniques for sequence targeting with a wide array of applications. This invention addresses this need and provides related advantages. The CRISPR/Cas or the CRISPR-Cas system (both terms are used interchangeably throughout this application) does not require the generation of customized proteins to target specific sequences but rather a single Cas enzyme can be programmed by a short RNA molecule to recognize a specific DNA target, in other words the Cas enzyme can be recruited to a specific DNA target using said short RNA molecule. Adding the CRISPR-Cas system to the repertoire of genome sequencing techniques and analysis methods may significantly simplify the methodology and accelerate the ability to catalog and map genetic factors associated with a diverse range of biological functions and diseases. To utilize the CRISPR-Cas system effectively for genome editing without deleterious effects, it is critical to understand aspects of engineering and optimization of these genome engineering tools, which are aspects of the claimed invention.
• In one aspect, the invention provides a method for altering or modifying expression of one or more gene products. The said method may comprise introducing into a eukaryotic cell containing and expressing DNA molecules encoding the one or more gene products an engineered, non-naturally occurring vector system comprising one or more vectors comprising: a) a first regulatory element operably linked to one or more Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats (CRISPR)—CRISPR associated (Cas) system guide RNAs that hybridize with target sequences in genomic loci of the DNA molecules encoding the one or more gene products, b) a second regulatory element operably linked to a Type-II Cas9 protein, wherein components (a) and (b) are located on same or different vectors of the system, whereby the guide RNAs target the genomic loci of the DNA molecules encoding the one or more gene products and the Cas9 protein cleaves the genomic loci of the DNA molecules encoding the one or more gene products, whereby expression of the one or more gene products is altered; and, wherein the Cas9 protein and the guide RNAs do not naturally occur together. The invention comprehends the expression of two or more gene products being altered and the vectors of the system further comprising one or more nuclear localization signal(s) (NLS(s)). The invention comprehends the guide RNAs comprising a guide sequence fused to a tracr sequence. The invention further comprehends the Cas9 protein being codon optimized for expression in the eukaryotic cell. In a preferred embodiment the eukaryotic cell is a mammalian cell or a human cell. In a further embodiment of the invention, the expression of one or more of the gene products is decreased. In aspects of the invention cleaving the genomic loci of the DNA molecule encoding the gene product encompasses cleaving either one or both strands of the DNA duplex.
• In one aspect, the invention provides an engineered, programmable, non-naturally occurring CRISPR-Cas system comprising a Cas9 protein and one or more guide RNAs that target the genomic loci of DNA molecules encoding one or more gene products in a eukaryotic cell and the Cas9 protein cleaves the genomic loci of the DNA molecules encoding the one or more gene products, whereby expression of the one or more gene products is altered; and, wherein the Cas9 protein and the guide RNAs do not naturally occur together. The invention comprehends the expression of two or more gene products being altered and the CRISPR-Cas system further comprising one or more NLS(s). The invention comprehends the guide RNAs comprising a guide sequence fused to a tracr sequence. The invention further comprehends the Cas9 protein being codon optimized for expression in the eukaryotic cell. In a preferred embodiment the eukaryotic cell is a mammalian cell or a human cell. In aspects of the invention cleaving the genomic loci of the DNA molecule encoding the gene product encompasses cleaving either one or both strands of the DNA duplex.
• In another aspect, the invention provides an engineered, non-naturally occurring vector system comprising one or more vectors comprising a) a first regulatory element operably linked to one or more CRISPR-Cas system guide RNAs that hybridize with target sequences in genomic loci of DNA molecules encoding one or more gene products, b) a second regulatory element operably linked to a Type-II Cas9 protein, wherein components (a) and (b) are located on same or different vectors of the system, whereby the guide RNAs target the genomic loci of the DNA molecules encoding the one or more gene products in a eukaryotic cell and the Cas9 protein cleaves the genomic loci of the DNA molecules encoding the one or more gene products, whereby expression of the one or more gene products is altered; and, wherein the Cas9 protein and the guide RNAs do not naturally occur together. The invention comprehends the expression of two or more gene products being altered and the vectors of the system further comprising one or more nuclear localization signal(s) (NLS(s)). The invention comprehends the guide RNAs comprising a guide sequence fused to a tracr sequence. The invention further comprehends the Cas9 protein being codon optimized for expression in the eukaryotic cell. In a preferred embodiment the eukaryotic cell is a mammalian cell or a human cell. In a further embodiment of the invention, the expression of one or more of the gene products is decreased. In aspects of the invention cleaving the genomic loci of the DNA molecule encoding the gene product encompasses cleaving either one or both strands of the DNA duplex.
• In one aspect, the invention provides a vector system comprising one or more vectors. In some embodiments, the system comprises: (a) a first regulatory element operably linked to a tracr mate sequence and one or more insertion sites for inserting one or more guide sequences upstream of the tracr mate sequence, wherein when expressed, the guide sequence directs sequence-specific binding of a CRISPR complex to a target sequence in a eukaryotic cell, wherein the CRISPR complex comprises a CRISPR enzyme complexed with (1) the guide sequence that is hybridized to the target sequence, and (2) the tracr mate sequence that is hybridized to the tracr sequence; and (b) a second regulatory element operably linked to an enzyme-coding sequence encoding said CRISPR enzyme comprising a nuclear localization sequence; wherein components (a) and (b) are located on the same or different vectors of the system. In some embodiments, component (a) further comprises the tracr sequence downstream of the tracr mate sequence under the control of the first regulatory element. In some embodiments, component (a) further comprises two or more guide sequences operably linked to the first regulatory element, wherein when expressed, each of the two or more guide sequences direct sequence specific binding of a CRISPR complex to a different target sequence in a eukaryotic cell. In some embodiments, the system comprises the tracr sequence under the control of a third regulatory element, such as a polymerase III promoter. In some embodiments, the tracr sequence exhibits at least 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 95%, or 99% of sequence complementarity along the length of the tracr mate sequence when optimally aligned. Determining optimal alignment is within the purview of one of skill in the art. For example, there are publically and commercially available alignment algorithms and programs such as, but not limited to, ClustalW, Smith-Waterman in matlab, Bowtie, Geneious, Biopython and SeqMan. In some embodiments, the CRISPR complex comprises one or more nuclear localization sequences of sufficient strength to drive accumulation of said CRISPR complex in a detectable amount in the nucleus of a eukaryotic cell. Without wishing to be bound by theory, it is believed that a nuclear localization sequence is not necessary for CRISPR complex activity in eukaryotes, but that including such sequences enhances activity of the system, especially as to targeting nucleic acid molecules in the nucleus. In some embodiments, the CRISPR enzyme is a type II CRISPR system enzyme. In some embodiments, the CRISPR enzyme is a Cas9 enzyme. In some embodiments, the Cas9 enzyme isS. pneumoniae, S. pyogenes, orS. thermophilusCas9, and may include mutated Cas9 derived from these organisms. The enzyme may be a Cas9 homolog or ortholog. In some embodiments, the CRISPR enzyme is codon-optimized for expression in a eukaryotic cell. In some embodiments, the CRISPR enzyme directs cleavage of one or two strands at the location of the target sequence. In some embodiments, the first regulatory element is a polymerase III promoter. In some embodiments, the second regulatory element is a polymerase II promoter. In some embodiments, the guide sequence is at least 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 25 nucleotides, or between 10-30, or between 15-25, or between 15-20 nucleotides in length. In general, and throughout this specification, the term “vector” refers to a nucleic acid molecule capable of transporting another nucleic acid to which it has been linked. Vectors include, but are not limited to, nucleic acid molecules that are single-stranded, double-stranded, or partially double-stranded; nucleic acid molecules that comprise one or more free ends, no free ends (e.g. circular); nucleic acid molecules that comprise DNA, RNA, or both; and other varieties of polynucleotides known in the art. One type of vector is a “plasmid,” which refers to a circular double stranded DNA loop into which additional DNA segments can be inserted, such as by standard molecular cloning techniques. Another type of vector is a viral vector, wherein virally-derived DNA or RNA sequences are present in the vector for packaging into a virus (e.g. retroviruses, replication defective retroviruses, adenoviruses, replication defective adenoviruses, and adeno-associated viruses). Viral vectors also include polynucleotides carried by a virus for transfection into a host cell. Certain vectors are capable of autonomous replication in a host cell into which they are introduced (e.g. bacterial vectors having a bacterial origin of replication and episomal mammalian vectors). Other vectors (e.g., non-episomal mammalian vectors) are integrated into the genome of a host cell upon introduction into the host cell, and thereby are replicated along with the host genome. Moreover, certain vectors are capable of directing the expression of genes to which they are operatively-linked. Such vectors are referred to herein as “expression vectors.” Common expression vectors of utility in recombinant DNA techniques are often in the form of plasmids.
• Recombinant expression vectors can comprise a nucleic acid of the invention in a form suitable for expression of the nucleic acid in a host cell, which means that the recombinant expression vectors include one or more regulatory elements, which may be selected on the basis of the host cells to be used for expression, that is operatively-linked to the nucleic acid sequence to be expressed. Within a recombinant expression vector, “operably linked” is intended to mean that the nucleotide sequence of interest is linked to the regulatory element(s) in a manner that allows for expression of the nucleotide sequence (e.g. in an in vitro transcription/translation system or in a host cell when the vector is introduced into the host cell).
• The term “regulatory element” is intended to include promoters, enhancers, internal ribosomal entry sites (IRES), and other expression control elements (e.g. transcription termination signals, such as polyadenylation signals and poly-U sequences). Such regulatory elements are described, for example, in Goeddel, GENE EXPRESSION TECHNOLOGY: METHODS IN ENZYMOLOGY 185, Academic Press, San Diego, Calif. (1990). Regulatory elements include those that direct constitutive expression of a nucleotide sequence in many types of host cell and those that direct expression of the nucleotide sequence only in certain host cells (e.g., tissue-specific regulatory sequences). A tissue-specific promoter may direct expression primarily in a desired tissue of interest, such as muscle, neuron, bone, skin, blood, specific organs (e.g. liver, pancreas), or particular cell types (e.g. lymphocytes). Regulatory elements may also direct expression in a temporal-dependent manner, such as in a cell-cycle dependent or developmental stage-dependent manner, which may or may not also be tissue or cell-type specific. In some embodiments, a vector comprises one or more pol III promoter (e.g. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or more pol I promoters), one or more pol II promoters (e.g. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or more pol II promoters), one or more pol I promoters (e.g. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or more pol I promoters), or combinations thereof. Examples of pol II promoters include, but are not limited to, U6 and H1 promoters. Examples of pol II promoters include, but are not limited to, the retroviral Rous sarcoma virus (RSV) LTR promoter (optionally with the RSV enhancer), the cytomegalovirus (CMV) promoter (optionally with the CMV enhancer) [see, e.g., Boshart et al, Cell, 41:521-530 (1985)], the SV40 promoter, the dihydrofolate reductase promoter, the β-actin promoter, the phosphoglycerol kinase (PGK) promoter, and the EF1α promoter. Also encompassed by the term “regulatory element” are enhancer elements, such as WPRE; CMV enhancers; the R-U5′ segment in LTR of HTLV-I (Mol. Cell. Biol., Vol. 8(1), p. 466-472, 1988); SV40 enhancer; and the intron sequence betweenexons 2 and 3 of rabbit β-globin (Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA., Vol. 78(3), p. 1527-31, 1981). It will be appreciated by those skilled in the art that the design of the expression vector can depend on such factors as the choice of the host cell to be transformed, the level of expression desired, etc. A vector can be introduced into host cells to thereby produce transcripts, proteins, or peptides, including fusion proteins or peptides, encoded by nucleic acids as described herein (e.g., clustered regularly interspersed short palindromic repeats (CRISPR) transcripts, proteins, enzymes, mutant forms thereof, fusion proteins thereof, etc.).
• Advantageous vectors include lentiviruses and adeno-associated viruses, and types of such vectors can also be selected for targeting particular types of cells.
• In one aspect, the invention provides a eukaryotic host cell comprising (a) a first regulatory element operably linked to a tracr mate sequence and one or more insertion sites for inserting one or more guide sequences upstream of the tracr mate sequence, wherein when expressed, the guide sequence directs sequence-specific binding of a CRISPR complex to a target sequence in a eukaryotic cell, wherein the CRISPR complex comprises a CRISPR enzyme complexed with (1) the guide sequence that is hybridized to the target sequence, and (2) the tracr mate sequence that is hybridized to the tracr sequence; and/or (b) a second regulatory element operably linked to an enzyme-coding sequence encoding said CRISPR enzyme comprising a nuclear localization sequence. In some embodiments, the host cell comprises components (a) and (b). In some embodiments, component (a), component (b), or components (a) and (b) are stably integrated into a genome of the host eukaryotic cell. In some embodiments, component (a) further comprises the tracr sequence downstream of the tracr mate sequence under the control of the first regulatory element. In some embodiments, component (a) further comprises two or more guide sequences operably linked to the first regulatory element, wherein when expressed, each of the two or more guide sequences direct sequence specific binding of a CRISPR complex to a different target sequence in a eukaryotic cell. In some embodiments, the eukaryotic host cell further comprises a third regulatory element, such as a polymerase III promoter, operably linked to said tracr sequence. In some embodiments, the tracr sequence exhibits at least 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 95%, or 99% of sequence complementarity along the length of the tracr mate sequence when optimally aligned. The enzyme may be a Cas9 homolog or ortholog. In some embodiments, the CRISPR enzyme is codon-optimized for expression in a eukaryotic cell. In some embodiments, the CRISPR enzyme directs cleavage of one or two strands at the location of the target sequence. In some embodiments, the CRISPR enzyme lacks DNA strand cleavage activity. In some embodiments, the first regulatory element is a polymerase III promoter. In some embodiments, the second regulatory element is a polymerase II promoter. In some embodiments, the guide sequence is at least 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 25 nucleotides, or between 10-30, or between 15-25, or between 15-20 nucleotides in length. In an aspect, the invention provides a non-human eukaryotic organism; preferably a multicellular eukaryotic organism, comprising a eukaryotic host cell according to any of the described embodiments. In other aspects, the invention provides a eukaryotic organism; preferably a multicellular eukaryotic organism, comprising a eukaryotic host cell according to any of the described embodiments. The organism in some embodiments of these aspects may be an animal; for example a mammal. Also, the organism may be an arthropod such as an insect. The organism also may be a plant. Further, the organism may be a fungus.
• In one aspect, the invention provides a kit comprising one or more of the components described herein. In some embodiments, the kit comprises a vector system and instructions for using the kit. In some embodiments, the vector system comprises (a) a first regulatory element operably linked to a tracr mate sequence and one or more insertion sites for inserting one or more guide sequences upstream of the tracr mate sequence, wherein when expressed, the guide sequence directs sequence-specific binding of a CRISPR complex to a target sequence in a eukaryotic cell, wherein the CRISPR complex comprises a CRISPR enzyme complexed with (1) the guide sequence that is hybridized to the target sequence, and (2) the tracr mate sequence that is hybridized to the tracr sequence; and/or (b) a second regulatory element operably linked to an enzyme-coding sequence encoding said CRISPR enzyme comprising a nuclear localization sequence. In some embodiments, the kit comprises components (a) and (b) located on the same or different vectors of the system. In some embodiments, component (a) further comprises the tracr sequence downstream of the tracr mate sequence under the control of the first regulatory element. In some embodiments, component (a) further comprises two or more guide sequences operably linked to the first regulatory element, wherein when expressed, each of the two or more guide sequences direct sequence specific binding of a CRISPR complex to a different target sequence in a eukaryotic cell. In some embodiments, the system further comprises a third regulatory element, such as a polymerase III promoter, operably linked to said tracr sequence. In some embodiments, the tracr sequence exhibits at least 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 95%, or 99% of sequence complementarity along the length of the tracr mate sequence when optimally aligned. In some embodiments, the CRISPR enzyme comprises one or more nuclear localization sequences of sufficient strength to drive accumulation of said CRISPR enzyme in a detectable amount in the nucleus of a eukaryotic cell. In some embodiments, the CRISPR enzyme is a type II CRISPR system enzyme. In some embodiments, the CRISPR enzyme is a Cas9 enzyme. In some embodiments, the Cas9 enzyme isS. pneumoniae, S. pyogenesorS. thermophilusCas9, and may include mutated Cas9 derived from these organisms. The enzyme may be a Cas9 homolog or ortholog. In some embodiments, the CRISPR enzyme is codon-optimized for expression in a eukaryotic cell. In some embodiments, the CRISPR enzyme directs cleavage of one or two strands at the location of the target sequence. In some embodiments, the CRISPR enzyme lacks DNA strand cleavage activity. In some embodiments, the first regulatory element is a polymerase III promoter. In some embodiments, the second regulatory element is a polymerase II promoter. In some embodiments, the guide sequence is at least 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 25 nucleotides, or between 10-30, or between 15-25, or between 15-20 nucleotides in length.
• In one aspect, the invention provides a method of modifying a target polynucleotide in a eukaryotic cell. In some embodiments, the method comprises allowing a CRISPR complex to bind to the target polynucleotide to effect cleavage of said target polynucleotide thereby modifying the target polynucleotide, wherein the CRISPR complex comprises a CRISPR enzyme complexed with a guide sequence hybridized to a target sequence within said target polynucleotide, wherein said guide sequence is linked to a tracr mate sequence which in turn hybridizes to a tracr sequence. In some embodiments, said cleavage comprises cleaving one or two strands at the location of the target sequence by said CRISPR enzyme. In some embodiments, said cleavage results in decreased transcription of a target gene. In some embodiments, the method further comprises repairing said cleaved target polynucleotide by homologous recombination with an exogenous template polynucleotide, wherein said repair results in a mutation comprising an insertion, deletion, or substitution of one or more nucleotides of said target polynucleotide. In some embodiments, said mutation results in one or more amino acid changes in a protein expressed from a gene comprising the target sequence. In some embodiments, the method further comprises delivering one or more vectors to said eukaryotic cell, wherein the one or more vectors drive expression of one or more of: the CRISPR enzyme, the guide sequence linked to the tracr mate sequence, and the tracr sequence. In some embodiments, said vectors are delivered to the eukaryotic cell in a subject. In some embodiments, said modifying takes place in said eukaryotic cell in a cell culture. In some embodiments, the method further comprises isolating said eukaryotic cell from a subject prior to said modifying. In some embodiments, the method further comprises returning said eukaryotic cell and/or cells derived therefrom to said subject.
• In one aspect, the invention provides a method of modifying expression of a polynucleotide in a eukaryotic cell. In some embodiments, the method comprises allowing a CRISPR complex to bind to the polynucleotide such that said binding results in increased or decreased expression of said polynucleotide; wherein the CRISPR complex comprises a CRISPR enzyme complexed with a guide sequence hybridized to a target sequence within said polynucleotide, wherein said guide sequence is linked to a tracr mate sequence which in turn hybridizes to a tracr sequence. In some embodiments, the method further comprises delivering one or more vectors to said eukaryotic cells, wherein the one or more vectors drive expression of one or more of: the CRISPR enzyme, the guide sequence linked to the tracr mate sequence, and the tracr sequence.
• In one aspect, the invention provides a method of generating a model eukaryotic cell comprising a mutated disease gene. In some embodiments, a disease gene is any gene associated an increase in the risk of having or developing a disease. In some embodiments, the method comprises (a) introducing one or more vectors into a eukaryotic cell, wherein the one or more vectors drive expression of one or more of: a CRISPR enzyme, a guide sequence linked to a tracr mate sequence, and a tracr sequence; and (b) allowing a CRISPR complex to bind to a target polynucleotide to effect cleavage of the target polynucleotide within said disease gene, wherein the CRISPR complex comprises the CRISPR enzyme complexed with (1) the guide sequence that is hybridized to the target sequence within the target polynucleotide, and (2) the tracr mate sequence that is hybridized to the tracr sequence, thereby generating a model eukaryotic cell comprising a mutated disease gene. In some embodiments, said cleavage comprises cleaving one or two strands at the location of the target sequence by said CRISPR enzyme. In some embodiments, said cleavage results in decreased transcription of a target gene. In some embodiments, the method further comprises repairing said cleaved target polynucleotide by homologous recombination with an exogenous template polynucleotide, wherein said repair results in a mutation comprising an insertion, deletion, or substitution of one or more nucleotides of said target polynucleotide. In some embodiments, said mutation results in one or more amino acid changes in a protein expression from a gene comprising the target sequence.
• In one aspect, the invention provides a method for developing a biologically active agent that modulates a cell signaling event associated with a disease gene. In some embodiments, a disease gene is any gene associated an increase in the risk of having or developing a disease. In some embodiments, the method comprises (a) contacting a test compound with a model cell of any one of the described embodiments; and (b) detecting a change in a readout that is indicative of a reduction or an augmentation of a cell signaling event associated with said mutation in said disease gene, thereby developing said biologically active agent that modulates said cell signaling event associated with said disease gene.
• In one aspect, the invention provides a recombinant polynucleotide comprising a guide sequence upstream of a tracr mate sequence, wherein the guide sequence when expressed directs sequence-specific binding of a CRISPR complex to a corresponding target sequence present in a eukaryotic cell. In some embodiments, the target sequence is a viral sequence present in a eukaryotic cell. In some embodiments, the target sequence is a proto-oncogene or an oncogene.
• In one aspect the invention provides for a method of selecting one or more cell(s) by introducing one or more mutations in a gene in the one or more cell (s), the method comprising: introducing one or more vectors into the cell (s), wherein the one or more vectors drive expression of one or more of: a CRISPR enzyme, a guide sequence linked to a tracr mate sequence, a tracr sequence, and an editing template; wherein the editing template comprises the one or more mutations that abolish CRISPR enzyme cleavage; allowing homologous recombination of the editing template with the target polynucleotide in the cell(s) to be selected; allowing a CRISPR complex to bind to a target polynucleotide to effect cleavage of the target polynucleotide within said gene, wherein the CRISPR complex comprises the CRISPR enzyme complexed with (1) the guide sequence that is hybridized to the target sequence within the target polynucleotide, and (2) the tracr mate sequence that is hybridized to the tracr sequence, wherein binding of the CRISPR complex to the target polynucleotide induces cell death, thereby allowing one or more cell(s) in which one or more mutations have been introduced to be selected. In a preferred embodiment, the CRISPR enzyme is Cas9. In another preferred embodiment of the invention the cell to be selected may be a eukaryotic cell. Aspects of the invention allow for selection of specific cells without requiring a selection marker or a two-step process that may include a counter-selection system Accordingly, it is an object of the invention not to encompass within the invention any previously known product, process of making the product, or method of using the product such that Applicants reserve the right and hereby disclose a disclaimer of any previously known product, process, or method. It is further noted that the invention does not intend to encompass within the scope of the invention any product, process, or making of the product or method of using the product, which does not meet the written description and enablement requirements of the USPTO (35 U.S.C. §112, first paragraph) or the EPO (Article 83 of the EPC), such that Applicants reserve the right and hereby disclose a disclaimer of any previously described product, process of making the product, or method of using the product.
• It is noted that in this disclosure and particularly in the claims and/or paragraphs, terms such as “comprises”, “comprised”, “comprising” and the like can have the meaning attributed to it in U.S. Patent law; e.g., they can mean “includes”, “included”, “including”, and the like; and that terms such as “consisting essentially of” and “consists essentially of” have the meaning ascribed to them in U.S. Patent law, e.g., they allow for elements not explicitly recited, but exclude elements that are found in the prior art or that affect a basic or novel characteristic of the invention. These and other embodiments are disclosed or are obvious from and encompassed by, the following Detailed Description.
BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS
• The novel features of the invention are set forth with particularity in the appended claims. A better understanding of the features and advantages of the present invention will be obtained by reference to the following detailed description that sets forth illustrative embodiments, in which the principles of the invention are utilized, and the accompanying drawings of which:
• FIG. 1 shows a schematic model of the CRISPR system. The Cas9 nuclease fromStreptococcus pyogenes(yellow) is targeted to genomic DNA by a synthetic guide RNA (sgRNA) consisting of a 20-nt guide sequence (blue) and a scaffold (red). The guide sequence base-pairs with the DNA target (blue), directly upstream of a requisite 5′-NGG protospacer adjacent motif (PAM; magenta), and Cas9 mediates a double-stranded break (DSB) ˜3 bp upstream of the PAM (red triangle).
• FIG. 2A-F shows an exemplary CRISPR system, a possible mechanism of action, an example adaptation for expression in eukaryotic cells, and results of tests assessing nuclear localization and CRISPR activity.FIG. 2C discloses SEQ ID NOS 23-24, respectively, in order of appearance.FIG. 2E discloses SEQ ID NOS 25-27, respectively, in order of appearance.FIG. 2F discloses SEQ ID NOS 28-32, respectively, in order of appearance.
• FIG. 3A-D shows results of an evaluation of SpCas9 specificity for an example target.FIG. 3A discloses SEQ ID NOS 33, 26 and 34-44, respectively, in order of appearance.FIG. 3C discloses SEQ ID NO: 33.
• FIG. 4A-G shows an exemplary vector system and results for its use in directing homologous recombination in eukaryotic cells.FIG. 4E discloses SEQ ID NO: 45.FIG. 4F discloses SEQ ID NOS 46-47, respectively, in order of appearance.FIG. 4G discloses SEQ ID NOS 48-52, respectively, in order of appearance.
• FIG. 5 provides a table of protospacer sequences (SEQ ID NOS 16, 15, 14, 53-58, 18, 17 and 59-63, respectively, in order of appearance) and summarizes modification efficiency results for protospacer targets designed based on exemplaryS. pyogenesandS. thermophilusCRISPR systems with corresponding PAMs against loci in human and mouse genomes. Cells were transfected with Cas9 and either pre-crRNA/tracrRNA or chimeric RNA, and analyzed 72 hours after transfection. Percent indels are calculated based on Surveyor assay results from indicated cell lines (N=3 for all protospacer targets, errors are S.E.M., N.D. indicates not detectable using the Surveyor assay, and N.T. indicates not tested in this study).
• FIG. 6A-C shows a comparison of different tracrRNA transcripts for Cas9-mediated gene targeting.FIG. 6A discloses SEQ ID NOS 64-65, respectively, in order of appearance.
• FIG. 7 shows a schematic of a surveyor nuclease assay for detection of double strand break-induced micro-insertions and -deletions.
• FIG. 8A-B shows exemplary bicistronic expression vectors for expression of CRISPR system elements in eukaryotic cells.FIG. 8A discloses SEQ ID NOS 66-68, respectively, in order of appearance.FIG. 8B discloses SEQ ID NOS 69-71, respectively, in order of appearance.
• FIG. 9A-C shows histograms of distances between adjacentS. pyogenesSF370 locus 1 PAM (NGG) (FIG. 9A) andS.thermophilusLMD9 locus 2 PAM (NNAGAAW) (FIG. 9B) in the human genome; and distances for each PAM by chromosome (Chr) (FIG. 9C).
• FIG. 10A-D shows an exemplary CRISPR system, an example adaptation for expression in eukaryotic cells, and results of tests assessing CRISPR activity.FIG. 10B discloses SEQ ID NOS 72-73, respectively, in order of appearance.FIG. 10C discloses SEQ ID NO: 74.
• FIG. 11A-C shows exemplary manipulations of a CRISPR system for targeting of genomic loci in mammalian cells.FIG. 11A discloses SEQ ID NO: 75.FIG. 11B discloses SEQ ID NOS 76-78, respectively, in order of appearance.
• FIG. 12A-B shows the results of a Northern blot analysis of crRNA processing in mammalian cells.FIG. 12A discloses SEQ ID NO: 79.
• FIG. 13A-B shows an exemplary selection of protospacers in the human PVALB and mouse Th loci.FIG. 13A discloses SEQ ID NO: 80.FIG. 13B discloses SEQ ID NO: 81.
• FIG. 14 shows example protospacer and corresponding PAM sequence targets of theS. thermophilusCRISPR system in the human EMX1 locus.FIG. 14 discloses SEQ ID NO: 74.
• FIG. 15 provides a table of sequences (SEQ ID NOS 82-93, respectively, in order of appearance) for primers and probes used for Surveyor, RFLP, genomic sequencing, and Northern blot assays.
• FIG. 16A-C shows exemplary manipulation of a CRISPR system with chimeric RNAs and results of SURVEYOR assays for system activity in eukaryotic cells.FIG. 16A discloses SEQ ID NO: 94.
• FIG. 17A-B shows a graphical representation of the results of SURVEYOR assays for CRISPR system activity in eukaryotic cells.
• FIG. 18 shows an exemplary visualization of someS. pyogenesCas9 target sites in the human genome using the UCSC genome browser.FIG. 18 discloses SEQ ID NOS 95-173, respectively, in order of appearance.
• FIG. 19A-D shows a circular depiction of the phylogenetic analysis revealing five families of Cas9s, including three groups of large Cas9s (˜1400 amino acids) and two of small Cas9s (˜1100 amino acids).
• FIG. 20A-F shows the linear depiction of the phylogenetic analysis revealing five families of Cas9s, including three groups of large Cas9s (˜1400 amino acids) and two of small Cas9s (˜1100 amino acids).
• FIG. 21A-D shows genome editing via homologous recombination. (a) Schematic of SpCas9 nickase, with D10A mutation in the RuvC I catalytic domain. (b) Schematic representing homologous recombination (HR) at the human EA Y1 locus using either sense or antisense single stranded oligonucleotides as repair templates. Red arrow above indicates sgRNA cleavage site; PCR primers for genotyping (Tables J and K) are indicated as arrows in right panel.FIG. 21C discloses SEQ ID NOS174-176, 174, 177 and 176, respectively, in order of appearance. (c) Sequence of region modified by HR. d, SURVEYOR assay for wildtype (wt) and nickase (D10A) SpCas9-mediated indels at theEMX1 target 1 locus (n=3). Arrows indicate positions of expected fragment sizes.
• FIG. 22A-B shows single vector designs for SpCas9.FIG. 22A discloses SEQ ID NOS 178-180, respectively, in order of appearance.FIG. 22B discloses SEQ ID NO: 181.
• The figures herein are for illustrative purposes only and are not necessarily drawn to scale.
DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION
• The terms “polynucleotide”, “nucleotide”, “nucleotide sequence”, “nucleic acid” and “oligonucleotide” are used interchangeably. They refer to a polymeric form of nucleotides of any length, either deoxyribonucleotides or ribonucleotides, or analogs thereof. Polynucleotides may have any three dimensional structure, and may perform any function, known or unknown. The following are non limiting examples of polynucleotides: coding or non-coding regions of a gene or gene fragment, loci (locus) defined from linkage analysis, exons, introns, messenger RNA (mRNA), transfer RNA, ribosomal RNA, short interfering RNA (siRNA), short-hairpin RNA (shRNA), micro-RNA (miRNA), ribozymes, cDNA, recombinant polynucleotides, branched polynucleotides, plasmids, vectors, isolated DNA of any sequence, isolated RNA of any sequence, nucleic acid probes, and primers. A polynucleotide may comprise one or more modified nucleotides, such as methylated nucleotides and nucleotide analogs. If present, modifications to the nucleotide structure may be imparted before or after assembly of the polymer. The sequence of nucleotides may be interrupted by non nucleotide components. A polynucleotide may be further modified after polymerization, such as by conjugation with a labeling component.
• In aspects of the invention the terms “chimeric RNA”, “chimeric guide RNA”, “guide RNA”, “single guide RNA” and “synthetic guide RNA” are used interchangeably and refer to the polynucleotide sequence comprising the guide sequence, the tracr sequence and the tracr mate sequence. The term “guide sequence” refers to the about 20 bp sequence within the guide RNA that specifies the target site and may be used interchangeably with the terms “guide” or “spacer”. The term “tracr mate sequence” may also be used interchangeably with the term “direct repeat(s)”. An exemplary CRISPR-Cas system is illustrated inFIG. 1.
• As used herein the term “wild type” is a term of the art understood by skilled persons and means the typical form of an organism, strain, gene or characteristic as it occurs in nature as distinguished from mutant or variant forms.
• As used herein the term “variant” should be taken to mean the exhibition of qualities that have a pattern that deviates from what occurs in nature.
• The terms “non-naturally occurring” or “engineered” are used interchangeably and indicate the involvement of the hand of man. The terms, when referring to nucleic acid molecules or polypeptides mean that the nucleic acid molecule or the polypeptide is at least substantially free from at least one other component with which they are naturally associated in nature and as found in nature.
• “Complementarity” refers to the ability of a nucleic acid to form hydrogen bond(s) with another nucleic acid sequence by either traditional Watson-Crick or other non-traditional types. A percent complementarity indicates the percentage of residues in a nucleic acid molecule which can form hydrogen bonds (e.g., Watson-Crick base pairing) with a second nucleic acid sequence (e.g., 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 out of 10 being 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, and 100% complementary). “Perfectly complementary” means that all the contiguous residues of a nucleic acid sequence will hydrogen bond with the same number of contiguous residues in a second nucleic acid sequence. “Substantially complementary” as used herein refers to a degree of complementarity that is at least 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%. 95%, 97%, 98%, 99%, or 100% over a region of 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, or more nucleotides, or refers to two nucleic acids that hybridize under stringent conditions.
• As used herein, “stringent conditions” for hybridization refer to conditions under which a nucleic acid having complementarity to a target sequence predominantly hybridizes with the target sequence, and substantially does not hybridize to non-target sequences. Stringent conditions are generally sequence-dependent, and vary depending on a number of factors. In general, the longer the sequence, the higher the temperature at which the sequence specifically hybridizes to its target sequence. Non-limiting examples of stringent conditions are described in detail in Tijssen (1993), Laboratory Techniques In Biochemistry And Molecular Biology-Hybridization With Nucleic Acid Probes Part I, Second Chapter “Overview of principles of hybridization and the strategy of nucleic acid probe assay”, Elsevier, N.Y.
• “Hybridization” refers to a reaction in which one or more polynucleotides react to form a complex that is stabilized via hydrogen bonding between the bases of the nucleotide residues. The hydrogen bonding may occur by Watson Crick base pairing, Hoogstein binding, or in any other sequence specific manner. The complex may comprise two strands forming a duplex structure, three or more strands forming a multi stranded complex, a single self hybridizing strand, or any combination of these. A hybridization reaction may constitute a step in a more extensive process, such as the initiation of PCR, or the cleavage of a polynucleotide by an enzyme. A sequence capable of hybridizing with a given sequence is referred to as the “complement” of the given sequence.
• As used herein, “expression” refers to the process by which a polynucleotide is transcribed from a DNA template (such as into and mRNA or other RNA transcript) and/or the process by which a transcribed mRNA is subsequently translated into peptides, polypeptides, or proteins. Transcripts and encoded polypeptides may be collectively referred to as “gene product.” If the polynucleotide is derived from genomic DNA, expression may include splicing of the mRNA in a eukaryotic cell.
• The terms “polypeptide”, “peptide” and “protein” are used interchangeably herein to refer to polymers of amino acids of any length. The polymer may be linear or branched, it may comprise modified amino acids, and it may be interrupted by non amino acids. The terms also encompass an amino acid polymer that has been modified; for example, disulfide bond formation, glycosylation, lipidation, acetylation, phosphorylation, or any other manipulation, such as conjugation with a labeling component. As used herein the term “amino acid” includes natural and/or unnatural or synthetic amino acids, including glycine and both the D or L optical isomers, and amino acid analogs and peptidomimetics.
• The terms “subject,” “individual,” and “patient” are used interchangeably herein to refer to a vertebrate, preferably a mammal, more preferably a human. Mammals include, but are not limited to, murines, simians, humans, farm animals, sport animals, and pets. Tissues, cells and their progeny of a biological entity obtained in vivo or cultured in vitro are also encompassed.
• The terms “therapeutic agent”, “therapeutic capable agent” or “treatment agent” are used interchangeably and refer to a molecule or compound that confers some beneficial effect upon administration to a subject. The beneficial effect includes enablement of diagnostic determinations; amelioration of a disease, symptom, disorder, or pathological condition; reducing or preventing the onset of a disease, symptom, disorder or condition; and generally counteracting a disease, symptom, disorder or pathological condition.
• As used herein, “treatment” or “treating,” or “palliating” or “ameliorating” are used interchangeably. These terms refer to an approach for obtaining beneficial or desired results including but not limited to a therapeutic benefit and/or a prophylactic benefit. By therapeutic benefit is meant any therapeutically relevant improvement in or effect on one or more diseases, conditions, or symptoms under treatment. For prophylactic benefit, the compositions may be administered to a subject at risk of developing a particular disease, condition, or symptom, or to a subject reporting one or more of the physiological symptoms of a disease, even though the disease, condition, or symptom may not have yet been manifested.
• The term “effective amount” or “therapeutically effective amount” refers to the amount of an agent that is sufficient to effect beneficial or desired results. The therapeutically effective amount may vary depending upon one or more of: the subject and disease condition being treated, the weight and age of the subject, the severity of the disease condition, the manner of administration and the like, which can readily be determined by one of ordinary skill in the art. The term also applies to a dose that will provide an image for detection by any one of the imaging methods described herein. The specific dose may vary depending on one or more of: the particular agent chosen, the dosing regimen to be followed, whether it is administered in combination with other compounds, timing of administration, the tissue to be imaged, and the physical delivery system in which it is carried.
• The practice of the present invention employs, unless otherwise indicated, conventional techniques of immunology, biochemistry, chemistry, molecular biology, microbiology, cell biology, genomics and recombinant DNA, which are within the skill of the art. See Sambrook, Fritsch and Maniatis, MOLECULAR CLONING: A LABORATORY MANUAL, 2nd edition (1989); CURRENT PROTOCOLS IN MOLECULAR BIOLOGY (F. M. Ausubel, et al. eds., (1987)); the series METHODS IN ENZYMOLOGY (Academic Press, Inc.): PCR 2: A PRACTICAL APPROACH (M. J. MacPherson, B. D. Hames and G. R. Taylor eds. (1995)), Harlow and Lane, eds. (1988) ANTIBODIES, A LABORATORY MANUAL, and ANIMAL CELL CULTURE (R. I. Freshney, ed. (1987)).
• Several aspects of the invention relate to vector systems comprising one or more vectors, or vectors as such. Vectors can be designed for expression of CRISPR transcripts (e.g. nucleic acid transcripts, proteins, or enzymes) in prokaryotic or eukaryotic cells. For example, CRISPR transcripts can be expressed in bacterial cells such asEscherichia coli, insect cells (using baculovirus expression vectors), yeast cells, or mammalian cells. Suitable host cells are discussed further in Goeddel, GENE EXPRESSION TECHNOLOGY: METHODS IN ENZYMOLOGY 185, Academic Press. San Diego, Calif. (1990). Alternatively, the recombinant expression vector can be transcribed and translated in vitro, for example using T7 promoter regulatory sequences and T7 polymerase.
• Vectors may be introduced and propagated in a prokaryote. In some embodiments, a prokaryote is used to amplify copies of a vector to be introduced into a eukaryotic cell or as an intermediate vector in the production of a vector to be introduced into a eukaryotic cell (e.g. amplifying a plasmid as part of a viral vector packaging system). In some embodiments, a prokaryote is used to amplify copies of a vector and express one or more nucleic acids, such as to provide a source of one or more proteins for delivery to a host cell or host organism. Expression of proteins in prokaryotes is most often carried out inEscherichia coliwith vectors containing constitutive or inducible promoters directing the expression of either fusion or non-fusion proteins. Fusion vectors add a number of amino acids to a protein encoded therein, such as to the amino terminus of the recombinant protein. Such fusion vectors may serve one or more purposes, such as: (i) to increase expression of recombinant protein; (ii) to increase the solubility of the recombinant protein; and (iii) to aid in the purification of the recombinant protein by acting as a ligand in affinity purification. Often, in fusion expression vectors, a proteolytic cleavage site is introduced at the junction of the fusion moiety and the recombinant protein to enable separation of the recombinant protein from the fusion moiety subsequent to purification of the fusion protein. Such enzymes, and their cognate recognition sequences, include Factor Xa, thrombin and enterokinase. Example fusion expression vectors include pGEX (Pharmacia Biotech Inc; Smith and Johnson, 1988.Gene67: 31-40), pMAL (New England Biolabs, Beverly, Mass.) and pRIT5 (Pharmacia, Piscataway, N.J.) that fuse glutathione S-transferase (GST), maltose E binding protein, or protein A, respectively, to the target recombinant protein.
• Examples of suitable inducible non-fusionE. coliexpression vectors include pTrc (Amrann et al., (1988) Gene 69:301-315) and pET 11d (Studier et al., GENE EXPRESSION TECHNOLOGY: METHODS IN ENZYMOLOGY 185, Academic Press, San Diego, Calif. (1990) 60-89).
• In some embodiments, a vector is a yeast expression vector. Examples of vectors for expression in yeastSaccharomyces cerivisaeinclude pYepSec1 (Baldari, et al., 1987.EMBO J.6: 229-234), pMFa (Kuijan and Herskowitz, 1982.Cell30: 933-943), pJRY88 (Schultz et al., 1987.Gene54: 113-123), pYES2 (Invitrogen Corporation, San Diego, Calif.), and picZ (InVitrogen Corp, San Diego, Calif.).
• In some embodiments, a vector drives protein expression in insect cells using baculovirus expression vectors. Baculovirus vectors available for expression of proteins in cultured insect cells (e.g., SF9 cells) include the pAc series (Smith, et al., 1983.Mol. Cell. Biol.3: 2156-2165) and the pVL series (Lucklow and Summers, 1989.Virology170: 31-39).
• In some embodiments, a vector is capable of driving expression of one or more sequences in mammalian cells using a mammalian expression vector. Examples of mammalian expression vectors include pCDM8 (Seed, 1987.Nature329: 840) and pMT2PC (Kaufman, et al., 1987.EMBO J.6: 187-195). When used in mammalian cells, the expression vector's control functions are typically provided by one or more regulatory elements. For example, commonly used promoters are derived from polyoma,adenovirus 2, cytomegalovirus,simian virus 40, and others disclosed herein and known in the art. For other suitable expression systems for both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells see, e.g.,Chapters 16 and 17 of Sambrook, et al., MOLECULAR CLONING: A LABORATORY MANUAL. 2nd ed., Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y., 1989.
• In some embodiments, the recombinant mammalian expression vector is capable of directing expression of the nucleic acid preferentially in a particular cell type (e.g., tissue-specific regulatory elements are used to express the nucleic acid). Tissue-specific regulatory elements are known in the art. Non-limiting examples of suitable tissue-specific promoters include the albumin promoter (liver-specific; Pinkert, et al., 1987.Genes Dev.1: 268-277), lymphoid-specific promoters (Calame and Eaton, 1988.Adv. Immunol.43: 235-275), in particular promoters of T cell receptors (Winoto and Baltimore, 1989.EMBO J.8: 729-733) and immunoglobulins (Baneiji, et al., 1983.Cell33: 729-740; Queen and Baltimore, 1983.Cell33: 741-748), neuron-specific promoters (e.g., the neurofilament promoter; Byrne and Ruddle, 1989. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA86: 5473-5477), pancreas-specific promoters (Edlund, et al., 1985.Science230: 912-916), and mammary gland-specific promoters (e.g., milk whey promoter, U.S. Pat. No. 4,873,316 and European Application Publication No. 264,166). Developmentally-regulated promoters are also encompassed, e.g., the murine hox promoters (Kessel and Gruss, 1990.Science249: 374-379) and the α-fetoprotein promoter (Campes and Tilghman, 1989. Genes Dev.3: 537-546).
