US20110182992A1 - Peptides and peptide mimetics to treat pathologies associated with eye disease - Google Patents

Abstract

This invention provides novel active agents (e.g. peptides, small organic molecules, amino acid pairs, etc.) peptides that ameliorate one or more symptoms of eye disease and/or other pathologies characterized by an inflammatory response, hi certain embodiment, the peptides resemble a G* amphipathic helix of apolipoprotein J. The agents are highly stable and readily administered via an oral route or via intraocular injection.

Description

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED PATENT APPLICATIONS
• This application claims priority to U.S. application Ser. No. 12/027,728, titled Peptides and Peptide Mimetics to Treat Pathologies Associated with Eye Disease, filed on Feb. 7, 2008, which is incorporated herein by reference in their entirety for all purposes.
STATEMENT AS TO RIGHTS TO INVENTIONS MADE UNDER FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
• This invention was made with government support under Grant No: HL30568 and Grant No: ey 06109 awarded by the National Heart Blood Lung Institute of the National Institutes of Health and the National Eye Institute. The Government of the United States of America has certain rights in the invention.
FIELD OF THE INVENTION
• This invention relates to the field of atherosclerosis and other conditions characterized by inflammation and/or the formation of various oxidized species. In particular, this invention pertains to the identification of classes of active agents that are orally administrable and that ameliorate one or more symptoms of conditions characterized by an inflammatory response and/or the formation of various oxidized species. This invention also relates to the field of macular degeneration. In particular, this invention pertains to methods of treating macular degeneration as well as methods of ameliorating a symptom of macular degeneration.
BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION
• The introduction of statins (e.g., Mevacor®, Lipitor®, etc.) has reduced mortality from heart attack and stroke by about one-third. However, heart attack and stroke remain the major cause of death and disability, particularly in the United States and in Western European countries. Heart attack and stroke are the result of a chronic inflammatory condition, which is called atherosclerosis.
• Several causative factors are implicated in the development of cardiovascular disease including hereditary predisposition to the disease, gender, lifestyle factors such as smoking and diet, age, hypertension, and hyperlipidemia, including hypercholesterolemia. Several of these factors, particularly hyperlipidemia and hypercholesteremia (high blood cholesterol concentrations) provide a significant risk factor associated with atherosclerosis.
• Cholesterol is present in the blood as free and esterified cholesterol within lipoprotein particles, commonly known as chylomicrons, very low density lipoproteins (VLDLs), low density lipoproteins (LDLs), and high density lipoproteins (HDLs). Concentration of total cholesterol in the blood is influenced by (1) absorption of cholesterol from the digestive tract, (2) synthesis of cholesterol from dietary constituents such as carbohydrates, proteins, fats and ethanol, and (3) removal of cholesterol from blood by tissues, especially the liver, and subsequent conversion of the cholesterol to bile acids, steroid hormones, and biliary cholesterol.
• Maintenance of blood cholesterol concentrations is influenced by both genetic and environmental factors. Genetic factors include concentration of rate-limiting enzymes in cholesterol biosynthesis, concentration of receptors for low density lipoproteins in the liver, concentration of rate-limiting enzymes for conversion of cholesterols bile acids, rates of synthesis and secretion of lipoproteins and gender of person. Environmental factors influencing the hemostasis of blood cholesterol concentration in humans include dietary composition, incidence of smoking, physical activity, and use of a variety of pharmaceutical agents. Dietary variables include the amount and type of fat (saturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids), the amount of cholesterol, amount and type of fiber, and perhaps the amounts of vitamins such as vitamin C and D and minerals such as calcium.
• Low density lipoprotein (LDL) oxidation has been strongly implicated in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis. High density lipoprotein (HDL) has been found to be capable of protecting against LDL oxidation, but in some instances has been found to accelerate LDL oxidation. Important initiating factors in atherosclerosis include the production of LDL-derived oxidized phospholipids.
• Normal HDL has the capacity to prevent the formation of these oxidized phospholipids and also to inactivate these oxidized phospholipids once they have formed. However, under some circumstances HDL can be converted from an anti-inflammatory molecule to a pro-inflammatory molecule that actually promotes the formation of these oxidized phospholipids.
• It has been suggested that HDL and LDL function as part of the innate immune system (Navab et al. (2001) Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol., 21: 481-488). The generation of anti-inflammatory HDL has been achieved using class A amphipathic helical peptides that mimic the major protein of HDL, apolipoprotein A-I (apo A-I) (see, e.g., WO 02/15923).
• Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is the most frequent cause of legal blindness in the elderly in industrial countries (Van Leeuwen et al. (2003) European Journal of Epidemiology 18: 845-854). It is a heterogeneous disease, which is characterized by progressive loss of central, high acuity vision. For the patient it compromises dramatically quality of life, since they lose their ability to read, to recognize faces and day-to-day tasks become major obstacles. According to the WHO a total of 30-50 million individuals are affected and about 14 million people are blind or severely visually impaired due to AMD (Gehrs et al., (2006) Annals of Medicine 38:450-471).