• In some embodiments, a regulatory element is operably linked to one or more elements of a CRISPR system so as to drive expression of the one or more elements of the CRISPR system. In general, CRISPRs (Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats), also known as SPIDRs (SPacer Interspersed Direct Repeats), constitute a family of DNA loci that are usually specific to a particular bacterial species. The CRISPR locus comprises a distinct class of interspersed short sequence repeats (SSRs) that were recognized inE. coli(Ishino et al., J. Bacteriol., 169:5429-5433 [1987]; and Nakata et al., J. Bacteriol., 171:3553-3556 [1989]), and associated genes. Similar interspersed SSRs have been identified inHaloferax mediterranei, Streptococcus pyogenes, Anabaena, andMycobacterium tuberculosis(See, Groenen et al., Mol. Microbiol., 10:1057-1065 1993]; Hoe et al., Emerg. Infect. Dis., 5:254-263 [1999]; Masepohl et al., Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1307:26-30 [1996]; and Mojica et al., Mol. Microbiol., 17:85-93 [1995]). The CRISPR loci typically differ from other SSRs by the structure of the repeats, which have been termed short regularly spaced repeats (SRSRs) (Janssen et al., OMICS J. Integ. Biol., 6:23-33 [2002]; and Mojica et al., Mol. Microbiol., 36:244-246 [2000]). In general, the repeats are short elements that occur in clusters that are regularly spaced by unique intervening sequences with a substantially constant length (Mojica et al., [2000], supra). Although the repeat sequences are highly conserved between strains, the number of interspersed repeats and the sequences of the spacer regions typically differ from strain to strain (van Embden et al., J. Bacteriol., 182:2393-2401 [2000]). CRISPR loci have been identified in more than 40 prokaryotes (See e.g., Jansen et al., Mol. Microbiol., 43:1565-1575 [2002]; and Mojica et al., [2005]) including, but not limited toAeropyvrum, Pyrobaculum, Sulfolobus, Archaeoglobus, Halocarcula, Methanobacterium, Methanococcus, Methanosarcina, Methanopyrus, Pyrococcus, Picrophilus, Thermoplasma, Corynebacteriunm, Mvcobacteriunm, Streptomyces, Aquifex, Porphvromonas, Chlorobium, Thermus, Bacillus, Listeria, Staphylococcus, Clostridium, Thermoanaerobacter, Mycoplasna, Fusobacterium, Azarcus, Chromobacterium, Neisseria, Nitrosomonas, Desulfovibrio, Geobacter, Mxvrococcus, Campylobacter, Wolinella, Acinetobacter, Erwinia, Escherichia, Legionella, Methylococcus, Pasteurella, Photobacterium, Salmonella, Xanthomonas, Yersinia, Treponema, andThermotoga.
• In general, “CRISPR system” refers collectively to transcripts and other elements involved in the expression of or directing the activity of CRISPR-associated (“Cas”) genes, including sequences encoding a Cas gene, a tracr (trans-activating CRISPR) sequence (e.g. tracrRNA or an active partial tracrRNA), a tracr-mate sequence (encompassing a “direct repeat” and a tracrRNA-processed partial direct repeat in the context of an endogenous CRISPR system), a guide sequence (also referred to as a “spacer” in the context of an endogenous CRISPR system), or other sequences and transcripts from a CRISPR locus. In some embodiments, one or more elements of a CRISPR system is derived from a type I, type II, or type III CRISPR system. In some embodiments, one or more elements of a CRISPR system is derived from a particular organism comprising an endogenous CRISPR system, such asStreptococcus pyogenes. In general, a CRISPR system is characterized by elements that promote the formation of a CRISPR complex at the site of a target sequence (also referred to as a protospacer in the context of an endogenous CRISPR system). In the context of formation of a CRISPR complex, “target sequence” refers to a sequence to which a guide sequence is designed to have complementarity, where hybridization between a target sequence and a guide sequence promotes the formation of a CRISPR complex. Full complementarity is not necessarily required, provided there is sufficient complementarity to cause hybridization and promote formation of a CRISPR complex. A target sequence may comprise any polynucleotide, such as DNA or RNA polynucleotides. In some embodiments, a target sequence is located in the nucleus or cytoplasm of a cell. In some embodiments, the target sequence may be within an organelle of a eukaryotic cell, for example, mitochondrion or chloroplast. A sequence or template that may be used for recombination into the targeted locus comprising the target sequences is referred to as an “editing template” or “editing polynucleotide” or “editing sequence”. In aspects of the invention, an exogenous template polynucleotide may be referred to as an editing template. In an aspect of the invention the recombination is homologous recombination.
• Typically, in the context of an endogenous CRISPR system, formation of a CRISPR complex (comprising a guide sequence hybridized to a target sequence and complexed with one or more Cas proteins) results in cleavage of one or both strands in or near (e.g. within 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 20, 50, or more base pairs from) the target sequence. Without wishing to be bound by theory, the tracr sequence, which may comprise or consist of all or a portion of a wild-type tracr sequence (e.g. about or more than about 20, 26, 32, 45, 48, 54, 63, 67, 85, or more nucleotides of a wild-type tracr sequence), may also form part of a CRISPR complex, such as by hybridization along at least a portion of the tracr sequence to all or a portion of a tracr mate sequence that is operably linked to the guide sequence. In some embodiments, the tracr sequence has sufficient complementarity to a tracr mate sequence to hybridize and participate in formation of a CRISPR complex. As with the target sequence, it is believed that complete complementarity is not needed, provided there is sufficient to be functional. In some embodiments, the tracr sequence has at least 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 95% or 99% of sequence complementarity along the length of the tracr mate sequence when optimally aligned. In some embodiments, one or more vectors driving expression of one or more elements of a CRISPR system are introduced into a host cell such that expression of the elements of the CRISPR system direct formation of a CRISPR complex at one or more target sites. For example, a Cas enzyme, a guide sequence linked to a tracr-mate sequence, and a tracr sequence could each be operably linked to separate regulatory elements on separate vectors. Alternatively, two or more of the elements expressed from the same or different regulatory elements, may be combined in a single vector, with one or more additional vectors providing any components of the CRISPR system not included in the first vector. CRISPR system elements that are combined in a single vector may be arranged in any suitable orientation, such as one element located 5′ with respect to (“upstream” of) or 3′ with respect to (“downstream” of) a second element. The coding sequence of one element may be located on the same or opposite strand of the coding sequence of a second element, and oriented in the same or opposite direction. In some embodiments, a single promoter drives expression of a transcript encoding a CRISPR enzyme and one or more of the guide sequence, tracr mate sequence (optionally operably linked to the guide sequence), and a tracr sequence embedded within one or more intron sequences (e.g. each in a different intron, two or more in at least one intron, or all in a single intron). In some embodiments, the CRISPR enzyme, guide sequence, tracr mate sequence, and tracr sequence are operably linked to and expressed from the same promoter. Single vector constructs for SpCas9 are illustrated inFIG. 22.
• In some embodiments, a vector comprises one or more insertion sites, such as a restriction endonuclease recognition sequence (also referred to as a “cloning site”). In some embodiments, one or more insertion sites (e.g. about or more than about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, or more insertion sites) are located upstream and/or downstream of one or more sequence elements of one or more vectors. In some embodiments, a vector comprises an insertion site upstream of a tracr mate sequence, and optionally downstream of a regulatory element operably linked to the tracr mate sequence, such that following insertion of a guide sequence into the insertion site and upon expression the guide sequence directs sequence-specific binding of a CRISPR complex to a target sequence in a eukaryotic cell. In some embodiments, a vector comprises two or more insertion sites, each insertion site being located between two tracr mate sequences so as to allow insertion of a guide sequence at each site. In such an arrangement, the two or more guide sequences may comprise two or more copies of a single guide sequence, two or more different guide sequences, or combinations of these. When multiple different guide sequences are used, a single expression construct may be used to target CRISPR activity to multiple different, corresponding target sequences within a cell. For example, a single vector may comprise about or more than about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15, 20, or more guide sequences. In some embodiments, about or more than about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, or more such guide-sequence-containing vectors may be provided, and optionally delivered to a cell.
• In some embodiments, a vector comprises a regulatory element operably linked to an enzyme-coding sequence encoding a CRISPR enzyme, such as a Cas protein. Non-limiting examples of Cas proteins include Cas1, Cas1B, Cas2, Cas3, Cas4, Cas5, Cas6, Cas7, Cas8, Cas9 (also known as Csn1 and Csx12), Cas10, Csy1, Csy2, Csy3, Cse1, Cse2, Csc1, Csc2, Csa5, Csn2. Csm2, Csm3, Csm4, Csm5, Csm6, Cmr1, Cmr3, Cmr4, Cmr5, Cmr6, Csb1, Csb2, Csb3, Csx17, Csx14, Csx10, Csx16, CsaX, Csx3, Csx1, Csx15, Csf1, Csf2, Csf3, Csf4, homologs thereof, or modified versions thereof. These enzymes are known; for example, the amino acid sequence ofS. pyogenesCas9 protein may be found in the SwissProt database under accession number Q99ZW2. In some embodiments, the unmodified CRISPR enzyme has DNA cleavage activity, such as Cas9. In some embodiments the CRISPR enzyme is Cas9, and may be Cas9 fromS. pyogenesorS. pneumoniae. In some embodiments, the CRISPR enzyme directs cleavage of one or both strands at the location of a target sequence, such as within the target sequence and/or within the complement of the target sequence. In some embodiments, the CRISPR enzyme directs cleavage of one or both strands within about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15, 20, 25, 50, 100, 200, 500, or more base pairs from the first or last nucleotide of a target sequence. In some embodiments, a vector encodes a CRISPR enzyme that is mutated to with respect to a corresponding wild-type enzyme such that the mutated CRISPR enzyme lacks the ability to cleave one or both strands of a target polynucleotide containing a target sequence. For example, an aspartate-to-alanine substitution (D10A) in the RuvC I catalytic domain of Cas9 fromS. pyogenesconverts Cas9 from a nuclease that cleaves both strands to a nickase (cleaves a single strand). Other examples of mutations that render Cas9 a nickase include, without limitation, H840A, N854A, and N863A. In aspects of the invention, nickases may be used for genome editing via homologous recombination, For example,FIG. 21 shows genome editing via homologous recombination.FIG. 21 (a) shows the schematic of SpCas9 nickase, with D10A mutation in the RuvC I catalytic domain. (b) Schematic representing homologous recombination (HR) at the human EMX1 locus using either sense or antisense single stranded oligonucleotides as repair templates. (c) Sequence of region modified by HR. d, SURVEYOR assay for wildtype (wt) and nickase (D10A) SpCas9-mediated indels at theEMX1 target 1 locus (n=3). Arrows indicate positions of expected fragment sizes.
• In some embodiments, a Cas9 nickase may be used in combination with guide sequence(s), e.g., two guide sequences, which target respectively sense and antisense strands of the DNA target. This combination allows both strands to be nicked and used to induce NHEJ. Applicants have demonstrated (data not shown) the efficacy of two nickase targets (i.e., sgRNAs targeted at the same location but to different strands of DNA) in inducing mutagenic NHEJ. A single nickase (Cas9-D10A with a single sgRNA) is unable to induce NHEJ and create indels but Applicants have shown that double nickase (Cas9-D10A and two sgRNAs targeted to different strands at the same location) can do so in human embryonic stem cells (hESCs). The efficiency is about 50% of nuclease (i.e., regular Cas9 without D10 mutation) in hESCs.
• As a further example, two or more catalytic domains of Cas9 (RuvC I, RuvC II, and RuvC III) may be mutated to produce a mutated Cas9 substantially lacking all DNA cleavage activity. In some embodiments, a D10A mutation is combined with one or more of H840A, N854A, or N863A mutations to produce a Cas9 enzyme substantially lacking all DNA cleavage activity. In some embodiments, a CRISPR enzyme is considered to substantially lack all DNA cleavage activity when the DNA cleavage activity of the mutated enzyme is less than about 25%, 10%, 5%, 1%, 0.1%, 0.01%, or lower with respect to its non-mutated form. Other mutations may be useful; where the Cas9 or other CRISPR enzyme is from a species other thanS. pyogenes, mutations in corresponding amino acids may be made to achieve similar effects.
• In some embodiments, an enzyme coding sequence encoding a CRISPR enzyme is codon optimized for expression in particular cells, such as eukaryotic cells. The eukaryotic cells may be those of or derived from a particular organism, such as a mammal, including but not limited to human, mouse, rat, rabbit, dog, or non-human primate. In general, codon optimization refers to a process of modifying a nucleic acid sequence for enhanced expression in the host cells of interest by replacing at least one codon (e.g. about or more than about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 50, or more codons) of the native sequence with codons that are more frequently or most frequently used in the genes of that host cell while maintaining the native amino acid sequence. Various species exhibit particular bias for certain codons of a particular amino acid. Codon bias (differences in codon usage between organisms) often correlates with the efficiency of translation of messenger RNA (mRNA), which is in turn believed to be dependent on, among other things, the properties of the codons being translated and the availability of particular transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules. The predominance of selected tRNAs in a cell is generally a reflection of the codons used most frequently in peptide synthesis. Accordingly, genes can be tailored for optimal gene expression in a given organism based on codon optimization. Codon usage tables are readily available, for example, at the “Codon Usage Database”, and these tables can be adapted in a number of ways. See Nakamura, Y., et al. “Codon usage tabulated from the international DNA sequence databases: status for theyear 2000” Nucl. Acids Res. 28:292 (2000). Computer algorithms for codon optimizing a particular sequence for expression in a particular host cell are also available, such as Gene Forge (Aptagen; Jacobus, Pa.), are also available. In some embodiments, one or more codons (e.g. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 50, or more, or all codons) in a sequence encoding a CRISPR enzyme correspond to the most frequently used codon for a particular amino acid.
• In general, a guide sequence is any polynucleotide sequence having sufficient complementarity with a target polynucleotide sequence to hybridize with the target sequence and direct sequence-specific binding of a CRISPR complex to the target sequence. In some embodiments, the degree of complementarity between a guide sequence and its corresponding target sequence, when optimally aligned using a suitable alignment algorithm, is about or more than about 50%, 60%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 97.5%, 99%, or more. Optimal alignment may be determined with the use of any suitable algorithm for aligning sequences, non-limiting example of which include the Smith-Waterman algorithm, the Needleman-Wunsch algorithm, algorithms based on the Burrows-Wheeler Transform (e.g. the Burrows Wheeler Aligner), ClustalW, Clustal X, BLAT, Novoalign (Novocraft Technologies, ELAND (Illumina, San Diego, Calif.), SOAP (available at soap.genomics.org.cn), and Maq (available at maq.sourceforge.net). In some embodiments, a guide sequence is about or more than about 5, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 75, or more nucleotides in length. In some embodiments, a guide sequence is less than about 75, 50, 45, 40, 35, 30, 25, 20, 15, 12, or fewer nucleotides in length. The ability of a guide sequence to direct sequence-specific binding of a CRISPR complex to a target sequence may be assessed by any suitable assay. For example, the components of a CRISPR system sufficient to form a CRISPR complex, including the guide sequence to be tested, may be provided to a host cell having the corresponding target sequence, such as by transfection with vectors encoding the components of the CRISPR sequence, followed by an assessment of preferential cleavage within the target sequence, such as by Surveyor assay as described herein. Similarly, cleavage of a target polynucleotide sequence may be evaluated in a test tube by providing the target sequence, components of a CRISPR complex, including the guide sequence to be tested and a control guide sequence different from the test guide sequence, and comparing binding or rate of cleavage at the target sequence between the test and control guide sequence reactions. Other assays are possible, and will occur to those skilled in the art.
• A guide sequence may be selected to target any target sequence. In some embodiments, the target sequence is a sequence within a genome of a cell. Exemplary target sequences include those that are unique in the target genome. For example, for theS. pyogenesCas9, a unique target sequence in a genome may include a Cas9 target site of the form MMMMMMMMNNNNNNNNNNNNXGG where NNNNNNNNNNNNXGG (N is A, G, T, or C; and X can be anything) has a single occurrence in the genome. A unique target sequence in a genome may include anS. pyogenesCas9 target site of the form MMMMMMMMMNNNNNNNNNNNXGG where NNNNNNNNNNNXGG (N is A, G, T, or C; and X can be anything) has a single occurrence in the genome. For theS. thermophilusCRISPR1Cas9, a unique target sequence in a genome may include a Cas9 target site of the form MMMMMMMMNNNNNNNNNNNNXXAGAAW (SEQ ID NO: 1) where NNNNNNNNNNNNXXAGAAW (SEQ ID NO: 2) (N is A, G, T, or C; X can be anything; and W is A or T) has a single occurrence in the genome. A unique target sequence in a genome may include anS. thermophilusCRISPR 1 Cas9 target site of the form MMMMMMMMMNNNNNNNNNNNXXAGAAW (SEQ ID NO: 3) where NNNNNNNNNNNXXAGAAW (SEQ ID NO: 4) (N is A, G, T, or C; X can be anything; and W is A or T) has a single occurrence in the genome. For theS. pyogenesCas9, a unique target sequence in a genome may include a Cas9 target site of the form MMMMMMMMNNNNNNNNNNNNXGGXG where NNNNNNNNNNNNXGGXG (N is A, G, T, or C; and X can be anything) has a single occurrence in the genome. A unique target sequence in a genome may include anS. pyogenesCas9 target site of the form MMMMMMMMMNNNNNNNNNNNXGGXG where NNNNNNNNNNNXGGXG (N is A, G, T, or C; and X can be anything) has a single occurrence in the genome. In each of these sequences “M” may be A, G, T, or C, and need not be considered in identifying a sequence as unique.
• In some embodiments, a guide sequence is selected to reduce the degree of secondary structure within the guide sequence. Secondary structure may be determined by any suitable polynucleotide folding algorithm. Some programs are based on calculating the minimal Gibbs free energy. An example of one such algorithm is mFold, as described by Zuker and Stiegler (Nucleic Acids Res. 9 (1981), 133-148). Another example folding algorithm is the online webserver RNAfold, developed at Institute for Theoretical Chemistry at the University of Vienna, using the centroid structure prediction algorithm (see e.g. A. R. Gruber et al., 2008, Cell106(1): 23-24; and PA Carr and GM Church, 2009, Nature Biotechnology27(12): 1151-62). Further algorithms may be found in U.S. application Ser. No. 61/836,080 (attorney docket 44790.11.2022; Broad Reference BI-2013/004A); incorporated herein by reference.
• In general, a tracr mate sequence includes any sequence that has sufficient complementarity with a tracr sequence to promote one or more of: (1) excision of a guide sequence flanked by tracr mate sequences in a cell containing the corresponding tracr sequence; and (2) formation of a CRISPR complex at a target sequence, wherein the CRISPR complex comprises the tracr mate sequence hybridized to the tracr sequence. In general, degree of complementarity is with reference to the optimal alignment of the tracr mate sequence and tracr sequence, along the length of the shorter of the two sequences. Optimal alignment may be determined by any suitable alignment algorithm, and may further account for secondary structures, such as self-complementarity within either the tracr sequence or tracr mate sequence. In some embodiments, the degree of complementarity between the tracr sequence and tracr mate sequence along the length of the shorter of the two when optimally aligned is about or more than about 25%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 95%, 97.5%, 99%, or higher. Example illustrations of optimal alignment between a tracr sequence and a tracr mate sequence are provided inFIGS. 10B and 11B. In some embodiments, the tracr sequence is about or more than about 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 25, 30, 40, 50, or more nucleotides in length. In some embodiments, the tracr sequence and tracr mate sequence are contained within a single transcript, such that hybridization between the two produces a transcript having a secondary structure, such as a hairpin. Preferred loop forming sequences for use in hairpin structures are four nucleotides in length, and most preferably have the sequence GAAA. However, longer or shorter loop sequences may be used, as may alternative sequences. The sequences preferably include a nucleotide triplet (for example, AAA), and an additional nucleotide (for example C or G). Examples of loop forming sequences include CAAA and AAAG. In an embodiment of the invention, the transcript or transcribed polynucleotide sequence has at least two or more hairpins. In preferred embodiments, the transcript has two, three, four or five hairpins. In a further embodiment of the invention, the transcript has at most five hairpins. In some embodiments, the single transcript further includes a transcription termination sequence; preferably this is a polyT sequence, for example six T nucleotides. An example illustration of such a hairpin structure is provided in the lower portion ofFIG. 11B, where the portion of thesequence 5′ of the final “N” and upstream of the loop corresponds to the tracr mate sequence, and the portion of thesequence 3′ of the loop corresponds to the tracr sequence. Further non-limiting examples of single polynucleotides comprising a guide sequence, a tracr mate sequence, and a tracr sequence are as follows (listed 5′ to 3′), where “N” represents a base of a guide sequence, the first block of lower case letters represent the tracr mate sequence, and the second block of lower case letters represent the tracr sequence, and the final poly-T sequence represents the transcription terminator: (1) NNNNNNNNgtttttgtactctcaagatttaGAAAtaaatcttgcagaagctacaaagataaggctt catgccgaaatcaacaccctgtcattttatggcagggtgttttcgttatttaaTTTTTT (SEQ ID NO: 5); (2) NNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNgtttttgtactctcaGAAAtgcagaagctacaaagataaggcttcatgccgaaatca acaccctgtcattttatggcagggtgttttcgttatttaaTTTTTT (SEQ ID NO: 6); (3) NNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNgtttttgtactctcaGAAAtgcagaagctacaaagataaggcttcatgccgaaatca acaccctgtcattttatggcagggtgtTTTTT (SEQ ID NO: 7); (4) NNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNgttttagagctaGAAAtagcaagttaaaataaggctagtccgttatcaacttgaaaa agtggcaccgagtcggtgcTTTTTT (SEQ ID NO: 8); (5) NNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNgttttagagctaGAAATAGcaagttaaaataaggctagtccgttatcaacttgaa aaagtgTTlTTTT (SEQ ID NO: 9); and (6) NNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNgttttagagctagAAATAGcaagttaaaataaggctagtccgttatcaTTTTT TTT (SEQ ID NO: 10). In some embodiments, sequences (1) to (3) are used in combination with Cas9 fromS. thermophilusCRISPR1. In some embodiments, sequences (4) to (6) are used in combination with Cas9 fromS. pyogenes. In some embodiments, the tracr sequence is a separate transcript from a transcript comprising the tracr mate sequence (such as illustrated in the top portion ofFIG. 11B).
• In some embodiments, the CRISPR enzyme is part of a fusion protein comprising one or more heterologous protein domains (e.g. about or more than about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, or more domains in addition to the CRISPR enzyme). A CRISPR enzyme fusion protein may comprise any additional protein sequence, and optionally a linker sequence between any two domains. Examples of protein domains that may be fused to a CRISPR enzyme include, without limitation, epitope tags, reporter gene sequences, and protein domains having one or more of the following activities: methylase activity, demethylase activity, transcription activation activity, transcription repression activity, transcription release factor activity, histone modification activity, RNA cleavage activity and nucleic acid binding activity. Non-limiting examples of epitope tags include histidine (His) tags, V5 tags, FLAG tags, influenza hemagglutinin (HA) tags, Myc tags, VSV-G tags, and thioredoxin (Trx) tags. Examples of reporter genes include, but are not limited to, glutathione-5-transferase (GST), horseradish peroxidase (HRP), chloramphenicol acetyltransferase (CAT) beta-galactosidase, beta-glucuronidase, luciferase, green fluorescent protein (GFP), HcRed, DsRed, cyan fluorescent protein (CFP), yellow fluorescent protein (YFP), and autofluorescent proteins including blue fluorescent protein (BFP). A CRISPR enzyme may be fused to a gene sequence encoding a protein or a fragment of a protein that bind DNA molecules or bind other cellular molecules, including but not limited to maltose binding protein (MBP), S-tag, Lex A DNA binding domain (DBD) fusions, GAL4 DNA binding domain fusions, and herpes simplex virus (HSV) BP16 protein fusions. Additional domains that may form part of a fusion protein comprising a CRISPR enzyme are described in US20110059502, incorporated herein by reference. In some embodiments, a tagged CRISPR enzyme is used to identify the location of a target sequence.
• In an aspect of the invention, a reporter gene which includes but is not limited to glutathione-5-transferase (GST), horseradish peroxidase (HRP), chloramphenicol acetyltransferase (CAT) beta-galactosidase, beta-glucuronidase, luciferase, green fluorescent protein (GFP), HcRed, DsRed, cyan fluorescent protein (CFP), yellow fluorescent protein (YFP), and autofluorescent proteins including blue fluorescent protein (BFP), may be introduced into a cell to encode a gene product which serves as a marker by which to measure the alteration or modification of expression of the gene product. In a further embodiment of the invention, the DNA molecule encoding the gene product may be introduced into the cell via a vector. In a preferred embodiment of the invention the gene product is luciferase. In a further embodiment of the invention the expression of the gene product is decreased.
• In some aspects, the invention provides methods comprising delivering one or more polynucleotides, such as or one or more vectors as described herein, one or more transcripts thereof, and/or one or proteins transcribed therefrom, to a host cell. In some aspects, the invention further provides cells produced by such methods, and organisms (such as animals, plants, or fungi) comprising or produced from such cells. In some embodiments, a CRISPR enzyme in combination with (and optionally complexed with) a guide sequence is delivered to a cell. Conventional viral and non-viral based gene transfer methods can be used to introduce nucleic acids in mammalian cells or target tissues. Such methods can be used to administer nucleic acids encoding components of a CRISPR system to cells in culture, or in a host organism. Non-viral vector delivery systems include DNA plasmids, RNA (e.g. a transcript of a vector described herein), naked nucleic acid, and nucleic acid complexed with a delivery vehicle, such as a liposome. Viral vector delivery systems include DNA and RNA viruses, which have either episomal or integrated genomes after delivery to the cell. For a review of gene therapy procedures, see Anderson, Science 256:808-813 (1992); Nabel & Felgner, TIBTECH 11:211-217 (1993); Mitani & Caskey, TIBTECH 11:162-166 (1993); Dillon, TIBTECH 11:167-175 (1993); Miller, Nature 357:455-460 (1992); Van Brunt, Biotechnology 6(10):1149-1154 (1988); Vigne, Restorative Neurology and Neuroscience 8:35-36 (1995); Kremer & Perricaudet, British Medical Bulletin 51(1):31-44 (1995); Haddada et al., in Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology Doerfler and Bihm (eds) (1995); and Yu et al., Gene Therapy 1:13-26 (1994).
• Methods of non-viral delivery of nucleic acids include lipofection, nucleofection, microinjection, biolistics, virosomes, liposomes, immunoliposomes, polycation or lipid:nucleic acid conjugates, naked DNA, artificial virions, and agent-enhanced uptake of DNA. Lipofection is described in e.g., U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,049,386, 4,946,787; and 4,897,355) and lipofection reagents are sold commercially (e.g., Transfectam™ and Lipofectin™). Cationic and neutral lipids that are suitable for efficient receptor-recognition lipofection of polynucleotides include those of Feigner, WO 91/17424; WO 91/16024. Delivery can be to cells (e.g. in vitro or ex vivo administration) or target tissues (e.g. in vivo administration).
• The preparation of lipid:nucleic acid complexes, including targeted liposomes such as immunolipid complexes, is well known to one of skill in the art (see, e.g., Crystal, Science 270:404-410 (1995); Blaese et al., Cancer Gene Ther. 2:291-297 (1995); Behr et al., Bioconjugate Chem. 5:382-389 (1994); Remy et al., Bioconjugate Chem. 5:647-654 (1994); Gao et al., Gene Therapy 2:710-722 (1995); Ahmad et al., Cancer Res. 52:4817-4820 (1992); U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,186,183, 4,217,344, 4,235,871, 4,261,975, 4,485,054, 4,501,728, 4,774,085, 4,837,028, and 4,946,787).
• The use of RNA or DNA viral based systems for the delivery of nucleic acids take advantage of highly evolved processes for targeting a virus to specific cells in the body and trafficking the viral payload to the nucleus. Viral vectors can be administered directly to patients (in vivo) or they can be used to treat cells in vitro, and the modified cells may optionally be administered to patients (ex vivo). Conventional viral based systems could include retroviral, lentivirus, adenoviral, adeno-associated and herpes simplex virus vectors for gene transfer. Integration in the host genome is possible with the retrovirus, lentivirus, and adeno-associated virus gene transfer methods, often resulting in long term expression of the inserted transgene. Additionally, high transduction efficiencies have been observed in many different cell types and target tissues.
• The tropism of a retrovirus can be altered by incorporating foreign envelope proteins, expanding the potential target population of target cells. Lentiviral vectors are retroviral vectors that are able to transduce or infect non-dividing cells and typically produce high viral titers. Selection of a retroviral gene transfer system would therefore depend on the target tissue. Retroviral vectors are comprised of cis-acting long terminal repeats with packaging capacity for up to 6-10 kb of foreign sequence. The minimum cis-acting LTRs are sufficient for replication and packaging of the vectors, which are then used to integrate the therapeutic gene into the target cell to provide permanent transgene expression. Widely used retroviral vectors include those based upon murine leukemia virus (MuLV), gibbon ape leukemia virus (GaLV), Simian Immuno deficiency virus (SIV), human immuno deficiency virus (HIV), and combinations thereof (see, e.g., Buchscher et al., J. Virol. 66:2731-2739 (1992); Johann et al., J. Virol. 66:1635-1640 (1992); Sommnerfelt et al., Virol. 176:58-59 (1990); Wilson et al., J. Virol. 63:2374-2378 (1989); Miller et al., J. Virol. 65:2220-2224 (1991); PCT/US94/05700). In applications where transient expression is preferred, adenoviral based systems may be used. Adenoviral based vectors are capable of very high transduction efficiency in many cell types and do not require cell division. With such vectors, high titer and levels of expression have been obtained. This vector can be produced in large quantities in a relatively simple system. Adeno-associated virus (“AAV”) vectors may also be used to transduce cells with target nucleic acids, e.g., in the in vitro production of nucleic acids and peptides, and for in vivo and ex vivo gene therapy procedures (see, e.g., West et al., Virology 160:38-47 (1987); U.S. Pat. No. 4,797,368; WO 93/24641; Kotin, Human Gene Therapy 5:793-801 (1994); Muzyczka, J. Clin. Invest. 94:1351 (1994). Construction of recombinant AAV vectors are described in a number of publications, including U.S. Pat. No. 5,173,414; Tratschin et al., Mol. Cell. Biol. 5:3251-3260 (1985); Tratschin, et al., Mol. Cell. Biol. 4:2072-2081 (1984); Hermonat & Muzyczka, PNAS 81:6466-6470 (1984); and Samulski et al., J. Virol. 63:03822-3828 (1989).
• Packaging cells are typically used to form virus particles that are capable of infecting a host cell. Such cells include 293 cells, which package adenovirus, and ψ2 cells or PA317 cells, which package retrovirus. Viral vectors used in gene therapy are usually generated by producing a cell line that packages a nucleic acid vector into a viral particle. The vectors typically contain the minimal viral sequences required for packaging and subsequent integration into a host, other viral sequences being replaced by an expression cassette for the polynucleotide(s) to be expressed. The missing viral functions are typically supplied in trans by the packaging cell line. For example, AAV vectors used in gene therapy typically only possess ITR sequences from the AAV genome which are required for packaging and integration into the host genome. Viral DNA is packaged in a cell line, which contains a helper plasmid encoding the other AAV genes, namely rep and cap, but lacking ITR sequences. The cell line may also be infected with adenovirus as a helper. The helper virus promotes replication of the AAV vector and expression of AAV genes from the helper plasmid. The helper plasmid is not packaged in significant amounts due to a lack of ITR sequences. Contamination with adenovirus can be reduced by, e.g., heat treatment to which adenovirus is more sensitive than AAV. Additional methods for the delivery of nucleic acids to cells are known to those skilled in the art. See, for example, US20030087817, incorporated herein by reference.
• In some embodiments, a host cell is transiently or non-transiently transfected with one or more vectors described herein. In some embodiments, a cell is transfected as it naturally occurs in a subject. In some embodiments, a cell that is transfected is taken from a subject. In some embodiments, the cell is derived from cells taken from a subject, such as a cell line. A wide variety of cell lines for tissue culture are known in the art. Examples of cell lines include, but are not limited to, C8161, CCRF-CEM, MOLT, mIMCD-3, NHDF, HeLa-S3, Huh1, Huh4, Huh7, HUVEC, HASMC, HEKn, HEKa, MiaPaCell, Panel, PC-3, TF1, CTLL-2, C1R, Rat6, CV1, RPTE, A10, T24, J82, A375, ARH-77, Calu1, SW480, SW620, SKOV3, SK-UT, CaCo2, P388D1, SEM-K2, WEHI-231, HB56, TIB55, Jurkat, J45.01, LRMB, Bcl-1, BC-3, IC21, DLD2, Raw264.7, NRK, NRK-52E, MRC5, MEF, Hep G2, HeLa B, HeLa T4, COS, COS-1, COS-6, COS-M6A, BS-C-1 monkey kidney epithelial, BALB/3T3 mouse embryo fibroblast, 3T3 Swiss, 3T3-L1, 132-d5 human fetal fibroblasts; 10.1 mouse fibroblasts, 293-T, 3T3, 721, 9L, A2780, A2780ADR, A2780cis, A 172, A20, A253, A431, A-549, ALC, B16, B35, BCP-1 cells, BEAS-2B, bEnd.3, BHK-21, BR 293. BxPC3. C3H-10T1/2, C6/36, Cal-27, CHO, CHO-7, CHO-IR, CHO-K1, CHO-K2, CHO-T, CHO Dhfr −/−, COR-L23, COR-L23/CPR, COR-L23/5010, COR-L23/R23, COS-7, COV-434, CML T1, CMT, CT26, D17, DH82, DU145, DuCaP, EL4, EM2, EM3, EMT6/AR1, EMT6/AR10.0, FM3, H1299, H69, HB54, HB55, HCA2, HEK-293, HeLa, Hepa1c1c7, HL-60, HMEC, HT-29, Jurkat, JY cells, K562 cells, Ku812, KCL22, KG1, KYO1, LNCap, Ma-Mel 1-48, MC-38, MCF-7, MCF-10A, MDA-MB-231, MDA-MB-468, MDA-MB-435, MDCK II, MDCK 11, MOR/0.2R, MONO-MAC 6, MTD-1A, MyEnd, NCI-H69/CPR, NCI-H69/LX10, NCI-H69/LX20, NCI-H69/LX4, NIH-3T3, NALM-1, NW-145, OPCN/OPCT cell lines, Peer, PNT-1A/PNT 2, RenCa, RIN-5F, RMA/RMAS, Saos-2 cells, Sf-9, SkBr3, T2, T-47D, T84, THP1 cell line, U373, U87, U937, VCaP, Vero cells, WM39, WT-49, X63, YAC-1, YAR, and transgenic varieties thereof. Cell lines are available from a variety of sources known to those with skill in the art (see, e.g., the American Type Culture Collection (ATCC) (Manassus, Va.)). In some embodiments, a cell transfected with one or more vectors described herein is used to establish a new cell line comprising one or more vector-derived sequences. In some embodiments, a cell transiently transfected with the components of a CRISPR system as described herein (such as by transient transfection of one or more vectors, or transfection with RNA), and modified through the activity of a CRISPR complex, is used to establish a new cell line comprising cells containing the modification but lacking any other exogenous sequence. In some embodiments, cells transiently or non-transiently transfected with one or more vectors described herein, or cell lines derived from such cells are used in assessing one or more test compounds.
• In some embodiments, one or more vectors described herein are used to produce a non-human transgenic animal or transgenic plant. In some embodiments, the transgenic animal is a mammal, such as a mouse, rat, or rabbit. In certain embodiments, the organism or subject is a plant. In certain embodiments, the organism or subject or plant is algae. Methods for producing transgenic plants and animals are known in the art, and generally begin with a method of cell transfection, such as described herein. Transgenic animals are also provided, as are transgenic plants, especially crops and algae. The transgenic animal or plant may be useful in applications outside of providing a disease model. These may include food or feed production through expression of, for instance, higher protein, carbohydrate, nutrient or vitamins levels than would normally be seen in the wildtype. In this regard, transgenic plants, especially pulses and tubers, and animals, especially mammals such as livestock (cows, sheep, goats and pigs), but also poultry and edible insects, are preferred.
• Transgenic algae or other plants such as rape may be particularly useful in the production of vegetable oils or biofuels such as alcohols (especially methanol and ethanol), for instance. These may be engineered to express or overexpress high levels of oil or alcohols for use in the oil or biofuel industries.
• In one aspect, the invention provides for methods of modifying a target polynucleotide in a eukaryotic cell, which may be in vivo, ex vivo or in vitro. In some embodiments, the method comprises sampling a cell or population of cells from a human or non-human animal or plant (including micro-algae), and modifying the cell or cells. Culturing may occur at any stage ex vivo. The cell or cells may even be re-introduced into the non-human animal or plant (including micro-algae).
• In one aspect, the invention provides for methods of modifying a target polynucleotide in a eukaryotic cell. In some embodiments, the method comprises allowing a CRISPR complex to bind to the target polynucleotide to effect cleavage of said target polynucleotide thereby modifying the target polynucleotide, wherein the CRISPR complex comprises a CRISPR enzyme complexed with a guide sequence hybridized to a target sequence within said target polynucleotide, wherein said guide sequence is linked to a tracr mate sequence which in turn hybridizes to a tracr sequence.
• In one aspect, the invention provides a method of modifying expression of a polynucleotide in a eukaryotic cell. In some embodiments, the method comprises allowing a CRISPR complex to bind to the polynucleotide such that said binding results in increased or decreased expression of said polynucleotide; wherein the CRISPR complex comprises a CRISPR enzyme complexed with a guide sequence hybridized to a target sequence within said polynucleotide, wherein said guide sequence is linked to a tracr mate sequence which in turn hybridizes to a tracr sequence.
• With recent advances in crop genomics, the ability to use CRISPR-Cas systems to perform efficient and cost effective gene editing and manipulation will allow the rapid selection and comparison of single and multiplexed genetic manipulations to transform such genomes for improved production and enhanced traits. In this regard reference is made to US patents and publications: U.S. Pat. No. 6,603,061—Agrobacterium-Mediated Plant Transformation Method; U.S. Pat. No. 7,868,149—Plant Genome Sequences and Uses Thereof andUS 2009/0100536—Transgenic Plants with Enhanced Agronomic Traits, all the contents and disclosure of each of which are herein incorporated by reference in their entirety. In the practice of the invention, the contents and disclosure of Morrell et al “Crop genomics:advances and applications” Nat Rev Genet. 2011 Dec. 29; 13(2):85-96 are also herein incorporated by reference in their entirety.
• In plants, pathogens are often host-specific. For example,Fusarium oxysporumf. sp.lycopersicicauses tomato wilt but attacks only tomato, andF. oxysporumf:dianthii Puccinia graminisf. sp.triticiattacks only wheat. Plants have existing and induced defenses to resist most pathogens. Mutations and recombination events across plant generations lead to genetic variability that gives rise to susceptibility, especially as pathogens reproduce with more frequency than plants. In plants there can be non-host resistance, e.g., the host and pathogen are incompatible. There can also be Horizontal Resistance, e.g., partial resistance against all races of a pathogen, typically controlled by many genes and Vertical Resistance, e.g., complete resistance to some races of a pathogen but not to other races, typically controlled by a few genes. In a Gene-for-Gene level, plants and pathogens evolve together, and the genetic changes in one balance changes in other. Accordingly, using Natural Variability, breeders combine most useful genes for Yield, Quality, Uniformity, Hardiness, Resistance. The sources of resistance genes include native or foreign Varieties, Heirloom Varieties, Wild Plant Relatives, and Induced Mutations, e.g., treating plant material with mutagenic agents. Using the present invention, plant breeders are provided with a new tool to induce mutations. Accordingly, one skilled in the art can analyze the genome of sources of resistance genes, and in Varieties having desired characteristics or traits employ the present invention to induce the rise of resistance genes, with more precision than previous mutagenic agents and hence accelerate and improve plant breeding programs.
• In one aspect, the invention provides kits containing any one or more of the elements disclosed in the above methods and compositions. In some embodiments, the kit comprises a vector system and instructions for using the kit. In some embodiments, the vector system comprises (a) a first regulatory element operably linked to a tracr mate sequence and one or more insertion sites for inserting a guide sequence upstream of the tracr mate sequence, wherein when expressed, the guide sequence directs sequence-specific binding of a CRISPR complex to a target sequence in a eukaryotic cell, wherein the CRISPR complex comprises a CRISPR enzyme complexed with (1) the guide sequence that is hybridized to the target sequence, and (2) the tracr mate sequence that is hybridized to the tracr sequence; and/or (b) a second regulatory element operably linked to an enzyme-coding sequence encoding said CRISPR enzyme comprising a nuclear localization sequence. Elements may be provided individually or in combinations, and may be provided in any suitable container, such as a vial, a bottle, or a tube. In some embodiments, the kit includes instructions in one or more languages, for example in more than one language.
• In some embodiments, a kit comprises one or more reagents for use in a process utilizing one or more of the elements described herein. Reagents may be provided in any suitable container. For example, a kit may provide one or more reaction or storage buffers. Reagents may be provided in a form that is usable in a particular assay, or in a form that requires addition of one or more other components before use (e.g. in concentrate or lyophilized form). A buffer can be any buffer, including but not limited to a sodium carbonate buffer, a sodium bicarbonate buffer, a borate buffer, a Tris buffer, a MOPS buffer, a HEPES buffer, and combinations thereof. In some embodiments, the buffer is alkaline. In some embodiments, the buffer has a pH from about 7 to about 10. In some embodiments, the kit comprises one or more oligonucleotides corresponding to a guide sequence for insertion into a vector so as to operably link the guide sequence and a regulatory element. In some embodiments, the kit comprises a homologous recombination template polynucleotide.
• In one aspect, the invention provides methods for using one or more elements of a CRISPR system. The CRISPR complex of the invention provides an effective means for modifying a target polynucleotide. The CRISPR complex of the invention has a wide variety of utility including modifying (e.g., deleting, inserting, translocating, inactivating, activating) a target polynucleotide in a multiplicity of cell types. As such the CRISPR complex of the invention has a broad spectrum of applications in, e.g., gene therapy, drug screening, disease diagnosis, and prognosis. An exemplary CRISPR complex comprises a CRISPR enzyme complexed with a guide sequence hybridized to a target sequence within the target polynucleotide. The guide sequence is linked to a tracr mate sequence, which in turn hybridizes to a tracr sequence.
• The target polynucleotide of a CRISPR complex can be any polynucleotide endogenous or exogenous to the eukaryotic cell. For example, the target polynucleotide can be a polynucleotide residing in the nucleus of the eukaryotic cell. The target polynucleotide can be a sequence coding a gene product (e.g., a protein) or a non-coding sequence (e.g., a regulatory polynucleotide or a junk DNA). Without wishing to be bound by theory, it is believed that the target sequence should be associated with a PAM (protospacer adjacent motif); that is, a short sequence recognized by the CRISPR complex. The precise sequence and length requirements for the PAM differ depending on the CRISPR enzyme used, but PAMs are typically 2-5 base pair sequences adjacent the protospacer (that is, the target sequence) Examples of PAM sequences are given in the examples section below, and the skilled person will be able to identify further PAM sequences for use with a given CRISPR enzyme.
• The target polynucleotide of a CRISPR complex may include a number of disease-associated genes and polynucleotides as well as signaling biochemical pathway-associated genes and polynucleotides as listed in U.S.provisional patent applications 61/736,527 and 61/748,427 having Broad reference BI-2011/008/WSGR Docket No. 44063-701.101 and BI-2011/008/WSGR Docket No. 44063-701.102 respectively, both entitled SYSTEMS METHODS AND COMPOSITIONS FOR SEQUENCE MANIPULATION filed on Dec. 12, 2012 and Jan. 2, 2013, respectively, the contents of all of which are herein incorporated by reference in their entirety.
• Examples of target polynucleotides include a sequence associated with a signaling biochemical pathway, e.g., a signaling biochemical pathway-associated gene or polynucleotide. Examples of target polynucleotides include a disease associated gene or polynucleotide. A “disease-associated” gene or polynucleotide refers to any gene or polynucleotide which is yielding transcription or translation products at an abnormal level or in an abnormal form in cells derived from a disease-affected tissues compared with tissues or cells of a non disease control. It may be a gene that becomes expressed at an abnormally high level; it may be a gene that becomes expressed at an abnormally low level, where the altered expression correlates with the occurrence and/or progression of the disease. A disease-associated gene also refers to a gene possessing mutation(s) or genetic variation that is directly responsible or is in linkage disequilibrium with a gene(s) that is responsible for the etiology of a disease. The transcribed or translated products may be known or unknown, and may be at a normal or abnormal level.
• Examples of disease-associated genes and polynucleotides are available from McKusick-Nathans Institute of Genetic Medicine, Johns Hopkins University (Baltimore, Md.) and National Center for Biotechnology Information, National Library of Medicine (Bethesda, Md.), available on the World Wide Web.
• Examples of disease-associated genes and polynucleotides are listed in Tables A and B. Disease specific information is available from McKusick-Nathans Institute of Genetic Medicine, Johns Hopkins University (Baltimore, Md.) and National Center for Biotechnology Information, National Library of Medicine (Bethesda, Md.), available on the World Wide Web. Examples of signaling biochemical pathway-associated genes and polynucleotides are listed in Table C.
• Mutations in these genes and pathways can result in production of improper proteins or proteins in improper amounts which affect function. Further examples of genes, diseases and proteins are hereby incorporated by reference from US Provisional application. Such genes, proteins and pathways may be the target polynucleotide of a CRISPR complex.

• TABLE A
  DISEASE/DISORDERS	GENE(S)
  Neoplasia	PTEN; ATM; ATR; EGFR; ERBB2; ERBB3; ERBB4;
  	Notch1; Notch2; Notch3; Notch4; AKT; AKT2; AKT3; HIF;
  	HIF1a; HIF3a; Met; HRG; Bcl2; PPAR alpha; PPAR
  	gamma; WT1 (Wilms Tumor); FGF Receptor Family
  	members (5 members: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5); CDKN2a; APC; RB
  	(retinoblastoma); MEN1; VHL; BRCA1; BRCA2; AR
  	(Androgen Receptor); TSG101; IGF; IGF Receptor; Igfl (4
  	variants); Igf2 (3 variants); Igf 1 Receptor; Igf 2 Receptor;
  	Bax; Bcl2; caspases family (9 members:
  	1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 12); Kras; Apc
  Age-related Macular	Aber; Ccl2; Cc2; cp (ceruloplasmin); Timp3; cathepsinD;
  Degeneration	Vldlr; Ccr2
  Schizophrenia	Neuregulin1 (Nrg1); Erb4 (receptor for Neuregulin);
  	Complexin1 (Cplx1); Tph1 Tryptophan hydroxylase; Tph2
  	Tryptophan hydroxylase 2; Neurexin 1; GSK3; GSK3a;
  	GSK3b
  Disorders	5-HTT (Slc6a4); COMT; DRD (Drd1a); SLC6A3; DAOA;
  	DTNBP1; Dao (Dao1)
  Trinucleotide Repeat	HTT (Huntington's Dx); SBMA/SMAX1/AR (Kennedy's
  Disorders	Dx); FXN/X25 (Friedrich's Ataxia); ATX3 (Machado-
  	Joseph's Dx); ATXN1 and ATXN2 (spinocerebellar
  	ataxias); DMPK (myotonic dystrophy); Atrophin-1 and Atn1
  	(DRPLA Dx); CBP (Creb-BP-global instability); VLDLR
  	(Alzheimer's); Atxn7; Atxn10
  Fragile X Syndrome	FMR2; FXR1; FXR2; mGLUR5
  Secretase Related	APH-1 (alpha and beta); Presenilin (Psen1); nicastrin
  Disorders	(Ncstn); PEN-2
  Others	Nos1; Parp1; Nat1; Nat2
  Prion-related disorders	Prp
  ALS	SOD1; ALS2; STEX; FUS; TARDBP; VEGF (VEGF-a;
  	VEGF-b; VEGF-c)
  Drug addiction	Prkce (alcohol); Drd2; Drd4; ABAT (alcohol); GRIA2;
  	Grm5; Grin1; Htr1b; Grin2a; Drd3; Pdyn; Gria1 (alcohol)
  Autism	Mecp2; BZRAP1; MDGA2; Sema5A; Neurexin 1; Fragile X
  	(FMR2 (AFF2); FXR1; FXR2; Mglur5)
  Alzheimer's Disease	E1; CHIP; UCH; UBB; Tau; LRP; PICALM; Clusterin; PS1;
  	SORL1; CR1; Vldlr; Uba1; Uba3; CHIP28 (Aqp1,
  	Aquaporin 1); Uchl1; Uchl3; APP
  Inflammation	IL-10; IL-1 (IL-1a; IL-1b); IL-13; IL-17 (IL-17a (CTLA8); IL-
  	17b; IL-17c; IL-17d; IL-17f); II-23; Cx3cr1; ptpn22; TNFa;
  	NOD2/CARD15 for IBD; IL-6; IL-12 (IL-12a; IL-12b);
  	CTLA4; Cx3cl1
  Parkinson's Disease	x-Synuclcin; DJ-1; LRRK2; Parkin; PINK1

• TABLE B
  Blood and	Anemia (CRAN1, CDA1, RPS19, DBA, PKLR, PK1, NT5C3, UMPH1,
  coagulation diseases	PSN1, RHAG, RH50A, NRAMP2, SPTB, ALAS2, ANH1, ASB,
  and disorders	ABCB7, ABC7, ASAT); Bare lymphocyte syndrome (TAPBP, TPSN,
  	TAP2, ABCB3, PSF2, RING11, MHC2TA, C2TA, RFX5, RFXAP,
  	RFX5), Bleeding disorders (TBXA2R, P2RX1, P2X1); Factor H and
  	factor H-like 1 (HF1, CFH, HUS); Factor V and factor VIII (MCFD2);
  	Factor VII deficiency (F7); Factor X deficiency (F10); Factor XI
  	deficiency (F11); Factor XII deficiency (F12, HAF); Factor XIIIA
  	deficiency (F13A1, F13A); Factor XIIIB deficiency (F13B); Fanconi
  	anemia (FANCA, FACA, FA1, FA, FAA, FAAP95, FAAP90, FLJ34064,
  	FANCB, FANCC, FACC, BRCA2, FANCD1, FANCD2, FANCD,
  	FACD, FAD, FANCE, FACE, FANCF, XRCC9, FANCG, BRIP1,
  	BACH1, FANCJ, PHF9, FANCL, FANCM, KIAA1596);
  	Hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis disorders (PRF1, HPLH2,
  	UNC13D, MUNC13-4, HPLH3, HLH3, FHL3); Hemophilia A (F8, F8C,
  	HEMA); Hemophilia B (F9, HEMB), Hemorrhagic disorders (PI, ATT,
  	F5); Leukocyde deficiencies and disorders (ITGB2, CD18, LCAMB,
  	LAD, EIF2B1, EIF2BA, EIF2B2, EIF2B3, EIF2B5, LVWM, CACH,
  	CLE, EIF2B4); Sickle cell anemia (HBB); Thalassemia (HBA2, HBB,
  	HBD, LCRB, HBA1).
  Cell dysregulation	B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma (BCL7A, BCL7); Leukemia (TAL1,
  and oncology	TCL5, SCL, TAL2, FLT3, NBS1, NBS, ZNFN1A1, IK1, LYF1,
  diseases and disorders	HOXD4, HOX4B, BCR, CML, PHL, ALL, ARNT, KRAS2, RASK2,
  	GMPS, AF10, ARHGEF12, LARG, KIAA0382, CALM, CLTH,
  	CEBPA, CEBP, CHIC2, BTL, FLT3, KIT, PBT, LPP, NPM1, NUP214,
  	D9S46E, CAN, CAIN, RUNX1, CBFA2, AML1, WHSC1L1, NSD3,
  	FLT3, AF1Q, NPM1, NUMA1, ZNF145, PLZF, PML, MYL, STAT5B,
  	AF10, CALM, CLTH, ARL11, ARLTS1, P2RX7, P2X7, BCR, CML,
  	PHL, ALL, GRAF, NF1, VRNF, WSS, NFNS, PTPN11, PTP2C, SHP2,
  	NS1, BCL2, CCND1, PRAD1, BCL1, TCRA, GATA1, GF1, ERYF1,
  	NFE1, ABL1, NQO1, DIA4, NMOR1, NUP214, D9S46E, CAN, CAIN).
  Inflammation and	AIDS (KIR3DL1, NKAT3, NKB1, AMB11, K1R3DS1, IFNG, CXCL12,
  immune related	SDF1); Autoimmune lymphoproliferative syndrome (TNFRSF6, APT1,
  diseases and disorders	FAS, CD95, ALPS1A); Combined immunodeficiency, (IL2RG,
  	SCIDX1, SCIDX, IMD4); HIV-1 (CCL5, SCYA5, D17S136E, TCP228),
  	HIV susceptibility or infection (IL10, CSIF, CMKBR2, CCR2,
  	CMKBR5, CCCKR5 (CCR5)); Immunodeficiencies (CD3E, CD3G,
  	AICDA, AID, HIGM2, TNFRSF5, CD40, UNG, DGU, HIGM4,
  	TNFSFS, CD40LG, HIGM1, IGM, FOXP3, IPEX, AIID, XPID, PIDX,
  	TNFRSF14B, TACI; Inflammation (IL-10, IL-1 (IL-1a, IL-1b), IL-13,
  	IL-17 (IL-17a (CTLA8), IL-17b, IL-17c, IL-17d, IL-17f), II-23, Cx3cr1,
  	ptpn22, TNFa, NOD2/CARD15 for IBD, IL-6, IL-12 (IL-12a, IL-12b),
  	CTLA4, Cx3cl1); Severe combined immunodeficiencies (SCIDs)(JAK3,
  	JAKL, DCLRE1C, ARTEMIS, SCIDA, RAG1, RAG2, ADA, PTPRC,
  	CD45, LCA, IL7R, CD3D, T3D, IL2RG, SCIDX1, SCIDX, IMD4).
  Metabolic, liver,	Amyloid neuropathy (TTR, PALB); Amyloidosis (APOA1, APP, AAA,
  kidney and protein	CVAP, AD1, GSN, FGA, LYZ, TTR, PALB); Cirrhosis (KRT18, KRT8,
  diseases and disorders	CIRH1A, NAIC, TEX292, KIAA1988); Cystic fibrosis (CFTR, ABCC7,
  	CF, MRP7); Glycogen storage diseases (SLC2A2, GLUT2, G6PC,
  	G6PT, G6PT1, GAA, LAMP2, LAMPB, AGL, GDE, GBE1, GYS2,
  	PYGL, PFKM); Hepatic adenoma, 142330 (TCF1, HNF1A, MODY3),
  	Hepatic failure, early onset, and neurologic disorder (SCOD1, SCO1),
  	Hepatic lipase deficiency (LIPC), Hepatoblastoma, cancer and
  	carcinomas (CTNNB1, PDGFRL, PDGRL, PRLTS, AXIN1, AXIN,
  	CTNNB1, TP53, P53, LFS1, IGF2R, MPRI, MET, CASP8, MCH5;
  	Medullary cystic kidney disease (UMOD, HNFJ, FJHN, MCKD2,
  	ADMCKD2); Phenylketonuria (PAH, PKU1, QDPR, DHPR, PTS);
  	Polycystic kidney and hepatic disease (FCYT, PKHD1, ARPKD, PKD1,
  	PKD2, PKD4, PKDTS, PRKCSH, G19P1, PCLD, SEC63).
  Muscular/Skeletal	Becker muscular dystrophy (DMD, BMD, MYF6), Duchenne Muscular
  diseases and disorders	Dystrophy (DMD, BMD); Emery-Dreifuss muscular dystrophy (LMNA,
  	LMN1, EMD2, FPLD, CMD1A, HGPS, LGMD1B, LMNA, LMN1,
  	EMD2, FPLD, CMD1A); Facioscapulohumeral muscular dystrophy
  	(FSHMD1A, FSHD1A); Muscular dystrophy (FKRP, MDC1C,
  	LGMD2I, LAMA2, LAMM, LARGE, KIAA0609, MDC1D, FCMD,
  	TTID, MYOT, CAPN3, CANP3, DYSF, LGMD2B, SGCG, LGMD2C,
  	DMDA1, SCG3, SGCA, ADL, DAG2, LGMD2D, DMDA2, SGCB,
  	LGMD2E, SGCD, SGD, LGMD2F, CMD1L, TCAP, LGMD2G,
  	CMD1N, TRIM32, HT2A, LGMD2H, FKRP, MDC1C, LCMD2I, TTN,
  	CMD1G, TMD, LGMD2J, POMT1, CAV3, LGMD1C, SEPN1, SELN,
  	RSMD1, PLEC1, PLTN, EBS1); Osteopetrosis (LRP5, BMND1, LRP7,
  	LR3, OPPG, VBCH2, CLCN7, CLC7, OPTA2, OSTM1, GL, TCIRG1,
  	TIRC7, OC116, OPTB1); Muscular atrophy (VAPB, VAPC, ALS8,
  	SMN1, SMA1, SMA2, SMA3, SMA4, BSCL2, SPG17, GARS, SMAD1,
  	CMT2D, HEXB, IGHMBP2, SMUBP2, CATF1, SMARD1).
  Neurological and	ALS (SOD1, ALS2, STEX, FUS, TARDBP, VEGF (VEGF-a, VEGF-b,
  neuronal diseases and	VEGF-c); Alzheimer disease (APP, AAA, CVAP, AD1, APOE, AD2,
  disorders	PSEN2, AD4, STM2, APBB2, FE65L1, NOS3, PLAU, URK, ACE,
  	DCP1, ACE1, MPO, PACIP1, PAXIP1L, PTIP, A2M, BLMH, BMH,
  	PSEN1, AD3); Autism (Mecp2, BZRAP1, MDGA2, Sema5A, Neurexin
  	1, GLO1, MECP2, RTT, PPMX, MRX16, MRX79, NLGN3, NLGN4,
  	KIAA1260, AUTSX2); Fragile X Syndrome (FMR2, FXR1, FXR2,
  	mGLUR5), Huntington's disease and disease like disorders (HD, IT15,
  	PRNP, PRIP, JPH3, JP3, HDL2, TBP, SCA17); Parkinson disease
  	(NR4A2, NURR1, NOT, TINUR, SNCAIP, TBP, SCA17, SNCA,
  	NACP, PARK1, PARK4, DJ1, PARK7, LRRK2, PARK8, PINK1,
  	PARK6, UCHL1, PARK5, SNCA, NACP, PARK1, PARK4, PRKN,
  	PARK2, PDJ, DBH, NDUFV2); Rett syndrome (MECP2, RTT, PPMX,
  	MRX16, MRX79, CDKL5, STK9, MECP2, RTT, PPMX, MRX16,
  	MRX79, x-Synuclein, DJ-1); Schizophrenia (Neuregulin1 (Nrg1), Erb4
  	(receptor for Neuregulin), Complexin1 (Cplx1), Tph1 Tryptophan
  	hydroxylase, Tph2, Tryptophan hydroxylase 2, Neurexin 1, GSK3,
  	GSK3a, GSK3b, 5-HTT (Slc6a4), CONT, DRD (Drd1a), SLC6A3,
  	DAOA, DTNBP1, Dao (Dao1)); Secretase Related Disorders (APH-1
  	(alpha and beta), Presenilin (Psen1), nicastrin, (Ncstn), PEN-2, Nos1,
  	Parp1, Nat1, Nat2); Trinucleotide Repeat Disorders (HTT (Huntington's
  	Dx), SBMA/SMAX1/AR (Kennedy's Dx), FXN/X25 (Friedrich's
  	Ataxia), ATX3 (Machado-Joseph's Dx), ATXN1 and ATXN2
  	(spinocerebellar ataxias), DMPK (myotonic dystrophy), Atrophin-1 and
  	Atn1 (DRPLA Dx), CBP (Creb-BP-global instability), VLDLR
  	(Alzheimer's), Atxn7, Atxn10)
  Occular diseases and	Age-related macular degeneration (Aber, Ccl2, Cc2, cp (ceruloplasmin),
  disorders	Timp3, cathepsinD, Vldlr, Ccr2); Cataract (CRYAA, CRYA1, CRYBB2,
  	CRYB2, PITX3, BFSP2, CP49, CP47, CRYAA, CRYA1, PAX6, AN2
  	MGDA, CRYBA1, CRYB1, CRYGC, CRYG3, CCL, LIM2, MP19,
  	CRYGD, CRYG4,BFSP2, CP49, CP47, HSF4, CTM, HSF4, CTM,
  	MIP, AQP0, CRYAB, CRYA2, CTPP2, CRYBB1, CRYGD, CRYG4,
  	CRYBB2, CRYB2, CRYGC, CRYG3, CCL, CRYAA, CRYA1, GJA8,
  	CX50, CAE1, GJA3, CX46, CZP3, CAE3, CCM1, CAM, KRIT1);
  	Corneal clouding and dystrophy (APOA1, TGFBI, CSD2, CDGG1,
  	CSD, BIGH3, CDG2, TACSTD2, TROP2, M1S1, VSX1, RINX, PPCD,
  	PPD, KTCN, COL8A2, FECD, PPCD2, PIP5K3, CFD); Cornea plana
  	congenital (KERA, CNA2); Glaucoma (MYOC, TIGR, GLC1A, JOAG,
  	GPOA, OPTN, GLC1E, FIP2, HYPL, NRP, CYP1B1, GLC3A, OPA1,
  	NTG, NPG, CYP1B1, GLC3A); Leber congenital amaurosis (CRB1,
  	RP12, CRX, CORD2, CRD, RPGRIP1, LCA6, CORD9, RPE65, RP20,
  	AIPL1, LCA4, GUCY2D, GUC2D, LCA1, CORD6, RDH12, LCA3);
  	Macular dystrophy (ELOVL4, ADMD, STGD2, STGD3, RDS, RP7,
  	PRPH2, PRPH, AVMD, AOFMD, VMD2).
  Epilepsy, myoclonic,	EPM2A, MELF, EPM2
  Lafora type, 254780
  Epilepsy, myoclonic,	NHLRC1, EPM2A, EPM2B
  Lafora type, 254780
  Duchenne muscular	DMD, BMD
  dystrophy, 310200 (3)
  AIDS, delayed/rapid	KIR3DL1, NKAT3, NKB1, AMB11,
  progression to (3)
  	KIR3DS1
  AIDS, rapid	IFNG
  progression to,
  609423 (3)
  AIDS, resistance to	CXXCL12, SDF1
  (3)
  Alpha 1-Antitrypsin	SERPINA1 [serpin peptidase inhibitor, clade A (alpha-1 antiproteinase,
  Deficiency	antitrypsin), member 1]; SERPINA2 [serpin peptidase inhibitor, clade A
  	(alpha-1 antiproteinase, antitrypsin), member 2]; SERPINA3 [serpin
  	peptidase inhibitor, clade A (alpha-1 antiproteinase, antitrypsin), member
  	3]; SERPINA5 [serpin peptidase inhibitor, clade A (alpha-1
  	antiproteinase, antitrypsin), member 5]; SERPINA6 [serpin peptidase
  	inhibitor, clade A (alpha-1 antiproteinase, antitrypsin), member 6];
  	SERPINA7 [serpin peptidase inhibitor, Glade A (alpha-1 antiproteinase,
  	antitrypsin), member 7];″ AND ″SERPINA6 (serpin peptidase inhibitor,
  	clade A (alpha-1 antiproteinase, antitrypsin), member 6)

• TABLE C
  CELLULAR
  FUNCTION	GENES
  PI3K/AKT Signaling	PRKCE; ITGAM; ITGA5; IRAK1; PRKAA2; EIF2AK2;
  	PTEN; EIF4E: PRKCZ; GRK6: MAPK1; TSC1; PLK1;
  	AKT2; IKBKB; PIK3CA; CDK8; CDKN1B; NFKB2; BCL2;
  	PIK3CB; PPP2R1A; MAPK8; BCL2L1; MAPK3; TSC2;
  	ITGA1; KRAS; EIF4EBP1; RELA; PRKCD; NOS3;
  	PRKAA1; MAPK9; CDK2; PPP2CA; PIM1; ITGB7;
  	YWHAZ; ILK; TP53; RAF1; IKBKG; RELB; DYRK1A;
  	CDKNIA; ITGB1; MAP2K2; JAK1; AKT1; JAK2; PIK3R1;
  	CHUK; PDPK1; PPP2R5C; CTNNB1; MAP2K1; NFKB1;
  	PAK3; ITGB3; CCND1; GSK3A; FRAP1; SFN; ITGA2;
  	TTK; CSNK1A1; BRAF; GSK3B; AKT3; FOXO1; SGK;
  	HSP90AA1; RPS6KB1
  ERK/MAPK Signaling	PRKCE; ITGAM; ITGA5; HSPB1; IRAK1; PRKAA2;
  	EIF2AK2; RAC1; RAP1A; TLN1; EIF4E; ELK1; GRK6;
  	MAPK1; RAC2; PLK1; AKT2; PIK3CA; CDK8; CREB1;
  	PRKC1; PTK2; FOS; RPS6KA4; PIK3CB; PPP2R1A;
  	PIK3C3; MAPK8; MAPK3; ITGA1; ETS1; KRAS; MYCN;
  	EIF4EBP1; PPARG; PRKCD; PRKAA1; MAPK9; SRC;
  	CDK2; PPP2CA; PIM1; PIK3C2A; ITGB7; YWHAZ;
  	PPP1CC; KSR1; PXN; RAF1; FYN; DYRK1A; ITGB1;
  	MAP2K2; PAK4; PIK3R1; STAT3; PPP2R5C; MAP2K1;
  	PAK3; ITGB3; ESR1; ITGA2; MYC; TTK; CSNK1A1;
  	CRKL; BRAF; ATF4; PRKCA; SRF; STAT1; SGK
  Glucocorticoid Receptor	RAC1; TAF4B; EP300; SMAD2; TRAF6; PCAF; ELK1;
  Signaling	MAPKI; SMAD3; AKT2; 1KBKB; NCOR2; UBE2I;
  	PIK3CA; CREB1; FOS; HSPA5; NFKB2; BCL2;
  	MAP3K14; STAT5B; PIK3CB; PIK3C3; MAPK8; BCL2L1;
  	MAPK3; TSC22D3; MAPK10; NRIP1; KRAS; MAPK13;
  	RELA; STAT5A; MAPK9; NOS2A; PBX1; NR3C1;
  	PIK3C2A; CDKN1C; TRAF2; SERPINE1; NCOA3;
  	MAPK14; TNF; RAF1; IKBKG; MAP3K7; CREBBP;
  	CDKN1A; MAP2K2; JAK1; IL8; NCOA2; AKT1; JAK2;
  	PIK3R1; CHUK; STAT3; MAP2K1; NFKB1; TGFBR1;
  	ESR1; SMAD4; CEBPB; JUN; AR; AKT3; CCL2; MMP1;
  	STAT1; IL6; HSP90AA1
  Axonal Guidance	PRKCE; ITGAM; ROCK1; ITGA5; CXCR4; ADAM12;
  Signaling	IGF1; RAC1; RAP1A; EIF4E; PRKCZ; NRP1; NTRK2;
  	ARHGEF7; SMO; ROCK2; MAPK1; PGF; RAC2;
  	PTPN11; GNAS; AKT2; PIK3CA; ERBB2; PRKCI; PTK2;
  	CFL1; GNAQ; PIK3CB; CXCL12; PIK3C3; WNT11;
  	PRKD1; GNB2L1; ABL1; MAPK3; ITGA1; KRAS; RHOA;
  	PRKCD; PIK3C2A; ITGB7; GLI2; PXN; VASP; RAF1;
  	FYN; ITGB1; MAP2K2; PAK4; ADAM17; AKT1; PIK3R1;
  	GLI1; WNT5A; ADAM10; MAP2K1; PAK3; ITGB3;
  	CDC42; VEGFA; ITGA2; EPHA8; CRKL; RND1; GSK3B;
  	AKT3; PRKCA
  Ephrin Receptor	PRKCE; ITGAM; ROCK1; ITGA5; CXCR4; IRAK1;
  Signaling	PRKAA2; EIF2AK2; RAC1; RAP1A; GRK6; ROCK2;
  	MAPK1; PGF; RAC2; PTPN11; GNAS; PLK1; AKT2;
  	DOK1; CDK8; CREB1; PTK2; CFL1; GNAQ; MAP3K14;
  	CXCL12; MAPK8; GNB2L1; ABL1; MAPK3; ITGA1;
  	KRAS; RHOA; PRKCD; PRKAA1; MAPK9; SRC; CDK2;
  	PIM1; ITGB7; PXN; RAF1; FYN; DYRK1A; ITGB1;
  	MAP2K2; PAK4, AKT1; JAK2; STAT3; ADAM10;
  	MAP2K1; PAK3; ITGB3; CDC42; VEGFA; ITGA2;
  	EPHA8; TTK; CSNK1A1; CRKL; BRAF; PTPN13; ATF4;
  	AKT3; SGK
  Actin Cytoskeleton	ACTN4; PRKCE; ITGAM; ROCK1; ITGA5; IRAK1;
  Signaling	PRKAA2; EIF2AK2; RAC1; INS; ARHGEF7; GRK6;
  	ROCK2; MAPK1; RAC2; PLK1; AKT2; PIK3CA; CDK8;
  	PTK2; CPL1; PIK3CB; MYH9; DIAPH1; PIK3C3; MAPK8;
  	F2R; MAPK3; SLC9A1; ITGA1; KRAS; RHOA; PRKCD;
  	PRKAA1; MAPK9; CDK2; PIM1, PIK3C2A; ITGB7;
  	PPP1CC; PXN; VIL2; RAF1; GSN; DYRK1A; ITGB1;
  	MAP2K2; PAK4; PIP5K1A; PIK3R1; MAP2K1; PAK3;
  	ITGB3; CDC42; APC; ITGA2; TTK; CSNK1A1; CRKL;
  	BRAF; VAV3; SGK
  Huntington's Disease	PRKCE; IGF1; EP300; RCOR1; PRKCZ; HDAC4; TGM2;
  Signaling	MAPK1; CAPNS1; AKT2; EGFR; NCOR2; SP1; CAPN2;
  	PIK3CA; HDAC5; CREB1; PRKCI; HSPA5; REST;
  	GNAQ; PIK3CB; PIK3C3; MAPK8; IGF1R; PRKD1;
  	GNB2L1; BCL2L1; CAPN1; MAPK3; CASP8; HDAC2;
  	HDAC7A; PRKCD; HDAC11; MAPK9; HDAC9; PIK3C2A;
  	HDAC3; TP53; CASP9; CREBBP; AKT1; PIK3R1;
  	PDPK1; CASP1; APAF1; FRAP1; CASP2; JUN; BAX;
  	ATF4; AKT3; PRKCA; CLTC; SGK; HDAC6; CASP3
  Apoptosis Signaling	PRKCE; ROCK1; BID; IRAK1; PRKAA2; EIF2AK2; BAK1;
  	BIRC4; GRK6; MAPK1; CAPNS1; PLK1; AKT2; IKBKB;
  	CAPN2; CDK8; FAS; NFKB2; BCL2; MAP3K14; MAPK8;
  	BCL2L1; CAPN1; MAPK3; CASP8; KRAS; RELA;
  	PRKCD; PRKAA1; MAPK9; CDK2; PIM1; TP53; TNF;
  	RAF1; IKBKG; RELB; CASP9; DYRK1A; MAP2K2;
  	CHUK; APAF1; MAP2K1; NFKB1; PAK3; LMNA; CASP2;
  	BIRC2; TTK; CSNKIA1; BRAF; BAX; PRKCA; SGK;
  	CASP3; BIRC3; PARP1
  B Cell Receptor	RAC1; PTEN; LYN; ELK1; MAPK1; RAC2; PTPN11;
  Signaling	AKT2; IKBKB; PIK3CA; CREB1; SYK; NFKB2; CAMK2A;
  	MAP3K14; PIK3CB; PIK3C3; MAPK8; BCL2L1; ABL1;
  	MAPK3; ETS1; KRAS; MAPK13; RELA; PTPN6; MAPK9;
  	EGR1; PIK3C2A; BTK; MAPK14; RAF1; IKBKG; RELB;
  	MAP3K7; MAP2K2; AKT1; PIK3R1; CHUK; MAP2K1;
  	NFKB1; CDC42; GSK3A; FRAP1; BCL6; BCL10; JUN;
  	GSK3B; ATF4; AKT3; VAV3; RPS6KB1
  Leukocyte Extravasation	ACTN4; CD44; PRKCE; ITGAM; ROCK1; CXCR4; CYBA;
  Signaling	RAC1; RAP1A; PRKCZ; ROCK2; RAC2; PTPN11;
  	MMP14; PIK3CA; PRKCI; PTK2; PIK3CB; CXCL12;
  	PIK3C3; MAPK8; PRKD1; ABL1; MAPK10; CYBB;
  	MAPK13; RHOA; PRKCD; MAPK9; SRC; PIK3C2A; BTK;
  	MAPK14; NOX1; PXN; VIL2; VASP; ITGB1; MAP2K2;
  	CTNND1; PIK3R1; CTNNB1; CLDN1; CDC42; F11R; ITK;
  	CRKL; VAV3; CTTN; PRKCA; MMP1; MMP9
  Integrin Signaling	ACTN4; ITGAM; ROCK1; ITGA5; RAC1; PTEN; RAP1A;
  	TLN1; ARHGEF7; MAPK1; RAC2; CAPNS1; AKT2;
  	CAPN2; PIK3CA; PTK2; PIK3CB; PIK3C3; MAPK8;
  	CAV1; CAPN1; ABL1; MAPK3; ITGA1; KRAS; RHOA;
  	SRC; PIK3C2A; ITGB7; PPP1CC; ILK; PXN; VASP;
  	RAF1; FYN; ITGB1; MAP2K2; PAK4; AKT1; PIK3R1;
  	TNK2; MAP2K1; PAK3; ITGB3; CDC42; RND3; ITGA2;
  	CRKL; BRAF; GSK3B; AKT3
  Acute Phase Response	IRAK1; SOD2; MYD88; TRAF6; ELK1; MAPK1; PTPN11;
  Signaling	AKT2; IKBKB; PIK3CA; FOS; NFKB2; MAP3K14;
  	PIK3CB; MAPK8; RIPK1; MAPK3; IL6ST; KRAS;
  	MAPK13; IL6R; RELA; SOCS1; MAPK9; FTL; NR3C1;
  	TRAF2; SERPINE1; MAPK14; TNF; RAF1; PDK1;
  	IKBKG; RELB; MAP3K7; MAP2K2; AKT1; JAK2; PIK3R1;
  	CHUK; STAT3; MAP2K1; NFKB1; FRAP1; CEBPB; JUN;
  	AKT3; IL1R1; IL6
  PTEN Signaling	ITGAM; ITGA5; RAC1; PTEN; PRKCZ; BCL2L11;
  	MAPK1; RAC2; AKT2; EGFR; IKBKB; CBL; PIK3CA;
  	CDKN1B; PTK2; NFKB2; BCL2; PIK3CB; BCL2L1;
  	MAPK3; ITGA1; KRAS; ITGB7; ILK; PDGFRB; INSR;
  	RAF1; IKBKG; CASP9; CDKN1A; ITGB1; MAP2K2;
  	AKT1; PIK3R1; CHUK; PDGFRA; PDPK1; MAP2K1;
  	NFKB1; ITGB3; CDC42; CCND1; GSK3A; ITGA2;
  	GSK3B; AKT3; FOXO1; CASP3; RPS6KB1
  p53 Signaling	PTEN; EP300; BBC3; PCAF; FASN; BRCA1; GADD45A;
  	BIRC5; AKT2; PIK3CA; CHEK1; TP53INP1; BCL2;
  	PIK3CB; PIK3C3; MAPK8; THBS1; ATR; BCL2L1; E2F1;
  	PMAIP1; CHEK2; TNFRSF10B; TP73; RB1; HDAC9;
  	CDK2; PIK3C2A; MAPK14; TP53; LRDD; CDKN1A;
  	HIPK2; AKT1; PIK3R1; RRM2B; APAF1; CTNNB1;
  	SIRT1; CCND1; PRKDC; ATM; SFN; CDKN2A; JUN;
  	SNAI2; GSK3B; BAX; AKT3
  Aryl Hydrocarbon	HSPR1; EP300; FASN; TGM2; RXRA; MAPK1; NQO1;
  Receptor Signaling	NCOR2; SP1; ARNT; CDKN1B; FOS; CHEK1;
  	SMARCA4; NEKB2; MAPK8; ALDH1A1; ATR; E2F1;
  	MAPK3; NRIP1; CHEK2; RELA; TP73; GSTP1; RB1;
  	SRC; CDK2; AHR; NFE2L2; NCOA3; TP53; TNF;
  	CDKN1A; NCOA2; APAF1; NFKB1; CCND1; ATM; ESR1;
  	CDKN2A; MYC; JUN; ESR2; BAX; IL6; CYP1B1;
  	HSP90AA1
  Xenobiotic Metabolism	PRKCE; EP300; PRKCZ; RXRA; MAPK1; NQO1;
  Signaling	NCOR2; PIK3CA; ARNT; PRKCI; NFKB2; CAMK2A;
  	PIK3CB; PPP2R1A; PIK3C3; MAPK8; PRKD1;
  	ALDH1A1; MAPK3; NRIP1; KRAS; MAPK13; PRKCD;
  	GSTP1; MAPK9; NOS2A; ABCB1; AHR; PPP2CA; FTL;
  	NFE2L2; PIK3C2A; PPARGC1A; MAPK14; TNF; RAF1;
  	CREBBP; MAP2K2; PIK3R1; PPP2R5C; MAP2K1;
  	NFKB1; KEAP1; PRKCA; EIF2AK3; IL6; CYP1B1;
  	HSP90AA1
  SAPK/JNK Signaling	PRKCE; IRAK1; PRKAA2; EIF2AK2; RAC1; ELK1;
  	GRK6; MAPK1; GADD45A; RAC2; PLK1; AKT2; PIK3CA;
  	FADD; CDK8; PIK3CB; PIK3C3; MAPK8; RIPK1;
  	GNB2L1; IRS1; MAPK3; MAPK10; DAXX; KRAS;
  	PRKCD; PRKAA1; MAPK9; CDK2; PIM1; PIK3C2A;
  	TRAF2; TP53; LCK; MAP3K7; DYRK1A; MAP2K2;
  	PIK3R1; MAP2K1; PAK3; CDC42; JUN; TTK; CSNK1A1;
  	CRKL; BRAF; SGK
  PPAr/RXR Signaling	PRKAA2; EP300; INS; SMAD2; TRAF6; PPARA; FASN;
  	RXRA; MAPK1; SMAD3; GNAS; IKBKB; NCOR2;
  	ABCA1; GNAQ; NFKB2; MAP3K14; STAT5B; MAPK8;
  	IRS1; MAPK3; KRAS; RELA; PRKAA1; PPARGC1A;
  	NCOA3; MAPK14; INSR; RAF1; IKBKG; RELB; MAP3K7;
  	CREBBP; MAP2K2; JAK2; CHUK; MAP2K1; NFKB1;
  	TGFBR1; SMAD4; JUN; IL1R1; PRKCA; IL6; HSP90AA1;
  	ADIPOQ
  NF-KB Signaling	IRAK1; EIF2AK2; EP300; INS; MYD88; PRKCZ; TRAF6;
  	TBK1; AKT2; EGFR; IKBKB; PIK3CA; BTRC; NFKB2;
  	MAP3K14; PIK3CB; PIK3C3; MAPK8; RIPK1; HDAC2;
  	KRAS; RELA; PIK3C2A; TRAF2; TLR4; PDGFRB; TNF;
  	INSR; LCK; IKBKG; RELB; MAP3K7; CREBBP; AKT1;
  	PIK3R1; CHUK; PDGFRA; NFKB1; TLR2; BCL10;
  	GSK3B; AKT3; TNFAIP3; IL1R1
  Neuregulin Signaling	ERBB4; PRKCE; ITGAM; ITGA5; PTEN; PRKCZ; ELK1;
  	MAPK1; PTPN11; AKT2; EGFR; ERBB2; PRKCI;
  	CDKN1B; STAT5B; PRKD1; MAPK3; ITGA1; KRAS;
  	PRKCD; STAT5A; SRC; ITGB7; RAF1; ITGB1; MAP2K2;
  	ADAM17; AKT1; PIK3R1; PDPK1; MAP2K1; ITGB3;
  	EREG; FRAP1; PSEN1; ITGA2; MYC; NRG1; CRKL;
  	AKT3; PRKCA; HSP90AA1; RPS6KB1
  Wnt & Beta catenin	CD44; EP300; LRP6; DVL3; CSNK1E; GJA1; SMO;
  Signaling	AKT2; PIN1; CDH1; BTRC; GNAQ; MARK2; PPP2R1A;
  	WNT11; SRC; DKK1; PPP2CA; SOX6; SFRP2; ILK;
  	LEF1; SOX9; TP53; MAP3K7; CREBBP; TCF7L2; AKT1;
  	PPP2R5C; WNT5A; LRP5; CTNNB1; TGFBR1; CCND1;
  	GSK3A; DVL1; APC; CDKN2A; MYC; CSNK1A1; GSK3B;
  	AKT3; SOX2
  Insulin Receptor	PTEN; INS; EIF4E; PTPN1; PRKCZ; MAPK1; TSC1;
  Signaling	PTPN11; AKT2; CBL; PIK3CA; PRKCI; PIK3CB; PIK3C3;
  	MAPK8; IRS1; MAPK3; TSC2; KRAS; EIF4EBP1;
  	SLC2A4; PIK3C2A; PPP1CC; INSR; RAF1; FYN;
  	MAP2K2; JAK1; AKT1; JAK2; PIK3R1; PDPK1; MAP2K1;
  	GSK3A; FRAP1; CRKL; GSK3B; AKT3; FOXO1; SGK;
  	RPS6KB1
  IL-6 Signaling	HSPB1; TRAF6; MAPKAPK2; :ELK1; MAPK1; PTPN11;
  	IKBKB; FOS; NFKB2; MAP3K14; MAPK8; MAPK3;
  	MAPK10; IL6ST; KRAS; MAPK13; IL6R; RELA; SOCS1;
  	MAPK9; ABCB1; TRAF2; MAPK14; TNF; RAF1; IKBKG;
  	RELB; MAP3K7; MAP2K2, IL8; JAK2; CHUK; STAT3;
  	MAP2K1; NFKB1; CEBPB; JUN; IL1R1; SRF; IL6
  Hepatic Cholestasis	PRKCE; IRAK1; INS; MYD88; PRKCZ; TRAF6; PPARA;
  	RXRA; IKBKB; PRKCI; NFKB2; MAP3K14; MAPK8;
  	PRKD1; MAPK10; RELA; PRKCD; MAPK9; ABCB1;
  	TRAF2; TLR4; TNF; INSR; IKBKG, RELB; MAP3K7; IL8;
  	CHUK; NR1H2; TJP2; NFKB1; ESR1; SREBF1; FGFR4;
  	JUN; IL1R1; PRKCA; IL6
  IGF-1 Signaling	IGF1; PRKCZ; ELK1; MAPK1; PTPN11; NEDD4; AKT2;
  	PIK3CA; PRKCI; PTK2; FOS; PIK3CB; PIK3C3; MAPK8;
  	IGF1R; IRS1; MAPK3; IGFBP7; KRAS; PIK3C2A;
  	YWHAZ; PXN; RAF1; CASP9; MAP2K2; AKT1; PIK3R1;
  	PDPK1; MAP2K1; IGFBP2; SFN; JUN; CYR61; AKT3;
  	FOXO1; SRF; CTGF; RPS6KB1
  NRF2-mediated	PRKCE; EP300; SOD2; PRKCZ; MAPK1; SQSTM1;
  Oxidative
  Stress Response	NQO1; PIK3CA; PRKCI; FOS; PIK3CB; PIK3C3; MAPK8;
  	PRKD1; MAPK3; KRAS; PRKCD; GSTP1; MAPK9; FTL;
  	NFE2L2; PIK3C2A; MAPK14; RAF1; MAP3K7; CREBBP;
  	MAP2K2; AKT1; PIK3R1; MAP2K1; PPIB; JUN; KEAP1;
  	GSK3B; ATF4; PRKCA; EIF2AK3; HSP90AA1
  Hepatic Fibrosis/Hepatic	EDN1; IGF1; KDR; FLT1; SMAD2; FGFR1; MET; PGF;
  Stellate Cell Activation	SMAD3; EGFR; FAS; CSF1; NFKB2; BCL2; MYH9;
  	IGF1R; IL6R; RELA; TLR4; PDGFRB; TNF; RELB; IL8;
  	PDGFRA; NFKB1; TGFBR1; SMAD4; VEGFA; BAX;
  	IL1R1; CCL2; HGF; MMP1; STAT1; IL6; CTGF; MMP9
  PPAR Signaling	EP300; INS; TRAF6; PPARA; RXRA; MAPK1; IKBKB;
  	NCOR2; FOS; NFKB2; MAP3K14; STAT5B; MAPK3;
  	NRIP1; KRAS; PPARG; RELA; STAT5A; TRAF2;
  	PPARGC1A; PDGFRB; TNF; INSR; RAF1; IKBKG
  	RELB; MAP3K7; CREBBP; MAP2K2; CHUK; PDGFRA;
  	MAP2K1; NFKB1; JUN; IL1R1; HSP90AA1
  Fc Epsilon R1 Signaling	PRKCE; RAC1; PRKCZ; LYN; MAPK1; RAC2; PTPN11;
  	AKT2; PIK3CA; SYK; PRKCI; PIK3CB; PIK3C3; MAPK8;
  	PRKD1; MAPK3; MAPK10; KRAS; MAPK13; PRKCD;
  	MAPK9; PIK3C2A; BTK; MAPK14; TNF; RAF1; FYN;
  	MAP2K2; AKT1; PIK3R1; PDPK1; MAP2K1; AKT3;
  	VAV3; PRKCA
  G-Protein Coupled	PRKCE; RAP1A; RGS16; MAPK1; GNAS; AKT2; IKBKB;
  Receptor Signaling	PIK3CA; CREB1; GNAQ; NFKB2; CAMK2A; PIK3CB;
  	PIK3C3; MAPK3; KRAS; RELA; SRC; PIK3C2A; RAF1;
  	IKBKG; RELB; FYN; MAP2K2; AKT1; PIK3R1; CHUK;
  	PDPK1; STAT3; MAP2K1; NFKB1; BRAF; ATF4; AKT3;
  	PRKCA
  Inositol Phosphate	PRKCE; IRAK1; PRKAA2; EIF2AK2; PTEN; GRK6;
  Metabolism	MAPK1; PLK1; AKT2; PIK3CA; CDK8; PIK3CB; PIK3C3;
  	MAPK8; MAPK3; PRKCD; PRKAA1; MAPK9; CDK2;
  	PIM1; PIK3C2A; DYRK1A; MAP2K2; PIP5K1A; PIK3R1;
  	MAP2K1; PAK3; ATM; TTK; CSNK1A1; BRAF; SGK
  PDGF Signaling	EIF2AK2; ELK1; ABL2; MAPK1; PIK3CA; FOS; PIK3CB;
  	PIK3C3; MAPK8; CAV1; ABL1; MAPK3; KRAS; SRC;
  	PIK3C2A; PDGFRB; RAF1; MAP2K2; JAK1; JAK2;
  	PIK3R1; PDGFRA; STAT3; SPHK1; MAP2K1; MYC;
  	JUN; CRKL; PRKCA; SRF; STAT1; SPHK2
  VEGF Signaling	ACTN4; ROCK1; KDR; FLT1; ROCK2; MAPK1; PGF;
  	AKT2; PIK3CA; ARNT; PTK2; BCL2; PIK3CB; PIK3C3;
  	BCL2L1; MAPK3; KRAS; HIF1A; NOS3; PIK3C2A; PXN;
  	RAF1; MAP2K2; ELAVL1; AKT1; PIK3R1; MAP2K1; SFN;
  	VEGFA; AKT3; FOXO1; PRKCA
  Natural Killer Cell	PRKCE; RAC1; PRKCZ; MAPK1; RAC2; PTPN11;
  Signaling	KIR2DL3; AKT2; PIK3CA; SYK; PRKCI; PIK3CB;
  	PIK3C3; PRKD1; MAPK3; KRAS; PRKCD; PTPN6;
  	PIK3C2A; LCK; RAF1; FYN; MAP2K2; PAK4; AKT1;
  	PIK3R1; MAP2K1; PAK3; AKT3; VAV3; PRKCA
  Cell Cycle: G1/S	HDAC4; SMAD3; SUV39H1; HDAC5; CDKN1B; BTRC;
  Checkpoint Regulation	ATR; ABL1; E2F1; HDAC2; HDAC7A; RB1; HDAC11;
  	HDAC9; CDK2; E2F2; HDAC3; TP53; CDKN1A; CCND1;
  	E2F4; ATM; RBL2; SMAD4; CDKN2A; MYC; NRG1;
  	GSK3B; RBL1; HDAC6
  T Cell Receptor	RAC1; ELK1; MAPK1; IKBKB; CBL; PIK3CA; FOS;
  Signaling	NFKB2; PIK3CB; PIK3C3; MAPK8; MAPK3; KRAS;
  	RELA; PIK3C2A; BTK; LCK; RAF1; IKBKG, RELB; FYN;
  	MAP2K2; PIK3R1; CHUK; MAP2K1; NFKB1; ITK; BCL10;
  	JUN; VAV3
  Death Receptor Signaling	CRADD; HSPB1; BID; BIRC4; TBK1; IKBKB; FADD;
  	FAS; NFKB2; BCL2; MAP3K14; MAPK8; RIPK1; CASP8;
  	DAXX; TNFRSF10B; RELA; TRAF2; TNF; IKBKG; RELB;
  	CASP9; CHUK; APAF1; NFKB1; CASP2; BIRC2; CASP3;
  	BIRC3
  FGF Signaling	RAC1; FGFR1; MET; MAPKAPK2; MAPK1; PTPN11;
  	AKT2; PIK3CA; CREB1; PIK3CB; PIK3C3; MAPK8;
  	MAPK3; MAPK13; PTPN6; PIK3C2A; MAPK14; RAF1;
  	AKT1; PIK3R1; STAT3; MAP2K1; FGFR4; CRKL; ATF4;
  	AKT3; PRKCA; HGF
  GN-CSF Signaling	LYN; ELK1; MAPK1; PTPN11; AKT2; PIK3CA; CAMK2A;
  	STAT5B; PIK3CB; PIK3C3; GNB2L1; BCL2L1; MAPK3;
  	ETS1; KRAS; RUNX1; PIM1; PIK3C2A; RAF1; MAP2K2;
  	AKT1; JAK2; PIK3R1; STAT3; MAP2K1; CCND1; AKT3;
  	STAT1
  Amyotrophic Lateral	BID; IGF1; RAC1; BIRC4; PGF; CAPNS1; CAPN2;
  Sclerosis Signaling	PIK3CA; BCL2; PIK3CB; PIK3C3; BCL2L1; CAPN1;
  	PIK3C2A; TP53; CASP9; PIK3R1; RAB5A; CASP1;
  	APAF1; VEGFA; BIRC2; BAX; AKT3; CASP3; BIRC3
  JAK/Stat Signaling	PTPN1; MAPK1; PTPN11; AKT2; PIK3CA; STAT5B;
  	PIK3CB; PIK3C3; MAPK3; KRAS; SOCS1; STAT5A;
  	PTPN6; PIK3C2A; RAF1; CDKN1A; MAP2K2; JAK1;
  	AKT1; JAK2; PIK3R1; STAT3; MAP2K1; FRAP1; AKT3;
  	STAT1
  Nicotinate and	PRKCE; IRAK1; PRKAA2; EIF2AK2; GRK6; MAPK1;
  Nicotinamide
  Metabolism	PLK1; AKT2; T2; CDK8; MAPK8; MAPK3; PRKCD; PRKAA1;
  	PBEF1; MAPK9; CDK2; PIMI; DYRK1A; MAP2K2;
  	MAP2K1; PAK3; NT5E; TTK; CSNK1A1; BRAF; SGK
  Chemokine Signaling	CXCR4; ROCK2; MAPK1; PTK2; FOS; CFL1; GNAQ;
  	CAMK2A; CXCL12; MAPK8; MAPK3; KRAS; MAPK13;
  	RHOA; CCR3; SRC; PPP1CC; MAPK14; NOX1; RAF1;
  	MAP2K2; MAP2K1; JUN; CCL2; PRKCA
  IL-2 Signaling	ELK1; MAPK1; PTPN11; AKT2; PIK3CA; SYK; FOS;
  	STAT5B; PIK3CB; PIK3C3; MAPK8; MAPK3; KRAS;
  	SOCS1; STAT5A; PIK3C2A; LCK; RAF1; MAP2K2;
  	JAK1; AKT1; PIK3R1; MAP2K1; JUN; AKT3
  Synaptic Long Term	PRKCE; IGF1; PRKCZ; PRDX6; LYN; MAPK1; GNAS;
  Depression	PRKCI; GNAQ; PPP2R1A; IGF1R; PRKD1; MAPK3;
  	KRAS; GRN; PRKCD; NOS3; NOS2A; PPP2CA;
  	YWHAZ; RAF1; MAP2K2; PPP2R5C; MAP2K1; PRKCA
  Estrogen Receptor	TAF4B; EP300; CARM1; PCAF; MAPK1; NCOR2;
  Signaling	SMARCA4; MAPK3; NRIP1; KRAS; SRC; NR3C1;
  	HDAC3; PPARGG1A; RBM9; NCOA3; RAF1; CREBBP;
  	MAP2K2; NCOA2; MAP2K1; PRKDC; ESR1; ESR2
  Protein Ubiquitination	TRAF6; SMURF1; BIRC4; BRCA1; UCHL1; NEDD4;
  Pathway	CBL; UBE2I; BTRC; HSPA5; USP7; USP10; FBXW7;
  	USP9X; STUB1; USP22; B2M; BIRC2; PARK2; USP8;
  	USP1; VHL; HSP90AA1; BIRC3
  IL-10 Signaling	TRAF6; CCR1; ELK1; IKBKB; SP1; FOS; NFKB2;
  	MAP3K14; MAPK8; MAPK13; RELA; MAPK14; TNF;
  	IKBKG; RELB; MAP3K7; JAK1; CHUK; STAT3; NFKB1;
  	JUN; IL1R1; IL6
  VDR/RXR Activation	PRKCE; EP300; PRKCZ; RXRA; GADD45A; HES1;
  	NCOR2; SP1; PRKCI; CDKN1B; PRKD1; PRKCD;
  	RUNX2; KLF4; YY1; NCOA3; CDKN1A; NCOA2; SPP1;
  	LRP5; CEBPB; FOXO1; PRKCA
  TGF-beta Signaling	EP300; SMAD2; SMURF1; MAPK1; SMAD3; SMAD1;
  	FOS; MAPK8; MAPK3; KRAS; MAPK9; RUNX2;
  	SERPINE1; RAF1; MAP3K7; CREBBP; MAP2K2;
  	MAP2K1; TGFBR1; SMAD4; JUN; SMAD5
  Toil-like Receptor	IRAK1; EIF2AK2; MYD88; TRAF6; PPARA; ELK1;
  Signaling	IKBKB; FOS; NFKB2; MAP3K14; MAPK8; MAPK13;
  	RELA; TLR4; MAPK14; IKBKG; RELB; MAP3K7; CHUK;
  	NFKB1; TLR2; JUN
  p38 MAPK Signaling	HSPB1; IRAK1; TRAF6; MAPKAPK2; ELK1; FADD; FAS;
  	CREB1; DDIT3; RPS6KA4; DAXX; MAPK13; TRAF2;
  	MAPK14; TNF; MAP3K7; TGFBR1; MYC; ATF4; IL1R1;
  	SRF; STAT1
  Neurotrophin/TRK	NTRK2; MAPK1; PTPN11; PIK3CA; CREB1; FOS;
  Signaling	PIK3CB; PIK3C3; MAPK8; MAPK3; KRAS; PIK3C2A;
  	RAF1; MAP2K2; AKT1; PIK3R1; PDPK1; MAP2K1;
  	CDC42; JUN; ATF4
  FXR/RXR Activation	INS; PPARA; FASN; RXRA; AKT2; SDC1; MAPK8;
  	APOB; MAPK10; PPARG; MTTP; MAPK9; PPARGC1A;
  	TNF; CREBBP; AKT1; SREBF1; FGFR4; AKT3; FOXO1
  Synaptic Long Term	PRKCE; RAP1A; EP300; PRKCZ; MAPK1; CREB1;
  Potentiation	PRKCI; GNAQ; CAMK2A; PRKD1; MAPK3; KRAS;
  	PRKCD; PPP1CC; RAF1; CREBBP; MAP2K2; MAP2K1;
  	ATF4; PRKCA
  Calcium Signaling	RAP1A; EP300; HDAC4; MAPK1; HDAC5; CREB1;
  	CAMK2A; MYH9; MAPK3; HDAC2; HDAC7A; HDAC11;
  	HDAC9; HDAC3; CREBBP; CALR; CAMKK2; ATF4;
  	HDAC6
  EGF Signaling	ELK1; MAPK1; EGFR; PIK3CA; FOS; PIK3CB; PIK3C3;
  	MAPK8; MAPK3; PIK3C2A; RAF1; JAK1; PIK3R1;
  	STAT3; MAP2K1; JUN; PRKCA; SRF; STAT1
  Hypoxia Signaling in the	EDN1; PTEN; EP300; NQO1; UBE2I; CREB1; ARNT;
  Cardiovascular System	HIF1A; SLC2A4; NOS3; TP53; LDHA; AKT1; ATM;
  	VEGFA; JUN; ATF4; VHL; HSP90AA1
  LPS/IL-1 Mediated	IRAK1; MYD88; TRAF6; PPARA; RXRA; ABCA1;
  Inhibition	MAPK8; ALDH1A1; GSTP1; MAPK9; ABCB1; TRAF2;
  of RXR Function	TLR4; TNF; MAP3K7; NR1H2; SREBF1; JUN; IL1R1
  LXR/RXR Activation	FASN; RXRA; NCOR2; ABCA1; NFKB2; IRF3; RELA;
  	NOS2A; TLR4; TNF; RELB; LDLR; NR1H2; NFKB1;
  	SREBF1; IL1R1; CCL2; IL6; MMP9
  Amyloid Processing	PRKCE; CSNK1E; MAPK1; CAPNS1; AKT2; CAPN2;
  	CAPN1; MAPK3; MAPK13; MAPT; MAPK14; AKT1;
  	PSEN1; CSNK1A1; GSK3B; AKT3; APP
  IL-4 Signaling	AKT2; PIK3CA; PIK3CB; PIK3C3; IRS1; KRAS; SOCS1;
  	PTPN6; NR3C1; PIK3C2A; JAK1; AKT1; JAK2; PIK3R1;
  	FRAP1; AKT3; RPS6KB1
  Cell Cycle: G2/M DNA	EP300; PCAF; BRCA1; GADD45A; PLK1; BTRC;
  Damage Checkpoint	CHEK1; ATR; CHEK2; YWHAZ; TP53; CDKN1A;
  Regulation	PRKDC; ATM; SFN; CDKN2A
  Nitric Oxide Signaling in	KDR; FLT1; PGF; AKT2; PIK3CA; PIK3CB; PIK3C3;
  the Cardiovascular System	CAV1; PRKCD; NOS3; PIK3C2A; AKT1; PIK3R1;
  	VEGFA; AKT3; HSP90AA1
  Purine Metabolism	NME2; SMARCA4; MYH9; RRM2; ADAR; EIF2AK4;
  	PKM2; ENTPD1; RAD51; RRM2B; TJP2; RAD51C;
  	NT5E; POLD1; NME1
  cAMP-mediated	RAP1A; MAPK1; GNAS; CREB1; CAMK2A; MAPK3;
  Signaling	SRC; RAF1; MAP2K2; STAT3; MAP2K1; BRAF; ATF4
  Mitochondrial	SOD2; MAPK8; CASP8; MAPK10; MAPK9; CASP9;
  Dysfunction	PARK7; PSEN1; PARK2; APP; CASP3
  Notch Signaling	HES1; JAG1; NUMB; NOTCH4; ADAM17; NOTCH2;
  	PSEN1; NOTCH3; NOTCH1; DLL4
  Endoplasmic Reticulum	HSPA5; MAPK8; XBP1; TRAF2; ATF6; CASP9; ATF4;
  Stress Pathway	EIF2AK3; CASP3
  Pyrimidine Metabolism	NME2; AICDA; RRM2; EIF2AK4; ENTPD1; RRM2B;
  	NT5E; POLD1; NME1
  Parkinson's Signaling	UCHL1; MAPK8; MAPK13; MAPK14; CASP9; PARK7;
  	PARK2; CASP3
  Cardiac & Beta	GNAS; GNAQ; PPP2R1A; GNB2L1; PPP2CA; PPP1CC;
  Adrenergic Signaling	PPP2R5C
  Glycolysis/Gluconeogenesis	HK2; GCK; GPI; ALDH1A1; PKM2; LDHA; HK1
  Interferon Signaling	IRF1; SOCS1; JAK1; JAK2; IFITM1; STAT1; IFIT3
  Sonic Hedgehog	ARRB2; SMO; GLI2; DYRK1A; GLI1; GSK39; DYRK1B
  Signaling
  Glycerophospholipid	PLD1; GRN; GPAM; YWHAZ; SPHK1; SPHK2
  Metabolism
  Phospholipid	PRDX6; PLD1; GRN; YWHAZ; SPHK1; SPHK2
  Degradation
  Tryptophan Metabolism	SIAH2; PRMT5; NEDD4; ALDH1A1; CYP1B1; SIAH1
  Lysine Degradation	SUV39H1; EHMT2; NSD1; SETD7; PPP2R5C
  Nucleotide Excision	ERCC5; ERCC4; XPA; XPC; ERCC1
  Repair Pathway
  Starch and Sucrose	UCHL1; HK2; GCK; GPI; HK1
  Metabolism
  Aminosugars Metabolism	NQO1; HK2; GCK; HK1
  Arachidonic Acid	PRDX6; GRN; YWHAZ; CYP1B1
  Metabolism
  Circadian Rhythm	CSNK1E; CREB1; ATF4; NR1D1
  Signaling
  Coagulation System	BDKRB1; F2R; SERPINE1; F3
  Dopamine Receptor	PPP2R1A; PPP2CA; PPP1CC; PPP2R5C
  Signaling
  Glutathione Metabolism	IDH2; GSTP1; ANPEP; IDH1
  Glycerolipid Metabolism	ALDH1A1; GPAM; SPHK1; SPHK2
  Linoleic Acid	PRDX6; GRN; YWHAZ; CYP1B1
  Metabolism
  Methionine Metabolism	DNMT1; DNMT3B; AHCY; DNMT3A
  Pyruvate Metabolism	GLO1; ALDH1A1; PKM2; LDHA
  Arginine and Proline	ALDH1A1; NOS3; NOS2A
  Metabolism
  Eicosanoid Signaling	PRDX6; GRN; YWHAZ
  Fructose and Mannose	HK2; GCK; HK1
  Metabolism
  Galactose Metabolism	HK2; GCK; HK1
  Stilbene, Coumarine and	PRDX6; PRDX1; TYR
  Lignin Biosynthesis
  Antigen Presentation	CALR; B2M
  Pathway
  Biosynthesis of Steroids	NQO1; DHCR7
  Butanoate Metabolism	ALDH1A1; NLGN1
  Citrate Cycle	IDH2; IDH1
  Fatty Acid Metabolism	ALDH1A1; CYP1B1
  Glycerophospholipid	PRDX6; CHKA
  Metabolism
  Histidine Metabolism	PRMT5; ALDH1A1
  Inositol Metabolism	ERO1L; APEX1
  Metabolism of	GSTP1; CYP1B1
  Xenobiotics
  by Cytochrome p450
  Methane Metabolism	PRDX6; PRDX1
  Phenylalanine	PRDX6; PRDX1
  Metabolism
  Propanoate Metabolism	ALDH1A1; LDHA
  Selenoamino Acid	PRMT5; AHCY
  Metabolism
  Sphingolipid Metabolism	SPHK1; SPHK2
  Aminophosphonate	PRMT5
  Metabolism
  Androgen and Estrogen	PRMT5
  Metabolism
  Ascorbate and Aldarate	ALDH1A1
  Metabolism
  Bile Acid Biosynthesis	ALDH1A1
  Cysteine Metabolism	LDHA
  Fatty Acid Biosynthesis	FASN
  Glutamate Receptor	GNB2L1
  Signaling
  NRF2-mediated	PRDX1
  Oxidative
  Stress Response
  Pentose Phosphate	GPI
  Pathway
  Pentose and Glucuronate	UCHL1
  Interconversions
  Retinol Metabolism	ALDH1A1
  Riboflavin Metabolism	TYR
  Tyrosine Metabolism	PRMT5, TYR
  Ubiquinone Biosynthesis	PRMT5
  Valine, Leucine and	ALDH1A1
  Isoleucine Degradation
  Glycine, Serine and	CHKA
  Threonine Metabolism
  Lysine Degradation	ALDH1A1
  Pain/Taste	TRPM5; TRPA1
  Pain	TRPM7; TRPC5; TRPC6; TRPC1; Cnr1; cnr2; Grk2;
  	Trpa1; Pomc; Cgrp; Crf; Pka; Era; Nr2b; TRPM5; Prkaca;
  	Prkacb; Prkar1a; Prkar2a
  Mitochondrial Function	AIF; CytC; SMAC (Diablo); Aifm-1; Aifm-2
  Developmental	BMP-4; Chordin (Chrd); Noggin (Nog); WNT (Wnt2;
  Neurology	Wnt2b, Wnt3a, Wnt4; Wnt5a; Wnt6; Wnt7b; Wnt8b;
  	Wnt9a; Wnt9b; Wnt10a; Wnt10b, Wnt16); beta-catenin;
  	Dkk-1; Frizzled related proteins; Otx-2; Gbx2; FGF-8;
  	Reelin; Dab1; unc-86 (Pou4f1 or Brn3a); Numb; Reln

• Embodiments of the invention also relate to methods and compositions related to knocking out genes, amplifying genes and repairing particular mutations associated with DNA repeat instability and neurological disorders (Robert D. Wells, Tetsuo Ashizawa, Genetic Instabilities and Neurological Diseases, Second Edition, Academic Press, Oct. 13, 2011—Medical). Specific aspects of tandem repeat sequences have been found to be responsible for more than twenty human diseases (New insights into repeat instability: role of RNA•DNA hybrids. McIvor E1, Polak U, Napierala M. RNA Biol. 2010 September-October; 7(5):551-8). The CRISPR-Cas system may be harnessed to correct these defects of genomic instability.
• A further aspect of the invention relates to utilizing the CRISPR-Cas system for correcting defects in the EMP2A and EMP2B genes that have been identified to be associated with Lafora disease. Lafora disease is an autosomal recessive condition which is characterized by progressive myoclonus epilepsy which may start as epileptic seizures in adolescence. A few cases of the disease may be caused by mutations in genes yet to be identified. The disease causes seizures, muscle spasms, difficulty walking, dementia, and eventually death. There is currently no therapy that has proven effective against disease progression. Other genetic abnormalities associated with epilepsy may also be targeted by the CRISPR-Cas system and the underlying genetics is further described in Genetics of Epilepsy and Genetic Epilepsies, edited by Giuliano Avanzini, Jeffrey L. Noebels, Mariani Foundation Paediatric Neurology:20; 2009).
• In yet another aspect of the invention, the CRISPR-Cas system may be used to correct ocular defects that arise from several genetic mutations further described in Genetic Diseases of the Eye, Second Edition, edited by Elias I. Traboulsi, Oxford University Press, 2012.
• Several further aspects of the invention relate to correcting defects associated with a wide range of genetic diseases which are further described on the website of the National Institutes of Health under the topic subsection Genetic Disorders (website at health.nih.gov/topic/GeneticDisorders). The genetic brain diseases may include but are not limited to Adrenoleukodystrophy. Agenesis of the Corpus Callosum, Aicardi Syndrome, Alpers' Disease, Alzheimer's Disease, Barth Syndrome, Batten Disease, CADASIL, Cerebellar Degeneration, Fabry's Disease, Gerstmann-Straussler-Scheinker Disease, Huntington's Disease and other Triplet Repeat Disorders, Leigh's Disease, Lesch-Nyhan Syndrome, Menkes Disease, Mitochondrial Myopathies and NINDS Colpocephaly. These diseases are further described on the website of the National Institutes of Health under the subsection Genetic Brain Disorders.
• In some embodiments, the condition may be neoplasia. In some embodiments, where the condition is neoplasia, the genes to be targeted are any of those listed in Table A (in this case PTEN asn so forth). In some embodiments, the condition may be Age-related Macular Degeneration. In some embodiments, the condition may be a Schizophrenic Disorder. In some embodiments, the condition may be a Trinucleotide Repeat Disorder. In some embodiments, the condition may be Fragile X Syndrome. In some embodiments, the condition may be a Secretase Related Disorder. In some embodiments, the condition may be a Prion-related disorder. In some embodiments, the condition may be ALS. In some embodiments, the condition may be a drug addiction. In some embodiments, the condition may be Autism. In some embodiments, the condition may be Alzheimer's Disease. In some embodiments, the condition may be inflammation. In some embodiments, the condition may be Parkinson's Disease.
• Examples of proteins associated with Parkinson's disease include but are not limited to α-synuclein, DJ-1, LRRK2, PINK1, Parkin, UCHL1, Synphilin-1, and NURR1.
• Examples of addiction-related proteins may include ABAT for example.
• Examples of inflammation-related proteins may include the monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP1) encoded by the Ccr2 gene, the C-C chemokine receptor type 5 (CCR5) encoded by the Ccr5 gene, the IgG receptor IIB (FCGR2b, also termed CD32) encoded by the Fcgr2b gene, or the Fc epsilon R1g (FCER1g) protein encoded by the Fcer1g gene, for example.
• Examples of cardiovascular diseases associated proteins may include IL1B (interleukin 1, beta), XDH (xanthine dehydrogenase), TP53 (tumor protein p53), PTGIS (prostaglandin I2 (prostacyclin) synthase), MB (myoglobin), IL4 (interleukin 4), ANGPT1 (angiopoietin 1), ABCG8 (ATP-binding cassette, sub-family G (WHITE), member 8), or CTSK (cathepsin K), for example.
• Examples of Alzheimer's disease associated proteins may include the very low density lipoprotein receptor protein (VLDLR) encoded by the VLDLR gene, the ubiquitin-like modifier activating enzyme 1 (UBA 1) encoded by theUBA 1 gene, or the NEDD8-activating enzyme E1 catalytic subunit protein (UBE1C) encoded by the UBA3 gene, for example.
• Examples of proteins associated Autism Spectrum Disorder may include the benzodiazapine receptor (peripheral) associated protein 1 (BZRAP1) encoded by the BZRAP1 gene, the AF4/FMR2 family member 2 protein (AFF2) encoded by the AFF2 gene (also termed MFR2), the fragile X mental retardationautosomal homolog 1 protein (FXR1) encoded by the FXR1 gene, or the fragile X mental retardationautosomal homolog 2 protein (FXR2) encoded by the FXR2 gene, for example.
• Examples of proteins associated Macular Degeneration may include the ATP-binding cassette, sub-family A (ABC1)member 4 protein (ABCA4) encoded by the ABCR gene, the apolipoprotein E protein (APOE) encoded by the APOE gene, or the chemokine (C-C motif)Ligand 2 protein (CCL2) encoded by the CCL2 gene, for example.
• Examples of proteins associated Schizophrenia may include NRG1, ErbB4, CPLX1, TPH1, TPH2, NRXN1, GSK3A, BDNF, DISC1, GSK3B, and combinations thereof.
• Examples of proteins involved in tumor suppression may include ATM (ataxia telangiectasia mutated), ATR (ataxia telangiectasia and Rad3 related), EGFR (epidermal growth factor receptor), ERBB2 (v-erb-b2 erythroblastic leukemia viral oncogene homolog 2), ERBB3 (v-erb-b2 erythroblastic leukemia viral oncogene homolog 3), ERBB4 (v-crb-b2 erythroblastic leukemia viral oncogene homolog 4),Notch 1, Notch2,Notch 3, orNotch 4, for example.
• Examples of proteins associated with a secretase disorder may include PSENEN (presenilin enhancer 2 homolog (C. elegans)), CTSB (cathepsin B), PSEN (presenilin 1), APP (amyloid beta (A4) precursor protein), APH1B (anterior pharynx defective 1 homolog B (C. elegans)), PSEN2 (presenilin 2 (Alzheimer disease 4)), or BACE1 (beta-site APP-cleaving enzyme 1), for example.
• Examples of proteins associated with Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis may include SOD1 (superoxide dismutase 1), ALS2 (amyotrophic lateral sclerosis 2), FUS (fused in sarcoma), TARDBP (TAR DNA binding protein), VAGFA (vascular endothelial growth factor A), VAGFB (vascular endothelial growth factor B), and VAGFC (vascular endothelial growth factor C), and any combination thereof.
• Examples of proteins associated with prion diseases may include SODI (superoxide dismutase 1), ALS2 (amyotrophic lateral sclerosis 2), FUS (fused in sarcoma), TARDBP (TAR DNA binding protein), VAGFA (vascular endothelial growth factor A), VAGFB (vascular endothelial growth factor B), and VAGFC (vascular endothelial growth factor C), and any combination thereof.
• Examples of proteins related to neurodegenerative conditions in prion disorders may include A2M (Alpha-2-Macroglobulin), AATF (Apoptosis antagonizing transcription factor), ACPP (Acid phosphatase prostate), ACTA2 (Actin alpha 2 smooth muscle aorta), ADAM22 (ADAM metallopeptidase domain), ADORA3 (Adenosine A3 receptor), or ADRAI D (Alpha-1D adrenergic receptor for Alpha-1D adrenoreceptor), for example.
• Examples of proteins associated with Immunodeficiency may include A2M [alpha-2-macroglobulin]; AANAT [arylalkylamine N-acetyltransferase]; ABCA1 [ATP-binding cassette, sub-family A (ABC1), member 1]; ABCA2 [ATP-binding cassette, sub-family A (ABC1), member 2]; or ABCA3 [ATP-binding cassette, sub-family A (ABC1), member 3]; for example.
• Examples of proteins associated with Trinucleotide Repeat Disorders include AR (androgen receptor), FMR1 (fragile X mental retardation 1), HTT (huntingtin), or DMPK (dystrophia myotonica-protein kinase), FXN (frataxin), ATXN2 (ataxin 2), for example.
• Examples of proteins associated with Neurotransmission Disorders include SST (somatostatin), NOS1 (nitric oxide synthase 1 (neuronal)), ADRA2A (adrenergic, alpha-2A-, receptor), ADRA2C (adrenergic, alpha-2C-, receptor), TACR1 (tachykinin receptor 1), or HTR2c (5-hydroxytryptamine (serotonin) receptor 2C), for example.
• Examples of neurodevelopmental-associated sequences include A2BPI [ataxin 2-binding protein 1], AADAT [aminoadipate aminotransferase], AANAT [arylalkylamine N-acetyltransferase], ABAT [4-aminobutyrate aminotransferase], ABCA1 [ATP-binding cassette, sub-family A (ABC1), member 1], or ABCA13 [ATP-binding cassette, sub-family A (ABC1), member 13], for example.
• Further examples of preferred conditions treatable with the present system include may be selected from: Aicardi-Goutières Syndrome; Alexander Disease; Allan-Herndon-Dudley Syndrome; POLG-Related Disorders; Alpha-Mannosidosis (Type II and III); Alström Syndrome; Angelman; Syndrome; Ataxia-Telangiectasia; Neuronal Ceroid-Lipofuscinoses; Beta-Thalassemia; Bilateral Optic Atrophy and (Infantile) Optic Atrophy Type 1; Retinoblastoma (bilateral); Canavan Disease; Cerebrooculofacioskeletal Syndrome 1 [COFS1]; Cerebrotendinous Xanthomatosis; Cornelia de Lange Syndrome; MAPT-Related Disorders; Genetic Prion Diseases; Dravet Syndrome; Early-Onset Familial Alzheimer Disease; Friedreich Ataxia [FRDA]; Fryns Syndrome; Fucosidosis; Fukuyama Congenital Muscular Dystrophy; Galactosialidosis; Gaucher Disease; Organic Acidemias; Hemophagocytic Lymphohistiocytosis; Hutchinson-Gilford Progeria Syndrome; Mucolipidosis II; Infantile Free Sialic Acid Storage Disease; PLA2G6-Associated Neurodegeneration; Jervell and Lange-Nielsen Syndrome; Junctional Epidermolysis Bullosa; Huntington Disease; Krabbe Disease (Infantile); Mitochondrial DNA-Associated Leigh Syndrome and NARP; Lesch-Nyhan Syndrome; LISI-Associated Lissencephaly; Lowe Syndrome; Maple Syrup Urine Disease; MECP2 Duplication Syndrome; ATP7A-Related Copper Transport Disorders; LAMA2-Related Muscular Dystrophy; Arylsulfatase A Deficiency; Mucopolysaccharidosis Types I, II or III; Peroxisome Biogenesis Disorders, Zellweger Syndrome Spectrum; Neurodegeneration with Brain Iron Accumulation Disorders; Acid Sphingomyelinase Deficiency; Niemann-Pick Disease Type C; Glycine Encephalopathy; ARX-Related Disorders; Urea Cycle Disorders; COL1A1/2-Related Osteogenesis Imperfecta; Mitochondrial DNA Deletion Syndromes; PLP1-Related Disorders; Perry Syndrome; Phelan-McDermid Syndrome; Glycogen Storage Disease Type II (Pompe Disease) (Infantile); MAPT-Related Disorders; MECP2-Related Disorders; Rhizomelic Chondrodysplasia Punctata Type 1; Roberts Syndrome; Sandhoff Disease; Schindler Disease—Type 1; Adenosine Deaminase Deficiency; Smith-Lemli-Opitz Syndrome; Spinal Muscular Atrophy; Infantile-Onset Spinocerebellar Ataxia; Hexosaminidase A Deficiency; Thanatophoric Dysplasia Type 1; Collagen Type VI-Related Disorders; Usher Syndrome Type I; Congenital Muscular Dystrophy; Wolf-Hirschhom Syndrome; Lysosomal Acid Lipase Deficiency; and Xeroderma Pigmentosum.
• As will be apparent, it is envisaged that the present system can be used to target any polynucleotide sequence of interest. Some examples of conditions or diseases that might be usefully treated using the present system are included in the Tables above and examples of genes currently associated with those conditions are also provided there. However, the genes exemplified are not exhaustive.
EXAMPLES
• The following examples are given for the purpose of illustrating various embodiments of the invention and are not meant to limit the present invention in any fashion. The present examples, along with the methods described herein are presently representative of preferred embodiments, are exemplary, and are not intended as limitations on the scope of the invention. Changes therein and other uses which are encompassed within the spirit of the invention as defined by the scope of the claims will occur to those skilled in the art.
Example 1CRISPR Complex Activity in the Nucleus of a Eukaryotic Cell
• An example type II CRISPR system is the type II CRISPR locus fromStreptococcus pyogenesSF370, which contains a cluster of four genes Cas9, Cas1, Cas2, and Csn1, as well as two non-coding RNA elements, tracrRNA and a characteristic array of repetitive sequences (direct repeats) interspaced by short stretches of non-repetitive sequences (spacers, about 30 bp each). In this system, targeted DNA double-strand break (DSB) is generated in four sequential steps (FIG. 2A). First, two non-coding RNAs, the pre-crRNA array and tracrRNA, are transcribed from the CRISPR locus. Second, tracrRNA hybridizes to the direct repeats of pre-crRNA, which is then processed into mature crRNAs containing individual spacer sequences. Third, the mature crRNA:tracrRNA complex directs Cas9 to the DNA target consisting of the protospacer and the corresponding PAM via heteroduplex formation between the spacer region of the crRNA and the protospacer DNA. Finally, Cas9 mediates cleavage of target DNA upstream of PAM to create a DSB within the protospacer (FIG. 2A). This example describes an example process for adapting this RNA-programmable nuclease system to direct CRISPR complex activity in the nuclei of eukaryotic cells.
• Cell Culture and Transfection
• Human embryonic kidney (HEK) cell line HEK 293FT (Life Technologies) was maintained in Dulbecco's modified Eagle's Medium (DMEM) supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum (HyClone), 2 mM GlutaMAX (Life Technologies), 100 U/mL penicillin, and 100 μg/mL streptomycin at 37° C. with 5% CO₂incubation. Mouse neuro2A (N2A) cell line (ATCC) was maintained with DMEM supplemented with 5% fetal bovine serum (HyClone), 2 mM GlutaMAX (Life Technologies), 100 U/mL penicillin, and 100 μg/mL streptomycin at 37° C. with 5% CO₂.
• HEK 293FT or N2A cells were seeded into 24-well plates (Corning) one day prior to transfection at a density of 200,000 cells per well. Cells were transfected using Lipofectamine 2000 (Life Technologies) following the manufacturer's recommended protocol. For each well of a 24-well plate a total of 800 ng of plasmids were used.
• Surveyor Assay and Sequencing Analysis for Genome Modification
• HEK 293FT or N2A cells were transfected with plasmid DNA as described above. After transfection, the cells were incubated at 37° C. for 72 hours before genomic DNA extraction. Genomic DNA was extracted using the QuickExtract DNA extraction kit (Epicentre) following the manufacturer's protocol. Briefly, cells were resuspended in QuickExtract solution and incubated at 65° C. for 15 minutes and 98° C. for 10 minutes. Extracted genomic DNA was immediately processed or stored at −20° C.
• The genomic region surrounding a CRISPR target site for each gene was PCR amplified, and products were purified using QiaQuick Spin Column (Qiagen) following manufacturer's protocol. A total of 400 ng of the purified PCR products were mixed with 2μl 10×Taq polymerase PCR buffer (Enzymatics) and ultrapure water to a final volume of 20 μl, and subjected to a re-annealing process to enable heteroduplex formation: 95° C. for 10 min, 95° C. to 85° C. ramping at −2° C./s, 85° C. to 25° C. at −0.25° C./s, and 25° C. hold for 1 minute. After re-annealing, products were treated with Surveyor nuclease and Surveyor enhancer S (Transgenomics) following the manufacturer's recommended protocol, and analyzed on 4-20% Novex TBE poly-acrylamide gels (Life Technologies). Gels were stained with SYBR Gold DNA stain (Life Technologies) for 30 minutes and imaged with a Gel Doc gel imaging system (Bio-rad). Quantification was based on relative band intensities, as a measure of the fraction of cleaved DNA.FIG. 7 provides a schematic illustration of this Surveyor assay.
• Restriction fragment length polymorphism assay for detection of homologous recombination.
• HEK 293FT and N2A cells were transfected with plasmid DNA, and incubated at 37° C. for 72 hours before genomic DNA extraction as described above. The target genomic region was PCR amplified using primers outside the homology arms of the homologous recombination (HR) template. PCR products were separated on a 1% agarose gel and extracted with MinElute GelExtraction Kit (Qiagen). Purified products were digested with HindIII (Fermentas) and analyzed on a 6% Novex TBE poly-acrylamide gel (Life Technologies).
• RNA Secondary Structure Prediction and Analysis
• RNA secondary structure prediction was performed using the online webserver RNAfold developed at Institute for Theoretical Chemistry at the University of Vienna, using the centroid structure prediction algorithm (see e.g. A. R. Gruber et al., 2008, Cell 106(1): 23-24; and PA Carr and GM Church, 2009, Nature Biotechnology 27(12): 1151-62).
• RNA Purification
• HEK 293FT cells were maintained and transfected as stated above. Cells were harvested by trypsinization followed by washing in phosphate buffered saline (PBS). Total cell RNA was extracted with TRI reagent (Sigma) following manufacturer's protocol. Extracted total RNA was quantified using Naonodrop (Thermo Scientific) and normalized to same concentration.
• Northern Blot Analysis of crRNA and tracrRNA Expression in Mammalian Cells
• RNAs were mixed with equal volumes of 2× loading buffer (Ambion), heated to 95° C. for 5 min, chilled on ice for 1 min, and then loaded onto 8% denaturing polyacrylamide gels (SequaGel, National Diagnostics) after pre-running the gel for at least 30 minutes. The samples were electrophoresed for 1.5 hours at 40 W limit. Afterwards, the RNA was transferred to Hybond N+ membrane (GE Healthcare) at 300 mA in a semi-dry transfer apparatus (Bio-rad) at room temperature for 1.5 hours. The RNA was crosslinked to the membrane using autocrosslink button on Stratagene UV Crosslinker the Stratalinker (Stratagene). The membrane was pre-hybridized in ULTRAhyb-Oligo Hybridization Buffer (Ambion) for 30 min with rotation at 42° C., and probes were then added and hybridized overnight. Probes were ordered from IDT and labeled with [gamma-³²P] ATP (Perkin Elmer) with T4 polynucleotide kinase (New England Biolabs). The membrane was washed once with pre-warmed (42° C.) 2×SSC, 0.5% SDS for 1 min followed by two 30 minute washes at 42° C. The membrane was exposed to a phosphor screen for one hour or overnight at room temperature and then scanned with a phosphorimager (Typhoon).
• Bacterial CRISPR System Construction and Evaluation
• CRISPR locus elements, including tracrRNA, Cas9, and leader were PCR amplified fromStreptococcus pyogenesSF370 genomic DNA with flanking homology arms for Gibson Assembly. Two Bsa type IIS sites were introduced in between two direct repeats to facilitate easy insertion of spacers (FIG. 8). PCR products were cloned into EcoRV-digested pACYC184 downstream of the tet promoter using Gibson Assembly Master Mix (NEB). Other endogenous CRISPR system elements were omitted, with the exception of the last 50 bp of Csn2. Oligos (Integrated DNA Technology) encoding spacers with complimentary overhangs were cloned into the BsaI-digested vector pDC000 (NEB) and then ligated with T7 ligase (Enzymatics) to generate pCRISPR plasmids. Challenge plasmids containing spacers with PAM
• expression in mammalian cells (expression constructs illustrated inFIG. 6A, with functionality as determined by results of the Surveyor assay shown inFIG. 6B). Transcription start sites are marked as +1, and transcription terminator and the sequence probed by northern blot are also indicated. Expression of processed tracrRNA was also confirmed by Northern blot.FIG. 6C shows results of a Northern blot analysis of total RNA extracted from 293FT cells transfected with U6 expression constructs carrying long or short tracrRNA, as well as SpCas9 and DR-EMX1(1)-DR. Left and right panels are from 293FT cells transfected without or with SpRNase III, respectively. U6 indicate loading control blotted with a probe targeting human U6 snRNA. Transfection of the short tracrRNA expression construct led to abundant levels of the processed form of tracrRNA (˜75 bp). Very low amounts of long tracrRNA are detected on the Northern blot.
• To promote precise transcriptional initiation, the RNA polymerase III-based U6 promoter was selected to drive the expression of tracrRNA (FIG. 2C). Similarly, a U6 promoter-based construct was developed to express a pre-crRNA array consisting of a single spacer flanked by two direct repeats (DRs, also encompassed by the term “tracr-mate sequences”;FIG. 2C). The initial spacer was designed to target a 33-base-pair (bp) target site (30-bp protospacer plus a 3-bp CRISPR motif (PAM) sequence satisfying the NGG recognition motif of Cas9) in the human EMX1 locus (FIG. 2C), a key gene in the development of the cerebral cortex.
• To test whether heterologous expression of the CRISPR system (SpCas9, SpRNase III, tracrRNA, and pre-crRNA) in mammalian cells can achieve targeted cleavage of mammalian chromosomes, HEK 293FT cells were transfected with combinations of CRISPR components. Since DSBs in mammalian nuclei are partially repaired by the non-homologous end joining (NHEJ) pathway, which leads to the formation of indels, the Surveyor assay was used to detect potential cleavage activity at the target EMX1 locus (FIG. 7) (see e.g. Guschin et al., 2010, Methods Mol Biol 649: 247). Co-transfection of all four CRISPR components was able to induce up to 5.0% cleavage in the protospacer (seeFIG. 2D). Co-transfection of all CRISPR components minus SpRNase III also induced up to 4.7% indel in the protospacer, suggesting that there may be endogenous mammalian RNases that are capable of assisting with crRNA maturation, such as for example the related Dicer and Drosha enzymes. Removing any of the remaining three components abolished the genome cleavage activity of the CRISPR system (FIG. 2D). Sanger sequencing of amplicons containing the target locus verified the cleavage activity: in 43 sequenced clones, 5 mutated alleles (11.6%) were found. Similar experiments using a variety of guide sequences produced indel percentages as high as 29% (seeFIGS. 3-6,10, and11). These results define a three-component system for efficient CRISPR-mediated genome modification in mammalian cells. To optimize the cleavage efficiency, Applicants also tested whether different isoforms of tracrRNA affected the cleavage efficiency and found that, in this example system, only the short (89-bp) transcript form was able to mediate cleavage of the human EMX1 genomic locus (FIG. 6B).
• FIG. 12 provides an additional Northern blot analysis of crRNA processing in mammalian cells.FIG. 12A illustrates a schematic showing the expression vector for a single spacer flanked by two direct repeats (DR-EMX1(1)-DR). The 30 bp spacer targeting the human EMX1 locus protospacer 1 (seeFIG. 6) and the direct repeat sequences are shown in the sequence beneathFIG. 12A. The line indicates the region whose reverse-complement sequence was used to generate Northern blot probes for EMX1(1) crRNA detection.FIG. 12B shows a Northern blot analysis of total RNA extracted from 293FT cells transfected with U6 expression constructs carrying DR-EMX1(1)-DR. Left and right panels are from 293FT cells transfected without or with SpRNase III respectively. DR-EMX1(1)-DR was processed into mature crRNAs only in the presence of SpCas9 and short tracrRNA and was not dependent on the presence of SpRNase III. The mature crRNA detected from transfected 293FT total RNA is ˜33 bp and is shorter than the 39-42 bp mature crRNA fromS. pyogenes. These results demonstrate that a CRISPR system can be transplanted into eukaryotic cells and reprogrammed to facilitate cleavage of endogenous mammalian target polynucleotides.
• FIG. 2 illustrates the bacterial CRISPR system described in this example.FIG. 2A illustrates a schematic showing theCRISPR locus 1 fromStreptococcus pyogenesSF370 and a proposed mechanism of CRISPR-mediated DNA cleavage by this system. Mature crRNA processed from the direct repeat-spacer array directs Cas9 to genomic targets consisting of complimentary protospacers and a protospacer-adjacent motif (PAM). Upon target-spacer base pairing, Cas9 mediates a double-strand break in the target DNA.FIG. 2B illustrates engineering ofS. pyogenesCas9 (SpCas9) and RNase 111 (SpRNase III) with nuclear localization signals (NLSs) to enable import into the mammalian nucleus.FIG. 2C illustrates mammalian expression of SpCas9 and SpRNase III driven by the constitutive EF1a promoter and tracrRNA and pre-crRNA array (DR-Spacer-DR) driven by the RNA Pol3 promoter U6 to promote precise transcription initiation and termination. A protospacer from the human EMX1 locus with a satisfactory PAM sequence is used as the spacer in the pre-crRNA array.FIG. 2D illustrates surveyor nuclease assay for SpCas9-mediated minor insertions and deletions. SpCas9 was expressed with and without SpRNase III, tracrRNA, and a pre-crRNA array carrying the EMX1-target spacer.FIG. 2E illustrates a schematic representation of base pairing between target locus and EMAX1-targeting crRNA, as well as an example chromatogram showing a micro deletion adjacent to the SpCas9 cleavage site.FIG. 2F illustrates mutated alleles identified from sequencing analysis of 43 clonal amplicons showing a variety of micro insertions and deletions. Dashes indicate deleted bases, and non-aligned or mismatched bases indicate insertions or mutations. Scale bar=10 μm.
• To further simplify the three-component system, a chimeric crRNA-tracrRNA hybrid design was adapted, where a mature crRNA (comprising a guide sequence) may be fused to a partial tracrRNA via a stem-loop to mimic the natural crRNA:tracrRNA duplex. To increase co-delivery efficiency, a bicistronic expression vector was created to drive co-expression of a chimeric RNA and SpCas9 in transfected cells. In parallel, the bicistronic vectors were used to express a pre-crRNA (DR-guide sequence-DR) with SpCas9, to induce processing into crRNA with a separately expressed tracrRNA (compareFIG. 11B top and bottom).FIG. 8 provides schematic illustrations of bicistronic expression vectors for pre-crRNA array (FIG. 8A) or chimeric crRNA (represented by the short line downstream of the guide sequence insertion site and upstream of the EF1α promoter inFIG. 8B) with hSpCas9, showing location of various elements and the point of guide sequence insertion. The expanded sequence around the location of the guide sequence insertion site inFIG. 8B also shows a partial DR sequence (GTTTTAGAGCTA) (SEQ ID NO: 11) and a partial tracrRNA sequence (TAGCAAGTTAAAATAAGGCTAGTCCGTTTTTT) (SEQ ID NO: 12). Guide sequences can be inserted between Bbsl sites using annealed oligonucleotides. Sequence design for the oligonucleotides are shown below the schematic illustrations inFIG. 8, with appropriate ligation adapters indicated. WPRE represents the Woodchuck hepatitis virus post-transcriptional regulatory element. The efficiency of chimeric RNA-mediated cleavage was tested by targeting the same EMX1 locus described above. Using both Surveyor assay and Sanger sequencing of amplicons, Applicants confirmed that the chimeric RNA design facilitates cleavage of human EMX1 locus with approximately a 4.7% modification rate (FIG. 3).
• Generalizability of CRISPR-mediated cleavage in eukaryotic cells was tested by targeting additional genomic loci in both human and mouse cells by designing chimeric RNA targeting multiple sites in the human EMX1 and PVALB, as well as the mouse Th loci.FIG. 13 illustrates the selection of some additional targeted protospacers in human PVALB (FIG. 13A) and mouse Th (FIG. 13B) loci. Schematics of the gene loci and the location of three protospacers within the last exon of each are provided. The underlined sequences include 30 bp of protospacer sequence and 3 bp at the 3′ end corresponding to the PAM sequences. Protospacers on the sense and anti-sense strands are indicated above and below the DNA sequences, respectively. A modification rate of 6.3% and 0.75% was achieved for the human PVALB and mouse Th loci respectively, demonstrating the broad applicability of the CRISPR system in modifying different loci across multiple organisms (FIG. 5). While cleavage was only detected with one out of three spacers for each locus using the chimeric constructs, all target sequences were cleaved with efficiency of indel production reaching 27% when using the co-expressed pre-crRNA arrangement (FIGS. 6 and 13).
• FIG. 11 provides a further illustration that SpCas9 can be reprogrammed to target multiple genomic loci in mammalian cells.FIG. 11A provides a schematic of the human EMXNL locus showing the location of five protospacers, indicated by the underlined sequences.FIG. 11B provides a schematic of the pre-crRNA/trcrRNA complex showing hybridization between the direct repeat region of the pre-crRNA and tracrRNA (top), and a schematic of a chimeric RNA design comprising a 20 bp guide sequence, and tracr mate and tracr sequences consisting of partial direct repeat and tracrRNA sequences hybridized in a hairpin structure (bottom). Results of a Surveyor assay comparing the efficacy of Cas9-mediated cleavage at five protospacers in the human EMX1 locus is illustrated inFIG. 11C. Each protospacer is targeted using either processed pre-crRNA/tracrRNA complex (crRNA) or chimeric RNA (chiRNA).
• Since the secondary structure of RNA can be crucial for intermolecular interactions, a structure prediction algorithm based on minimum free energy and Boltzmann-weighted structure ensemble was used to compare the putative secondary structure of all guide sequences used in the genome targeting experiment (see e.g. Gruber et al., 2008, Nucleic Acids Research, 36: W70). Analysis revealed that in most cases, the effective guide sequences in the chimeric crRNA context were substantially free of secondary structure motifs, whereas the ineffective guide sequences were more likely to form internal secondary structures that could prevent base pairing with the target protospacer DNA. It is thus possible that variability in the spacer secondary structure might impact the efficiency of CRISPR-mediated interference when using a chimeric crRNA.
• Further vector designs for SpCas9 are shown inFIG. 22, which illustrates single expression vectors incorporating a U6 promoter linked to an insertion site for a guide oligo, and a Cbh promoter linked to SpCas9 coding sequence. The vector shown inFIG. 22bincludes a tracrRNA coding sequence linked to an H1 promoter.
• In the bacterial assay, all spacers facilitated efficient CRISPR interference (FIG. 3C). These results suggest that there may be additional factors affecting the efficiency of CRISPR activity in mammalian cells.
• To investigate the specificity of CRISPR-mediated cleavage, the effect of single-nucleotide mutations in the guide sequence on protospacer cleavage in the mammalian genome was analyzed using a series of EMX1-targeting chimeric crRNAs with single point mutations (FIG. 3A).FIG. 3B illustrates results of a Surveyor nuclease assay comparing the cleavage efficiency of Cas9 when paired with different mutant chimeric RNAs. Single-base mismatch up to 12-bp 5′ of the PAM substantially abrogated genomic cleavage by SpCas9, whereas spacers with mutations at farther upstream positions retained activity against the original protospacer target (FIG. 3B). In addition to the PAM, SpCas9 has single-base specificity within the last 12-bp of the spacer. Furthermore, CRISPR is able to mediate genomic cleavage as efficiently as a pair of TALE nucleases (TALEN) targeting the same EMX1 protospacer.FIG. 3C provides a schematic showing the design of TALENs targeting EMX1, andFIG. 3D shows a Surveyor gel comparing the efficiency of TALEN and Cas9 (n=3).
• Having established a set of components for achieving CRISPR-mediated gene editing in mammalian cells through the error-prone NHEJ mechanism, the ability of CRISPR to stimulate homologous recombination (HR), a high fidelity gene repair pathway for making precise edits in the genome, was tested. The wild type SpCas9 is able to mediate site-specific DSBs, which can be repaired through both NHEJ and HR. In addition, an aspartate-to-alanine substitution (D10A) in the RuvC I catalytic domain of SpCas9 was engineered to convert the nuclease into a nickase (SpCas9n; illustrated inFIG. 4A) (see e.g. Sapranausaks et al., 2011, Nucleic Acids Research, 39: 9275; Gasiunas et al., 2012, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 109:E2579), such that nicked genomic DNA undergoes the high-fidelity homology-directed repair (HDR). Surveyor assay confirmed that SpCas9n does not generate indels at the EMX1 protospacer target. As illustrated inFIG. 4B, co-expression of EMX1-targeting chimeric crRNA with SpCas9 produced indels in the target site, whereas co-expression with SpCas9n did not (n=3). Moreover, sequencing of 327 amplicons did not detect any indels induced by SpCas9n. The same locus was selected to test CRISPR-mediated HR by co-transfecting HEK 293FT cells with the chimeric RNA targeting EMX1, hSpCas9 or hSpCas9n, as well as a HR template to introduce a pair of restriction sites (HindIII and NheI) near the protospacer.FIG. 4C provides a schematic illustration of the HR strategy, with relative locations of recombination points and primer annealing sequences (arrows). SpCas9 and SpCas9n indeed catalyzed integration of the HR template into the EMX1 locus. PCR amplification of the target region followed by restriction digest with HindIII revealed cleavage products corresponding to expected fragment sizes (arrows in restriction fragment length polymorphism gel analysis shown inFIG. 4D), with SpCas9 and SpCas9n mediating similar levels of HR efficiencies. Applicants further verified HR using Sanger sequencing of genomic amplicons (FIG. 4E). These results demonstrate the utility of CRISPR for facilitating targeted gene insertion in the mammalian genome. Given the 14-bp (12-bp from the spacer and 2-bp from the PAM) target specificity of the wild type SpCas9, the availability of a nickase can significantly reduce the likelihood of off-target modifications, since single strand breaks are not substrates for the error-prone NHEJ pathway.
• Expression constructs mimicking the natural architecture of CRISPR loci with arrayed spacers (FIG. 2A) were constructed to test the possibility of multiplexed sequence targeting. Using a single CRISPR array encoding a pair of EMX1- and PVALB-targeting spacers, efficient cleavage at both loci was detected (FIG. 4F, showing both a schematic design of the crRNA array and a Surveyor blot showing efficient mediation of cleavage). Targeted deletion of larger genomic regions through concurrent DSBs using spacers against two targets within EMX1 spaced by 119 bp was also tested, and a 1.6% deletion efficacy (3 out of 182 amplicons;FIG. 4G) was detected. This demonstrates that the CRISPR system can mediate multiplexed editing within a single genome.
Example 2CRISPR System Modifications and Alternatives
• The ability to use RNA to program sequence-specific DNA cleavage defines a new class of genome engineering tools for a variety of research and industrial applications. Several aspects of the CRISPR system can be further improved to increase the efficiency and versatility of CRISPR targeting. Optimal Cas9 activity may depend on the availability of free Mg²⁺ at levels higher than that present in the mammalian nucleus (see e.g. Jinek et al., 2012, Science, 337:816), and the preference for an NGG motif immediately downstream of the protospacer restricts the ability to target on average every 12-bp in the human genome (FIG. 9, evaluating both plus and minus strands of human chromosomal sequences). Some of these constraints can be overcome by exploring the diversity of CRISPR loci across the microbial metagenome (see e.g. Makarova et al., 2011, Nat Rev Microbiol, 9:467). Other CRISPR loci may be transplanted into the mammalian cellular milieu by a process similar to that described in Example 1. For example,FIG. 10 illustrates adaptation of the Type II CRISPR system from CRISPR I ofStreptococcusthermophilus LMD-9 for heterologous expression in mammalian cells to achieve CRISPR-mediated genome editing.FIG. 10A provides a Schematic illustration ofCRISPR 1 fromS. thermophilusLMD-9.FIG. 10B illustrates the design of an expression system for theS. thermophilusCRISPR system. Human codon-optimized hStCas9 is expressed using a constitutive EF1α promoter. Mature versions of tracrRNA and crRNA are expressed using the U6 promoter to promote precise transcription initiation. Sequences from the mature crRNA and tracrRNA are illustrated. A single base indicated by the lower case “a” in the crRNA sequence is used to remove the polyU sequence, which serves as a RNA polIII transcriptional terminator.FIG. 10C provides a schematic showing guide sequences targeting the human EMX1 locus.FIG. 10D shows the results of hStCas9-mediated cleavage in the target locus using the Surveyor assay.RNA guide spacers 1 and 2 induced 14% and 6.4%, respectively. Statistical analysis of cleavage activity across biological replica at these two protospacer sites is also provided inFIG. 5.FIG. 14 provides a schematic of additional protospacer and corresponding PAM sequence targets of theS. thermophilusCRISPR system in the human EMX1 locus. Two protospacer sequences are highlighted and their corresponding PAM sequences satisfying NNAGAAW motif are indicated by underlining 3′ with respect to the corresponding highlighted sequence. Both protospacers target the anti-sense strand.
Example 3Sample Target Sequence Selection Algorithm
• A software program is designed to identify candidate CRISPR target sequences on both strands of an input DNA sequence based on desired guide sequence length and a CRISPR motif sequence (PAM) for a specified CRISPR enzyme. For example, target sites for Cas9 fromS. pyogenes, with PAM sequences NGG, may be identified by searching for 5′-N_x-NGG-3′ both on the input sequence and on the reverse-complement of the input. Likewise, target sites for Cas9 ofS. thermophilusCRISPR1, with PAM sequence NNAGAAW, may be identified by searching for 5′-N_x-NNAGAAW-3′ both on the input sequence and on the reverse-complement of the input. Likewise, target sites for Cas9 ofS. thermophilusCRISPR3, with PAM sequence NGGNG, may be identified by searching for 5′-N_x-NGGNG-3′ both on the input sequence and on the reverse-complement of the input. The value “x” in N, may be fixed by the program or specified by the user, such as 20.
• Since multiple occurrences in the genome of the DNA target site may lead to nonspecific genome editing, after identifying all potential sites, the program filters out sequences based on the number of times they appear in the relevant reference genome. For those CRISPR enzymes for which sequence specificity is determined by a ‘seed’ sequence, such as the 11-12bp 5′ from the PAM sequence, including the PAM sequence itself, the filtering step may be based on the seed sequence. Thus, to avoid editing at additional genomic loci, results are filtered based on the number of occurrences of the seed:PAM sequence in the relevant genome. The user may be allowed to choose the length of the seed sequence. The user may also be allowed to specify the number of occurrences of the seed:PAM sequence in a genome for purposes of passing the filter. The default is to screen for unique sequences. Filtration level is altered by changing both the length of the seed sequence and the number of occurrences of the sequence in the genome. The program may in addition or alternatively provide the sequence of a guide sequence complementary to the reported target sequence(s) by providing the reverse complement of the identified target sequence(s). An example visualization of some target sites in the human genome is provided inFIG. 18.
• Further details of methods and algorithms to optimize sequence selection can be found in U.S. application Ser. No. 61/064,798 (Attorney docket 44790.11.2022; Broad Reference BI-2012/084); incorporated herein by reference.
Example 4Evaluation of Multiple Chimeric crRNA-tracrRNA Hybrids
• This example describes results obtained for chimeric RNAs (chiRNAs; comprising a guide sequence, a tracr mate sequence, and a tracr sequence in a single transcript) having tracr sequences that incorporate different lengths of wild-type tracrRNA sequence.FIG. 16aillustrates a schematic of a bicistronic expression vector for chimeric RNA and Cas9. Cas9 is driven by the CBh promoter and the chimeric RNA is driven by a U6 promoter. The chimeric guide RNA consists of a 20 bp guide sequence (Ns) joined to the tracr sequence (running from the first “U” of the lower strand to the end of the transcript), which is truncated at various positions as indicated. The guide and tracr sequences are separated by the tracr-mate sequence GUUUUAGAGCUA (SEQ ID NO: 13) followed by the loop sequence GAAA. Results of SURVEYOR assays for Cas9-mediated indels at the human EMX1 and PVALB loci are illustrated inFIGS. 16band16c, respectively. Arrows indicate the expected SURVEYOR fragments. ChiRNAs are indicated by their “+n” designation, and crRNA refers to a hybrid RNA where guide and tracr sequences are expressed as separate transcripts. Quantification of these results, performed in triplicate, are illustrated by histogram inFIGS. 17aand17b, corresponding toFIGS. 16band16c, respectively (“N.D.” indicates no indels detected). Protospacer IDs and their corresponding genomic target, protospacer sequence, PAM sequence, and strand location are provided in Table D. Guide sequences were designed to be complementary to the entire protospacer sequence in the case of separate transcripts in the hybrid system, or only to the underlined portion in the case of chimeric RNAs.

• TABLE D
  				SEQ
  protospacer	genomic			ID
  ID	target	protospacer sequence (5′ to 3′)	PAM	NO:	strand
  1	EMX1	GGACATCGATGTCACCTCCAATGACTAGGG	TGG		14	+
  2	EMX1	CATTGGAGGTGACATCGATGTCCTCCCCAT	TGG		15	−
  3	EMX1	GGAAGGGCCTGAGTCCGAGCAGAAGAAGAA	GGG		16	+
  4	PVALB	GGTGGCGAGAGGGGCCGAGATTGGGTGTTC	AGG		17	+
  5	PVALB	ATGCAGGAGGGTGGCGAGAGGGGCCGAGAT	TGG		18	+

• Further details to optimize guide sequences can be found in U.S. application Ser. No. 61/836,127 (Attorney docket 44790.08.2022; Broad Reference BI-2013/004G); incorporated herein by reference.
• Initially, three sites within the EMX1 locus in human HEK 293FT cells were targeted. Genome modification efficiency of each chiRNA was assessed using the SURVEYOR nuclease assay, which detects mutations resulting from DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) and their subsequent repair by the non-homologous end joining (NHEJ) DNA damage repair pathway. Constructs designated chiRNA(+n) indicate that up to the +n nucleotide of wild-type tracrRNA is included in the chimeric RNA construct, with values of 48, 54, 67, and 85 used for n. Chimeric RNAs containing longer fragments of wild-type tracrRNA (chiRNA(+67) and chiRNA(+85)) mediated DNA cleavage at all three EMX1 target sites, with chiRNA(+85) in particular demonstrating significantly higher levels of DNA cleavage than the corresponding crRNA/tracrRNA hybrids that expressed guide and tracr sequences in separate transcripts (FIGS. 16band17a). Two sites in the PVALB locus that yielded no detectable cleavage using the hybrid system (guide sequence and tracr sequence expressed as separate transcripts) were also targeted using chiRNAs. chiRNA(+67) and chiRNA(+85) were able to mediate significant cleavage at the two PVALB protospacers (FIGS. 16cand17b).
• For all five targets in the EMX1 and PVALB loci, a consistent increase in genome modification efficiency with increasing tracr sequence length was observed. Without wishing to be bound by any theory, the secondary structure formed by the 3′ end of the tracrRNA may play a role in enhancing the rate of CRISPR complex formation.
Example 5Cas9 Diversity
• The CRISPR-Cas system is an adaptive immune mechanism against invading exogenous DNA employed by diverse species across bacteria and archaea. The type II CRISPR-Cas9 system consists of a set of genes encoding proteins responsible for the “acquisition” of foreign DNA into the CRISPR locus, as well as a set of genes encoding the “execution” of the DNA cleavage mechanism; these include the DNA nuclease (Cas9), a non-coding transactivating cr-RNA (tracrRNA), and an array of foreign DNA-derived spacers flanked by direct repeats (crRNAs). Upon maturation by Cas9, the tracRNA and crRNA duplex guide the Cas9 nuclease to a target DNA sequence specified by the spacer guide sequences, and mediates double-stranded breaks in the DNA near a short sequence motif in the target DNA that is required for cleavage and specific to each CRISPR-Cas system. The type II CRISPR-Cas systems are found throughout the bacterial kingdom and highly diverse in Cas9 protein sequence and size, tracrRNA and crRNA direct repeat sequence, genome organization of these elements, and the motif requirement for target cleavage. One species may have multiple distinct CRISPR-Cas systems.
• Applicants evaluated 207 putative Cas9s from bacterial species identified based on sequence homology to known Cas9s and structures orthologous to known subdomains, including the HNH endonuclease domain and the RuvC endonuclease domains [information from the Eugene Koonin and Kira Makarova]. Phylogenetic analysis based on the protein sequence conservation of this set revealed five families of Cas9s, including three groups of large Cas9s (˜1400 amino acids) and two of small Cas9s (˜1100 amino acids) (see FIGS.19 and20A-F).
• Further details of Cas9s and mutations of the Cas9 enzyme to convert into a nickase or DNA binding protein and use of same with altered functionality can be found in U.S.application Serial Nos 61/836,101 and 61/835,936 (Attorney docket 44790.09.2022 and 4790.07.2022 and Broad Reference BI-2013/004E and BI-2013/004F respectively) incorporated herein by reference.
Example 6Cas9 Orthologs
• Applicants analyzed Cas9 orthologs to identify the relevant PAM sequences and the corresponding chimeric guide RNA. Having an expanded set of PAMs provides broader targeting across the genome and also significantly increases the number of unique target sites and provides potential for identifying novel Cas9s with increased levels of specificity in the genome.
• The specificity of Cas9 orthologs can be evaluated by testing the ability of each Cas9 to tolerate mismatches between the guide RNA and its DNA target. For example, the specificity of SpCas9 has been characterized by testing the effect of mutations in the guide RNA on cleavage efficiency. Libraries of guide RNAs were made with single or multiple mismatches between the guide sequence and the target DNA. Based on these findings, target sites for SpCas9 can be selected based on the following guidelines:
• To maximize SpCas9 specificity for editing a particular gene, one should choose a target site within the locus of interest such that potential ‘off-target’ genomic sequences abide by the following four constraints: First and foremost, they should not be followed by a PAM with either 5′-NGG or NAG sequences. Second, their global sequence similarity to the target sequence should be minimized. Third, a maximal number of mismatches should lie within the PAM-proximal region of the off-target site. Finally, a maximal number of mismatches should be consecutive or spaced less than four bases apart.
• Similar methods can be used to evaluate the specificity of other Cas9 orthologs and to establish criteria for the selection of specific target sites within the genomes of target species. As mentioned previously phylogenetic analysis based on the protein sequence conservation of this set revealed five families of Cas9s, including three groups of large Cas9s (˜1400 amino acids) and two of small Cas9s (˜1100 amino acids) (see FIGS.19 and20A-F). Further details on Cas orthologs can be found in U.S.application Serial Nos 61/836,101 and 61/835,936 (Attorney docket 44790.09.2022 and 4790.07.2022 and Broad Reference BI-2013/004E and BI-2013/004F respectively) incorporated herein by reference.
Example 7Engineering of Plants (Micro-Algae) Using Cas9 to Target and Manipulate Plant genes
• Methods of Delivering Cas9
• Method 1: Applicants deliver Cas9 and guide RNA using a vector that expresses Cas9 under the control of a constitutive promoter such as Hsp70A-Rbc S2 or Beta2-tubulin.
• Method 2: Applicants deliver Cas9 and T7 polymerase using vectors that expresses Cas9 and T7 polymerase under the control of a constitutive promoter such as Hsp70A-Rbc S2 or Beta2-tubulin. Guide RNA will be delivered using a vector containing T7 promoter driving the guide RNA.
• Method 3: Applicants deliver Cas9 mRNA and in vitro transcribed guide RNA to algae cells. RNA can be in vitro transcribed. Cas9 mRNA will consist of the coding region for Cas9 as well as 3′UTR from Cop1 to ensure stabilization of the Cas9 mRNA.
• For Homologous recombination, Applicants provide an additional homology directed repair template.
• Sequence for a cassette driving the expression of Cas9 under the control of beta-2 tubulin promoter, followed by the 3′ UTR of Cop1.

• (SEQ ID NO: 19)
  TCTTTCTTGCGCTATGACACTTCCAGCAAAAGGTAGGGCGGGCTGCGAGA
  CGGCTTCCCGGCGCTGCATGCAACACCGATGATGCTTCGACCCCCCGAAGCTCCTTC
  GGGGCTGCATGGGCGCTCCGATGCCGCTCCAGGGCGAGCGCTGTTTAAATAGCCAG
  GCCCCCGATTGCAAAGACATTATAGCGAGCTACCAAAGCCATATTCAAACACCTAG
  ATCACTACCACTTCTACACAGGCCACTCGAGCTTGTGATCGCACTCCGCTAAGGGGG
  CGCCTCTTCCTCTTCGTTTCAGTCACAACCCGCAAACATGTACCCATACGATGTTCCA
  GATTACGCTTCGCCGAAGAAAAAGCGCAAGGTCGAAGCGTCCGACAAGAAGTACAG
  CATCGGCCTGGACATCGGCACCAACTCTGTGGGCTGGGCCGTGATCACCGACGAGT
  ACAAGGTGCCCAGCAAGAAATTCAAGGTGCTGGGCAACACCGACCGGCACAGCATC
  AAGAAGAACCTGATCGGAGCCCTGCTGTTCGACAGCGGCGAAACAGCCGAGGCCAC
  CCGGCTGAAGAGAACCGCCAGAAGAAGATACACCAGACGGAAGAACCGGATCTGC
  TATCTGCAAGAGATCTTcAGCAACGAGATGGCCAAGGTGGACGACAGCTTCTTCCAC
  AGACTGGAAGAGTCCTTCCTGGTGGAAGAGGATAAGAAGCACGAGCGGCACCCCAT
  CTTCGGCAACATCGTGGACGAGGTGGCCTAcCACGAGAAGTACCCCACCATCTACC
  ACCTGAGAAAGAAACTGGTGGACAGCACCGACAAGGCCGACCTGCGGCTGATCTAT
  CTGGCCCTGGCCCACATGATCAAGTTCCGGGGCCACTTCCTGATCGAGGGCGACCTG
  AACCCCGACAACAGCGACGTGGACAAGCTGTTCATCCAGCTGGTGCAGACCTACAA
  CCAGCTGTTCGAGGAAAACCCCATCAACGCCAGCGGCGTGGACGCCAAGGCCATCC
  TGTCTGCCAGACTGAGCAAGAGCAGACGGCTGGAAAATCTGATCGCCCAGCTGCCC
  GGCGAGAAGAAGAATGGCCTGTTCGGCAACCTGATTGCCCTGAGCCTGGGCCTGAC
  CCCCAACTTCAAGAGCAACTTCGACCTGGCCGAGGATGCCAAACTGCAGCTGAGCA
  AGGACACCTACGACGACGACCTGGACAACCTGCTGGCCCAGATCGGCGACCAGTAC
  GCCGACCTGTTTCTGGCCGCCAAGAACCTGTCCGACGCCATCCTGCTGAGCGACATC
  CTGAGAGTGAACACCGAGATCACCAAGGCCCCCCTGAGCGCCTCTATGATCAAGAG
  ATACGACGAGCACCACCAGGACCTGACCCTGCTGAAAGCTCTCGTGCGGCAGCAGC
  TGCCTGAGAAGTACAAAGAGATTTTCTTCGACCAGAGCAAGAACGGCTACGCCGGC
  TACATTGACGGCGGAGCCAGCCAGGAAGAGTTCTACAAGTTCATCAAGCCCATCCT
  GGAAAAGATGGACGGCACCGAGGAACTGCTCGTGAAGGTGAACAGAGAGGACCTG
  CTGCGGAAGCAGCGGACCTTCGACAACGGCAGCATCCCCCACCAGATCCACCTGGG
  AGAGCTGCACGCCATTCTGCGGCGGCAGGAAGATTTTTACCCATTCCTGAAGGACAA
  CCGGGAAAAGATCGAGAAGATCCTGACCTTCCGCATCCCCTACTACGTGGGCCCTCT
  GGCCAGGGGAAACAGCAGATTCGCCTGGATGACCAGAAAGAGCGAGGAAACCATC
  ACCCCCTGGAACTTCGAGGAAGTGGTGGACAAGGGCGCTTCCGCCCAGAGCTTCAT
  CGAGCGGATGACCAACTTCGATAAGAACCTGCCCAACGAGAAGGTGCTGCCCAAGC
  ACAGCCTGCTGTACGAGTACTTCACCGTGTATAACGAGCTGACCAAAGTGAAATAC
  GTGACCGAGGGAATGAGAAAGCCCGCCTTCCTGAGCGGCGAGCAGAAAAAGGCCA
  TCGTGGACCTGCTGTTCAAGACCAACCGGAAAGTGACCGTGAAGCAGCTGAAAGAG
  GACTACTTCAAGAAAATCGAGTGCTTCGACTCCGTGGAAATCTCCGGCGTGGAAGAT
  CGGTTCAACGCCTCCGTGGGCACATACCACGATCTGCTGAAAATTATCAAGGACAA
  GGACTTCCTGGACAATGAGGAAAACGAGGACATTCTGGAAGATATCGTGCTGACCC
  TGACACTGTTTGAGGACAGAGAGATGATCGAGGAACGGCTGAAAACCTATGCCCAC
  CTGTTCGACGACAAAGTGATGAAGCAGCTGAAGCGGCGGAGATACACCGGCTGGGG
  CAGGCTGAGCCGGAAGCTGATCAACGGCATCCGGGACAAGCAGTCCGGCAAGACA
  ATCCTGGATTTCCTGAAGTCCGACGGCTTCGCCAACAGAAACTTCATGCAGCTGATC
  CACGACGACAGCCTGACCTTTAAAGAGGACATCCAGAAAGCCCAGGTGTCCGGCCA
  GGGCGATAGCCTGCACGAGCACATTGCCAATCTGGCCGGCAGCCCCGCCATTAAGA
  AGGGCATCCTGCAGACAGTGAAGGTGGTGGACGAGCTCGTGAAAGTGATGGGCCGG
  CACAAGCCCGAGAACATCGTGATCGAAATGGCCAGAGAGAACCAGACCACCCAGA
  AGGGACAGAAGAACAGCCGCGAGAGAATGAAGCGGATCGAAGAGGGCATCAAAGA
  GCTGGGCAGCCAGATCCTGAAAGAACACCCCGTGGAAAACACCCAGCTGCAGAACG
  AGAAGCTGTACCTGTACTACCTGCAGAATGGGCGGGATATGTACGTGGACCAGGAA
  CTGGACATCAACCGGCTGTCCGACTACGATGTGGACCATATCGTGCCTCAGAGCTTT
  CTGAAGGACGACTCCATCGACAACAAGGTGCTGACCAGAAGCGACAAGAACCGGG
  GCAAGAGCGACAACGTGCCCTCCGAAGAGGTCGTGAAGAAGATGAAGAACTACTGG
  CGGCAGCTGCTGAACGCCAAGCTGATTACCCAGAGAAAGTTCGACAATCTGACCAA
  GGCCGAGAGAGGCGGCCTGAGCGAACTGGATAAGGCCGGCTTCATCAAGAGAGACAG
  CTGGTGGAAACCCGGCAGATCACAAAGCACGTGGCACAGATCCTGGACTCCCGGAT
  GAACACTAAGTACGACGAGAATGACAAGCTGATCCGGGAAGTGAAAGTGATCACCC
  TGAAGTCCAAGCTGGTGTCCGATTTCCGGAAGGATTTCCAGTTTTACAAAGTGCGCG
  AGATCAACAACTACCACCACGCCCACGACGCCTACCTGAACGCCGTCGTGGGAACC
  GCCCTGATCAAAAAGTACCCTAAGCTGGAAAGCGAGTTCGTGTACGGCGACTACAA
  GGTGTACGACGTGCGGAAGATGATCGCCAAGAGCGAGCAGGAAATCGGCAAGGCT
  ACCGCCAAGTACTTCTTCTACAGCAACATCATGAACTTTTTCAAGACCGAGATTACC
  CTGGCGAACGGCGAGATCCGGAAGCGGCCTCTGATCGAGACAAACGGCGAAACCGG
  GGAGATCGTGTGTGGGATAAGGGCCGGGATTTTGCCACCGTGCGGAAAGTGCTGAGCA
  TGCCCCAAGTGAATATCGTGAAAAAGACCGAGGTGCAGACAGGCGGCTTCAGCAAA
  GAGTCTATCCTGCCCAAGAGGAACAGCGATAAGCTGATCGCCAGAAAGAAGGACTG
  GGACCCTAAGAAGTACGGCGGCTTCGACAGCCCCACCGTGGCCTATTCTGTGCTGGT
  GGTGGCCAAAGTGGAAAAGGGCAAGTCCAAGAAACTGAAGAGTGTGAAAGAGCTG
  CTGGGGATCACCATCATGGAAAGAAGCAGCTTCGAGAAGAATCCCATCGACTTTCT
  GGAAGCCAAGGGCTACAAAGAAGTGAAAAAGGACCTGATCATCAAGCTGCCTAAGT
  ACTCCCTGTTCGAGCTGGAAAACGGCCGGAAGAGAATGCTGGCCTCTGCCGGCGAA
  CTGCAGAAGGGAAACGAACTGGCCCTGCCCTCCAAATATGTGAACTTCCTGTACCTG
  GCCAGCCACTATGAGAAGCTGAAGGGCTCCCCCGAGGATAATGAGCAGAAACAGCT
  GTTTGTGGAACAGCACAAGCACTACCTGGACGAGATCATCGAGCAGATCAGCGAGT
  TCTCCAAGAGAGTGATCCTGGCCGACGCTAATCTGGACAAAGTGCTGTCCGCCTACA
  ACAAGCACCGGGATAAGCCCATCAGAGAGCAGGCCGAGAATATCATCCACCTGTTT
  ACCCTGACCAATCTGGGAGCCCCTGCCGCCTTCAAGTACTTTGACACCACCATCGAC
  CGGAAGAGGTACACCAGCACCAAAGAGGTGCTGGACGCCACCCTGATCCACCAGAG
  CATCACCGGCCTGTACGAGACACGGATCGACCTGTCTCAGCTGGGAGGCGACAGCC
  CCAAGAAGAAGAGAAAGGTGGAGGCCAGCTAAGGATCCGGCAAGACTGGCCCCGC
  TTGGCAACGCAACAGTGAGCCCCTCCCTAGTGTGTTTGGGGATGTGACTATGTATTC
  GTGTGTTGGCCAACGGGTCAACCCGAACAGATTGATACCCGCCTTGGCATTTCCTGT
  CAGAATGTAACGTCAGTTGATGGTACT

• Sequence for a cassette driving the expression of T7 polymerase under the control of beta-2 tubulin promoter, followed by the 3′ UTR of Cop1:

• (SEQ ID NO: 20)
  TCTTTCTTGCGCTATGACACTTCCAGCAAAAGGTAGGGCGGGCTGCGAGA
  CGGCTTCCCGGCGCTGCATGCAACACCGATGATGCTTCGACCCCCCGAAGCTCCTTC
  GGGGCTGCATGGGCGCTCCGATGCCGCTCCAGGGCGAGCGCTGTTTAAATAGCCAG
  GCCCCCGATTGCAAAGACATTATAGCGAGCTACCAAAGCCATATTCAAACACCTAG
  ATCACTACCACTTCTACACAGGCCACTCGAGCTTGTGATCGCACTCCGCTAAGGGGG
  CGCCTCTTCCTCTTCGTTTCAGTCACAACCCGCAAACatgcctaagaagaagaggaaggttaacacgatt
  aacatcgctaagaacgacttctctgacatcgaactggctgctatcccgttcaacactctggctgaccatt
  acggtgagcgtttagctcgcgaacagttggcccttgagcatgagtcttacgagatgggtgaagcacgctt
  ccgcaagatgtttgagcgtcaacttaaagctggtgaggttgcggataacgctgccgccaagcctctcatc
  actaccctactccctaagatgattgcacgcatcaacgactggtttgaggaagtgaaagctaagcgcggca
  agcgcccgacagccttccagttcctgcaagaaatcaagccggaagccgtagcgtacatcaccattaagac
  cactctggcttgcctaaccagtgctgacaatacaaccgttcaggctgtagcaagcgcaatcggtcgggcc
  attgaggacgaggctcgcttcggtcgtatccgtgaccttgaagctaagcacttcaagaaaaacgttgagg
  aacaactcaacaagcgcgtagggcacgtctacaagaaagcatttatgcaagttgtcgaggctgacatgct
  ctctaagggtctactcggtggcgaggcgtggtcttcgtggcataaggaagactctattcatgtaggagta
  cgctgcatcgagatgctcattgagtcaaccggaatggttagcttacaccgccaaaatgctggcgtagtag
  caagactctoagactatcgaactcgcacctgaatacgctgaggctatcgcaacccgtgcaggtgcgctgg
  ctggcatctctccgatgttccaaccttgcgtagttcctcctaagccgtggactggcattactggtggtgg
  ctattgggctaacggtcgtcgtcctctggcgctggtgcgtactcacagtaagaaagcactgatgcgctac
  gaagacgtttacatgcctgaggtgtacaaagcgattaacattgcgcaaaacaccgcatggaaaatcaaca
  agaaagtcctagcggtcgccaacgtaatcaccaagtggaagcattgtccggtcgaggacatccctgcgat
  tgagcgtgaagaactcccgatgaaaccggaagacatcgacatgaatcctgaggactcaccgcgtggaaac
  gtgagccgctgctgtgtaccgcaaggacaaggctcgcaagtacgccgtatcagccttgagttcatgcttg
  agcaagccaataagtttgctaaccataaggccatctggttccettacaacatggactggcgcggtcgtgt
  ttacgctgtgtcaatgttcaacccgcaaggtaacgatatgaccaaaggactgcttacgaggcgaaaggta
  aaccaatcggtaaggaaggttactactggctgaaaatccacggtgcaaactgtgcgggtgtcgacaaggt
  tccgtccctgagcgcatcaagttcattgaggaaaaccacgagaacatcatggcttgcgctaagtctccac
  tggagaacacttggtgggctgagcaagattctccgactgatccttgcgttctgctttgagtacgctgggg
  tacagcaccacggcctgagctataactgctcccttccgctggcgtttgacgggtcttgctaggcatccag
  cacttctccgcgatgaccgagatgaggtaggtggtcgcgcggttaacttgcttcctagtgaaaccgttca
  ggacatctacgggattgttgctaagaaagtcaacgagattctacaagcagacgcaatcaatgggaccgat
  aacgaagtagttaccgtgaccgatgagaacactggtgaaatctctgagaaagtcaagctgggcactaagg
  cactggctggtcaatggctggcttacggtgttactcgcagtgtgactaagcgttcagtcatgacgctggc
  ttacgggtccaaagagttcggcttccgtcaacaagtgctggaagataccattcagccagctattgattcc
  ggcaagggtagatgttcactcagccgaatcaggctgaggatacatggctaagctgatttgggaatctgtg
  agcgtgacggtggtagctgcggttgaagcaatgaactggcttaagtctgctgctaagctgctggctgctg
  aggtcaaagataagaagactggagagattcttcgcaagcgttgcgctgtgcattgggtaactcctgatgg
  tttccctgtgtggcaggaatacaagaagcctattcagacgcgcttgaacctgatgttcctcggtcagttc
  cgcttacagcctaccattaacaccaacaaagatagcgagattgatgcacacaaacaggagtctggtatcg
  ctcctaactttgtacacagccaagacggtagccaccttcgtaagactgtagtgtgggcacacgagaagta
  cggaatcgaatcttttgcactgattcacgactccttcggtacgattccggctgacgctgcgaacctgttc
  aaagcagtgcgcgaaactatggttgacacatatgagtcagtgatgtactggctgatttctacgaccagtt
  cgctgaccagttgcacgagtctcaattggacaaaatgccagcacttccggctaaaggtaacttgaacctc
  cgtgacatcttagagtcggacttcgcgttcgcgtaaGGATCCGGCAAGACTGGCCCC
  GCTTGGCAACGCAACAGTGAGCCCCTCCCTAGTGTGTTTGGGGATGTGACTATGTAT
  TCGTGTGTTGGCCAACGGGTCAACCCGAACAGATTGATACCCGCCTTGGCATTTCCT
  GTCAGAATGTAACGTCAGTTGATGGTACT

• Sequence of guide RNA driven by the T7 promoter (T7 promoter, Ns represent targeting sequence):

• (SEQ ID NO: 21)

  gaaatTAATACGACTCACTATANNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNgttttaga

  gctaGAAAtagcaagttaaaataaggctagtccgttatcaacttgaaa

  aagtggcaccgagtcggtgcttttttt

• Gene Delivery:
• Chlamydomonas reinhardtiistrain CC-124 and CC-125 from theChlamydomonasResource Center will be used for electroporation. Electroporation protocol follows standard recommended protocol from the GeneArtChlamydomonasEngineering kit.
• Also, Applicants generate a line ofChlamydomonas reinhardtiithat expresses Cas9 constitutively. This can be done by using pChlamyl (linearized using PvuI) and selecting for hygromycin resistant colonies. Sequence for pChlamyl containing Cas9 is below. In this way to achieve gene knockout one simply needs to deliver RNA for the guideRNA. For homologous recombination Applicants deliver guideRNA as well as a linearized homologous recombination template.

• pChlamyl-Cas9:
  (SEQ ID NO: 22)
  TGCGGTATTTCACACCGCATCAGGTGGCACTTTTCGGGGAAATGTGCGCG
  GAACCCCTATTTGTTTATTTTTCTAAATACATTCAAATATGTATCCGCTCATGAGATT
  ATCAAAAAGGATCTTCACCTAGATCCTTTTAAATTAAAAATGAAGTTTTAAATCAAT
  CTAAAGTATATATGAGTAAACTTGGTCTGACAGTTACCAATGCTTAATCAGTGAGGC
  ACCTATCTCAGCGATCTGTCTATTTCGTTCATCCATAGTTGCCTGACTCCCCGTCGTG
  TAGATAACTACGATACGGGAGGGCTTACCATCTGGCCCCAGTGCTGCAATGATACCG
  CGAGACCCACGCTCACCGGCTCCAGATTTATCAGCAATAAACCAGCCAGCCGGAAG
  GGCCGAGCGCAGAAGTGGTCCTGCAACTTTATCCGCCTCCATCCAGTCTATTAATTG
  TTGCCGGGAAGCTAGAGTAAGTAGTTCGCCAGTTAATAGTTTGCGCAACGTTGTTGC
  CATTGCTACAGGCATCGTGGTGTCACGCTCGTCGTTTGGTATGGCTTCATTCAGCTCC
  GGTTCCCAACGATCAAGGCGAGTTACATGATCCCCCATGTTGTGCAAAAAAGCGGTT
  AGCTCCTTCGGTCCTCCGATCGTTGTCAGAAGTAAGTTGGCCGCAGTGTTATCACTC
  ATGGTTATGGCAGCACTGCATAATTCTCTTACTGTCATGCCATCCGTAAGATGCTTTT
  CTGTGACTGGTGAGTACTCAACCAAGTCATTCTGAGAATAGTGTATGCGGCGACCGA
  GTTGCTCTTGCCCGGCGTCAATACGGGATAATACCGCGCCACATAGCAGAACTTTAA
  AAGTGCTCATCATTGGAAAACGTTCTTCGGGGCGAAAACTCTCAAGGATCTTACCGC
  TGTTGAGATCCAGTTCGATGTAACCCACTCGTGCACCCAACTGATCTTCAGCATCTTT
  TACTTTCACCAGCGTTTCTGGGTGAGCAAAAACAGGAAGGCAAAATGCCGCAAAAA
  AGGGAATAAGGGCGACACGGAAATGTTGAATACTCATACTCTTCCTTTTTCAATATT
  ATTGAAGCATTTATCAGGGTTATTGTCTCATGACCAAAATCCCTTAACGTGAGTTTTC
  GTTCCACTGAGCGTCAGACCCCGTAGAAAAGATCAAAGGATCTTCTTGAGATCCTTT
  TTTTCTGCGCGTAATCTGCTGCTTGCAAACAAAAAAACCACCGCTACCAGCGGTGGT
  TTGTTTGCCGGATCAAGAGCTACCAACTCTTTTTCCGAAGGTAACTGGCTTCAGCAG
  AGCGCAGATACCAAATACTGTTCTTCTAGTGTAGCCGTAGTTAGGCCACCACTTCAA
  GAACTCTGTAGCACCGCCTACATACCTCGCTCTGCTAATCCTGTTACCAGTGGCTGTT
  GCCAGTGGCGATAAGTCGTGTCTTACCGGGTTGGACTCAAGACGATAGTTACCGGAT
  AAGGCGCAGCGGTCGGGCTGAACGGGGGGTTCGTGCACACAGCCCAGCTTGGAGCG
  AACGACCTACACCGAACTGAGATACCTACAGCGTGAGCTATGAGAAAGCGCCACGC
  TTCCCGAAGGGAGAAAGGCGGACAGGTATCCGGTAAGCGGCAGGGTCGGAACAGG
  AGAGCGCACGAGGGAGCTTCCAGGGGGAAACGCCTGGTATCTTTATAGTCCTGTCG
  GGTTTCGCCACCTCTGACTTGAGCGTCGATTTTTGTGATGCTCGTCAGGGGGGCGGA
  GCCTATGGAAAAACGCCAGCAACGCGGCTTTTTACGGTTCCTGGCCTTTTGCTGGC
  CTTTTGCTCACATGTTCTTTCCTGCGTTATCCCCTGATTCTGTGGATAACCGTATTACC
  GCCTTTGAGTGAGCTGATACCGCTCGCCGCAGCCGAACGACCGAGCGCAGCGAGTC
  AGTGAGCGAGGAAGCGGTCGCTGAGGCTTGACATGATTGGTGCGTATGTTTGTATGA
  AGCTACAGGACTGATTTGGCGGGCTATGAGGGCGGGGGAAGCTCTGGAAGGGCCGC
  GATGGGGCGCGCGGCGTCCAGAAGGCGCCATACGGCCCGCTGGCGGCACCCATCCG
  GTATAAAAGCCCGCGACCCCGAACGGTGACCTCCACTTTCAGCGACAAACGAGCAC
  TTATACATACGCGACTATTCTGCCGCTATACATAACCACTCAGCTAGCTTAAGATCC
  CATCAAGCTTGCATGCCGGGCGCGCCAGAAGGAGCGCAGCCAAACCAGGATGATGT
  TTGATGCTGGTATTTGAGCACTTGCAACCCTTATCCGGAAGCCCCCTGGCCCACAAAG
  GCTAGGCGCCAATGCAAGCAGTTCGCATGCAGCCCCTGGAGCGGTGCCCTCCTGAT
  AAACCGGCCAGGGGGCCTATGTTCTTTACTTTTTTACAAGAGAAGTCACTCAACATC
  TTAAAATGGCCAGGTGAGTCGACGAGCAAGCCCGGCGGATCAGGCAGCGTGCTTGC
  AGATTTGACTTGCAACGCCCGCATTGTGTCGACGAAGGCTTTTGGCTCCTCTGTCGCT
  GTCTCAAGCAGCATCTAACCCTGCGTCGCCGTTTCCATTTGCAGGAGATTCGAGGTA
  CCATGTACCCATACGATGTTCCAGATTACGCTTCGCCGAAGAAAAAGCGCAAGGTC
  GAAGCGTCCGACAAGAAGTACAGCATCGGCCTCTGACATCGGCACCAACTCTGTGGG
  CTGGGCCGTGATCACCGACGAGTACAAGGTGCCCAGCAAGAAATTCAAGGTGCTGG
  GCAACACCGACCGGCACAGCATCAAGAAGAACCTGATCGGAGCCCTGCTGTTCGAC
  AGCGGCGAAACAGCCGAGGCCACCCGGCTGAAGAGAACCGCCAGAAGAAGATACA
  CCAGACGGAAGAACCGGATCTGCTATCTGCAAGAGATCTTCAGCAACGAGATGGCC
  AAGGTGGACGACAGCTTCTTCCACAGACTGGAAGAGTCCTTCCTGGTGGAAGAGGA
  TAAGAAGCACGAGCGGCACCCCATCTTCGGCAACATCGTGGACGAGGTGGCCTACC
  ACGAGAAGTACCCCACCATCTACCACCTGAGAAAGAAACTGGTGGACAGCACCGAC
  AAGGCCGACCTGCGGCTGATCTATCTGGCCCTGGCCCACATGATCAAGTTCCGGGGC
  CACTTCCTGATCGAGGGCGACCTGAACCCCGACAACAGCGACGTGGACAAGCTGTT
  CATCCAGCTGGTGCAGACCTACAACCAGCTGTTCGAGGAAAACCCCATCAACGCCA
  GCGGCGTGGACGCCAAGGCCATCCTGTCTGCCAGACTGAGCAAGAGCAGACGGCTG
  GAAAATCTGATCGCCCAGCTGCCCGGCGAGAAGAAGAATGGCCTGTTCGGCAACCT
  GATTGCCCTGAGCCTGGGCCTGACCCCCAACTICAAGAGCAACTTCGACCTGGCCGA
  GGATGCCAAACTGCAGCTGAGCAAGGACACCTACGACGACGACCTGGACAACCTGC
  TGGCCCAGATCGGCGACCAGTACGCCGACCTGTTTCTGGCCGCCAAGAACCTGTCCG
  ACGCCATCCTGCTGAGCGACATCCTGAGAGTGAACACCGAGATCACCAAGGCCCCC
  CTGAGCGCCTCTATGATCAAGAGATACGACCTACGACCACCAGGACCTGACCCTGCT
  GAAAGCTCTCGTGCGGCAGCAGCTGCCTGAGAAGTACAAAGAGATTTTCTTCGACC
  AGAGCAAGAACGGCTACGCCGGCTACATTGACGGCGGAGCCAGCCAGGAAGAGTTC
  TACAAGTTCATCAAGCCCATCCTGGAAAAGATGGACGGCACCGAGGAACTGCTCGT
  GAAGCTGAACAGAGAGGACCTGCTGCGGAAGCAGCGGACCTTCGACAACGGCAGC
  ATCCCCCACCAGATCCACCTGGGAGAGCTGCACGCCATTCTGCGGCGGCAGGAAGA
  TTTTTACCCATTCCTGAAGGACAACCGGGAAAAGATCGAGAAGATCCTGACCTTCCG
  CATCCCCTACTACGTGGGCCCTCTGGCCAGGGGAAACAGCAGATTCGCCTGGATGA
  CCAGAAAGAGCGAGGAAACCATCACCCCCTGGAACTTCGAGGAAGTGGTGGACAA
  GGGCGCTTCCGCCCAGAGCTTCATCGAGCGGATGACCAACTTCGATAAGAACCTGC
  CCAACGAGAAGGTGCTGCCCAAGCACAGCCTGCTGTACGAGTACTTCACCGTGTAT
  AACGAGCTGACCAAAGTGAAATACGTGACCGAGGGAATGAGAAAGCCCGCCTTCCT
  GAGCGGCGAGCAGAAAAAGGCCATCGTGGACCTGCTGTTCAAGACCAACCGGAAA
  GTGACCGTGAAGCAGCTGAAAGAGGACTACTTCAAGAAAATCGAGTGCTTCGACTC
  CGTGGAAATCTCCGGCGTGGAAGATCGGTTCAACGCCTCCCTGGGCACATACCACG
  ATCTGCTGAAAATTATCAAGGACAAGGACTTCCTGGACAATGAGGAAAACGAGGAC
  ATTCTGGAAGATATCGTGCTGACCCTGACACTGTTTGAGGACAGAGAGATGATCGA
  GGAACGGCTGAAAACCTATG CCCACCTGTTCGACGACAAAGTGATGAAGCAGCTGA
  AGCGGCGGAGATACACCGGCTGGGGCAGGCTGAGCCGGAAGCTGATCAACGGCATC
  CGGGACAAGCAGTCCGGCAAGACAATCCTGGATTTCCTGAAGTCCGACGGCTTCGC
  CAACAGAAACTTCATGCAGCTGATCCACGACGACAGCCTGACCTTTAAAGAGGACA
  TCCAGAAAGCCCAGGTGTCCGGCCAGGGCGATAGCCTGCACGAGCACATTGCCAAT
  CTGGCCGGCAGCCCCGCCATTAAGAAGGGCATCCTGCAGACAGTGAAGGTGGTGGA
  CGAGCTCGTGAAAGTGATGGGCCGGCACAAGCCCGAGAACATCGTGATCGAAATGG
  CCAGAGAGAACCAGACCACCCAGAAGGGACAGAAGAACAGCCGCGAGAGAATGAA
  GCGGATCGAAGAGGGCATCAAAGAGCTGGGCAGCCAGATCCTGAAAGAACACCCC
  GTGGAAAACACCCAGCTGCAGAACGAGAAGCTGTACCTGTACTACCTGCAGAATGG
  GCGGGATATGTACGTGGACCAGGAACTGGACAATCAACCGGCTGTCCGACTACGATG
  TGGACCATATCGTGCCTCAGAGCTTTCTGAAGGACGACTCCATCGACAACAAGGTGC
  TGACCAGAAGCCTACAAGAACCCTGGGCAAGAGCGACAACGTGCCCTCCGAAGAGGT
  CGTGAAGAAGATGAAGAACTACTGGCGGCAGCTGCTGAACGCCAAGCTGATTACCC
  AGAGAAAGTTCGACAATCTGACCAAGGCCGAGAGAGGCGGCCTGAGCGAACTGGAT
  AAGGCCGGCTTCATCAAGAGACAGCTGGTGGAAACCCGGCAGATCACAAAGCACGT
  GGCACAGATCCTGGACTCCCGGATGAACACTAAGTACGACGAGAATGACAAGCTGA
  TCCGGGAAGTGAAAGTGATCACCCTGAAGTCCAAGCTGGTGTCCGATTTCCGGAAG
  GATTTCCAGTTTTACAAAGTGCGCGAGATCAACAACTACCACCACGCCCACGACGCC
  TACCTGAACGCCGTCGTGGGAACCGCCCTGATCAAAAAGTACCCTAAGCTGGAAAG
  CGAGTTCGTGTACGGCGACTACAAGGTGTACGACGTGCGGAAGATGATCGCCAAGA
  GCGAGCAGGAAATCGGCAAGGCTACCGCCAAGTACTTCTTCTACAGCAACATCATG
  AACTTTTTCAAGACCGAGATTACCCTGGCCAACGGCGAGATCCGGAAGCGGCCTCT
  GATCGAGACAAACGGCGAAACCGGCTGAGATCGTCTTGGGATAAGGGCCGGGATTTTG
  CCACCGTGCGGAAAGTGCTGAGCATGCCCCAAGTGAATATCGTGAAAAAGACCGAG
  GTGCAGACAGGCGGCTTCAGCAAAGAGTCTATCCTGCCCAAGAGGAACAGCGATAA
  GCTGATCGCCAGAAAGAAGGACTGGGACCCTAAGAAGTACGGCGGCTTCGACAGCC
  CCACCGTGGCCTATTCTGTGCTGGTGGTGGCCAAAGTGGAAAAGGGCAAGTCCAAG
  AAACTGAAGAGTGTGAAAGAGCTGCTGGGGATCACCATCATGGAAAGAAGCAGCTT
  CGAGAAGAATCCCATCGACTTTCTGGAAGCCAAGGGCTACAAAGAAGTGAAAAAGG
  ACCTGATCATCAAGCTGCCTAAGTACTCCCFGTTCGAGCTGGAAAACGGCCGGAAG
  AGAATGCTGGCCTCTGCCGGCGAACTGCAGAAGGGAAACGAACTGGCCCTGCCCTC
  CAAATATGTGAACTTCCTGTACCTGGCCAGCCACTATGAGAAGCTGAAGGGCTCCCC
  CGAGGATAATGAGCAGAAACAGCTGTTTGTGGAACAGCACAAGCACTACCTGGACG
  AGATCATCGAGCAGATCAGCGAGTTCTCCAAGAGAGTGATCCTGGCCGACGCTAAT
  CTGGACAAAGTGCTGTCCGCCTACAACAAGCACCGGGATAAGCCCATCAGAGAGCA
  GGCCGAGAATATCATCCACCTGTTTACCCTGACCAATCTGGGAGCCCCTGCCGCCTT
  CAAGTACTTTGACACCACCATCGACCGGAAGAGGTACACCAGCACCAAAGAGGTGC
  TGGACGCCACCCTGATCCACCAGAGCATCACCGGCCTGTACGAGACACGGATCGAC
  CTGTCTCAGCTGGGAGGCGACAGCCCCAAGAAGAAGAGAAAGGTGGAGGCCAGCT
  AACATATGATTCGAATGTCTTTCTTGCGCTATGACACTTCCAGCAAAAGGTAGGGCG
  GGCTGCGAGACGGCTTCCCGGCGCTGCATGCAACACCGATGATGCTTCGACCCCCCG
  AAGCTCCTTCGGGGCTGCATGGGCGCTCCGATGCCGCTCCAGGGCGAGCGCTGTTTA
  AATAGCCAGGCCCCCGATTGCAAAGACATTATAGCGACCTCCAAAGCCATATTCA
  AACACCTAGATCACTACCACTTCTACACAGGCCACTCGAGCTTGTGATCGCACTCCG
  CTAAGGGGGCGCCTCTTCCTCTTCGTTTCAGTCACAACCCGCAAACATGACACAAGA
  ATCCCTGTTACTTCTCGACCGTATTGATTCGGATGATTCCTACGCGAGCCTGCGGAA
  CGACCAGGAATTCTGGGAGGTGAGTCGACGAGCAAGCCCGGCGGATCAGGCAGCGT
  GCTTGCAGATTTGACTTGCAACGCCCGCATTGTGTGCGAAGGCTTTTGGCTCCTCT
  GTCGCTGTCTCAAGCAGCATCTAACCCTGCGTCGCCGTTTCCATTTGCAGCCGCTGG
  CCCGCCGAGCCCTGGAGGAGCTCGGGCTGCCGGTGCCGCCGGTGCTGCGGGTGCCC
  GGCGAGAGCACCAACCCCGTACTGGTCGGCGAGCCCGGCCCGGTGATCAAGCTGTT
  CGGCGAGCACTGGTGCGGTCCGGAGAGCCTCGCGTCGGAGTCGGAGGCGTACGCGG
  TCCTGGCGGACGCCCCGGTGCCGGTGCCCCGCCTCCTCGGCCGCGGCGAGCTGCGGC
  CCGGCACCGGAGCCTGGCCGTGGCCCTACCTGGTGATGAGCCGGATGACCGGCACC
  ACCTGGCGGTCCGCGATGGACGGCACGACCGACCGGAACGCGCTGCTCGCCCTGGC
  CCGCGAACTCGGCCGGGTGCTCGGCCGGCTGCACAGGGTGCCGCTGACCGGGAACA
  CCGTGCTCACCCCCCATTCCGAGGTCTTCCCGGAACTGCTGCGGGAACGCCGCGCGG
  CGACCGTCGAGGACCACCGCGGGTGGGGCTACCTCTCGCCCCGGCTGCTGGACCGC
  CTGGAGGACTGGCTGCCGGACCTTGGACACGCTGCTGGCCGGCCGCGAACCCCGGTT
  CGTCCACGGCGACCTGCACGGGACCAACATCTTCGTGGACCTGGCCGCGACCGAGG
  TCACCGGGATCGTCGACTTCACCGACGTCTATGCGGGAGACTCCCGCTACAGCCTGG
  TGCAACTGCATCTCAACGCCTTCCGGGGCGACCGCGAGATCCTGGCCGCGCTGCTCG
  ACGGGGCGCAGTGGAAGCGGACCGAGGACTTCGCCCGCGAACTGCTCGCCTTCACC
  TTCCTGCACGACTTCGAGGTGTTCGAGGAGACCCCGCTGGATCTCTCCGGCTTCACC
  GATCCGGAGGAACTGGCGCAGTTCCTCTGGGGGCCGCCGGACACCGCCCCCGGCGC
  CTGATAAGGATCCGGCAAGACTGGCCCCGCTTTGGCAACGCAACAGTGAGCCCCTCC
  CTAGTGTGTTTGGGGATGTGACTATGTATTCGTGTGTTGGCCAACGGGTCAACCCGA
  ACAGATTGATACCCGCCTTGGCATTTCCTGTCAGAATGTAACGTCAGTTGATGGTAC
  T.

• For all modifiedChlamydomonas reinhardtiicells, Applicants use PCR, SURVEYOR nuclease assay, and DNA sequencing to verify successful modification.
• While preferred embodiments of the present invention have been shown and described herein, it will be obvious to those skilled in the art that such embodiments are provided by way of example only. Numerous variations, changes, and substitutions will now occur to those skilled in the art without departing from the invention. It should be understood that various alternatives to the embodiments of the invention described herein may be employed in practicing the invention. It is intended that the following claims define the scope of the invention and that methods and structures within the scope of these claims and their equivalents be covered thereby.
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Claims (30)

What is claimed is:

1. A method of altering expression of at least one gene product comprising introducing into a eukaryotic cell containing and expressing a DNA molecule having a target sequence and encoding the gene product an engineered, non-naturally occurring Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats (CRISPR)-CRISPR associated (Cas) system comprising one or more viral vectors comprising:

a) a first regulatory element operable in a eukaryotic cell operably linked to at least one nucleotide sequence encoding a CRISPR-Cas system guide RNA that hybridizes with the target sequence, and

b) a second regulatory element operable in a eukaryotic cell operably linked to a nucleotide sequence encoding a Type-II Cas9 protein,

wherein components (a) and (b) are located on same or different vectors of the system,

whereby the guide RNA targets the target sequence and the Cas9 protein cleaves the DNA molecule, whereby expression of the at least one gene product is altered; and, wherein the Cas9 protein and the guide RNA do not naturally occur together.

2. The method ofclaim 1, wherein the expression of two or more gene products is altered.

3. The method ofclaim 1, wherein the CRISPR-Cas system further comprises one or more nuclear localization signal(s) (NLS(s)).

4. The method ofclaim 1, wherein the CRISPR-Cas system comprises a trans-activating cr (tracr) sequence.

5. The method ofclaim 1, wherein the guide RNAs comprise a guide sequence fused to a tracr sequence.

6. The method ofclaim 1, wherein the Cas9 protein is codon optimized for expression in the eukaryotic cell.

7. The method ofclaim 1, wherein the eukaryotic cell is a mammalian or human cell.

8. The method ofclaim 1, wherein the expression of one or more gene products is increased.

9. The method ofclaim 1, wherein the expression of one or more gene products is decreased.

10. The method ofclaim 1, wherein the one or more viral vectors are selected from the group consisting of retroviral, lentiviral, adenoviral, adeno-associated and herpes simplex viral vectors.

11. A CRISPR-Cas system-mediated genome editing method comprising introducing into a eukaryotic cell containing and expressing a DNA molecule having a target sequence and encoding at least one gene product an engineered, non-naturally occurring CRISPR-Cas system comprising one or more vectors comprising:

a) a first regulatory element operable in a eukaryotic cell operably linked to at least one nucleotide sequence encoding a CRISPR-Cas system guide RNA that hybridizes with the target sequence, and

b) a second regulatory element operable in a eukaryotic cell operably linked to a nucleotide sequence encoding a Type-II Cas9 protein,

wherein components (a) and (b) are located on same or different vectors of the system,

whereby expression of the at least one gene product is altered through the CRISPR-Cas system acting as to the DNA molecule comprising the guide RNA directing sequence-specific binding of the CRISPR-Cas system, whereby there is genome editing; and, wherein the Cas9 protein and the guide RNA do not naturally occur together.

12. The method ofclaim 11, wherein the expression of two or more gene products is altered.

13. The method ofclaim 11, wherein the CRISPR-Cas system further comprises one or more NLS(s).

14. The method ofclaim 11, wherein the CRISPR-Cas system comprises a tracr sequence.

15. The method ofclaim 11, wherein the Cas9 protein is codon optimized for expression in the eukaryotic cell.

16. The method ofclaim 11, wherein the eukaryotic cell is a mammalian or human cell.

17. The method ofclaim 11, wherein the expression of one or more gene products is increased.

18. The method ofclaim 11, wherein the expression of one or more gene products is decreased.

19. An engineered, non-naturally occurring CRISPR-Cas system comprising one or more viral vectors comprising:

a) a first regulatory element operable in a eukaryotic cell operably linked to at least one nucleotide sequence encoding a CRISPR-Cas system guide RNA that hybridizes with a target sequence of a DNA molecule in a eukaryotic cell that contains the DNA molecule, wherein the DNA molecule encodes and the eukaryotic cell expresses at least one gene product,

b) a second regulatory element operable in a eukaryotic cell operably linked to a nucleotide sequence encoding a Type-II Cas9 protein,

wherein components (a) and (b) are located on same or different vectors of the system,

wherein the CRISPR-Cas system comprises a tracr sequence,

whereby the guide RNA targets and hybridizes with the target sequence and the Cas9 protein cleaves the DNA molecule, whereby expression of the at least one gene product is altered; and, wherein the Cas9 protein and the guide RNA do not naturally occur together.

20. The system ofclaim 19, wherein the CRISPR-Cas system further comprises one or more NLS(s).

21. The system ofclaim 19, wherein the Cas9 protein is codon optimized for expression in the eukaryotic cell.

22. The system ofclaim 19, wherein the eukaryotic cell is a mammalian or human cell.

23. The system ofclaim 19, wherein the expression of one or more gene products is increased.

24. The system ofclaim 19, wherein the expression of one or more gene products is decreased.

25. The system ofclaim 19, wherein the one or more viral vectors are selected from the group consisting of retroviral, lentiviral, adenoviral, adeno-associated and herpes simplex viral vectors.

26. An engineered, programmable, non-naturally occurring Type II CRISPR-Cas system comprising a Cas9 protein and at least one guide RNA that targets and hybridizes to a target sequence of a DNA molecule in a eukaryotic cell, wherein the DNA molecule encodes and the eukaryotic cell expresses at least one gene product and the Cas9 protein cleaves the DNA molecule, whereby expression of the at least one gene product is altered; and, wherein the Cas9 protein and the guide RNA do not naturally occur together.

27. The CRISPR-Cas system ofclaim 26, wherein the CRISPR-Cas system further comprises one or more NLS(s).

28. The CRISPR-Cas system ofclaim 26, wherein the CRISPR-Cas system comprises a tracr sequence.

29. The CRISPR-Cas system ofclaim 26, wherein the Cas9 protein is codon optimized for expression in the eukaryotic cell.

30. The CRISPR-Cas system ofclaim 26, wherein the eukaryotic cell is a mammalian or human cell.

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