• The most prominent clinical and histopathological lesions of AMD involve the choriocapillaris, Bruch's membrane, and the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) (Ambati et al. (2003) Survey of Opthalmology 48:257-293). The choriocapillaris is a highly specialized capillary plexus with the highest blood flow rate in the body which interacts with the highly metabolic active RPE. The RPE forms the outer blood-retina barrier and supplies the photoreceptors, the sensory cells in the eye, with nutriments as well as phagocytes daily shed outer photoreceptor segments which are degraded and partially recycled. Under normal conditions unrecycled end products are rendered into the choriocapillaris. Bruch's membrane is a five layer connective tissue between the RPE and choriocapillaris resembling an arterial intima in its function (Curcio et al. (2001) Invest Opthalmol Vis Sci 42:265-274). With age Bruch's membrane undergoes distinctive degenerative changes. One major characteristic feature next to thickening is the accumulation of neutral lipids, which build up a diffusion barrier between the RPE and choriocapillaris compromising RPE and photoreceptor function (Curcio et al. (2001) Invest Opthalmol Vis Sci 42:265-274; Pauleikhoff et al. (1990) Opthalmology 97:171-178; Moore et al. (1995) Invest Opthalmol Vis Sci 36:1290-1297).
• In early stages of AMD an additional deposition of debris is observed between the basal membrane of the RPE (1^stlayer of Bruch's membrane) and the inner collagenous layer (2^ndlayer of Bruch's membrane). This debris is called basal linear deposits and drusen, both rich in lipids and hallmarks of AMD, impairing even more the diffusion along Bruch's membrane (Gehrs et al, (2006) Annals of Medicine 38:450-471; Curcio et al. (1999) Arch Opthalmol 117:329-339; Curcio et al. (2005) Experimental Eye Research 81: 731-741; Haimovici et al. (2001) Invest Opthalmol Vis Sci 42:1592-1599). Furthermore, cytotoxic and lipid rich, metabolic end products, called lipofuscin, accumulate in the RPE cells (Beatty et al. (2000) Surv Opthalmol 45:115-134). All these conditions together cause oxidative stress and inflammation resulting in RPE atrophy and successively photoreceptor degeneration (Kopitz et al. (2004) Biochimie 86: 825-831). This atrophy of RPE and photoreceptors is called the dry form of AMD and progresses slowly and irreversibly. Currently a treatment or prevention of this form of AMD, which affect about 85-90% of all AMD patients, does not exist (Van Leeuwen et al. (2003) European Journal of Epidemiology 18: 845-854).
• The second form of AMD is called wet AMD and can arise from the dry form. It affects about 10-15% of all AMD patients and is marked by the growth of a pathological vessel from the choriocapillaris into the subretinal space, called choroidal neovascularization (CNV) (Gehrs et al. (2006) Annals of Medicine 38:450-471 and Ambati et al. (2003) Survey of Opthalmology 48:257-293). It causes a rapid, irreversible vision loss due to leakage, bleeding, and scaring (Ambati et al. (2003) Survey of Opthalmology 48:257-293). In the last 5 years antiangiogentic therapies were developed targeting vascular endothelial growth factor, which could show success in slowing down the progression of vision loss (Michels et al. (2006) Expert Opin Investig Drugs 15:779-793).
• In general, current therapies use antibodies or antibody fragments against VEGF, which are injected into the vitreous body of the eye (Michels et al. (2006)). A prevention therapy of wet AMD does not exist (Gehrs et al. (2006)), which would be especially desirable when the vision in one eye is already largely compromised and the second eye shows definite risk factors for a progression like e.g. large soft drusen (Ambati et al. (2003)).
• Lipids are hydrophobic and cannot simply dissolve in an aqueous medium such as blood. In order to be transported in blood lipids have to be assembled in particles called lipoproteins. Specialized proteins called apolipoproteins help to form and stabilize these particles. There are several classes of apolipoproteins (A-JM, a). Basically their functional structures are comparable which are amphipathic helices.
• Apolipoprotein mimetic peptides are synthetic helical lipid accepting peptides mimicking the function of an apolipoprotein (Mendez et al. (1994) J. Clin. Invest 94:1698-1705). One of the best known is the ApoA-Imimetic peptide 4F, has been shown to treat atherosclerosis (Anantharamaiah et al. (2006) Current Opinion in Lipidology 17:233-237). It is available as L-4F and as its stereoisomer D-4F. It consists of 18 amino acids, is well water-soluble, a high potent lipid acceptor, and acts as a highly anti-inflammatory (Navab et al. (2006) Nat. Clin. Pract. Cardiovasc. Med. 3:540-547). D-4F is based on D-amino acids and is compared to L-4F more resistant to degradation and can be taken orally (Anantharamaiah et al. (2006)). A phase I clinical trial with D-4F already started. So far no side effects of D-4F are described.
SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION
• This invention provides novel compositions and methods to ameliorate one or more symptoms of a vascular condition and/or a condition characterized by an inflammatory response and/or a condition characterized by the formation of oxidized reactive species in a mammal.
• Thus, in certain embodiments, this invention provides a peptide that ameliorates a symptom of atherosclerosis, where the peptide comprises the amino acid sequence or the retro amino acid sequence of a peptide listed in Table 6. In another embodiment this invention provides a peptide that ameliorates a symptom of atherosclerosis, where the peptide: consists of 18 amino acids, the 18 amino acids consisting of 3 alanines (A), 2 aspartates (D), 2 glutamates (E), 4 phenylalanines (F), 4 lysines (K), 1 valine (V), 1 tryptophan (W), and 1 tyrosine (Y); where the peptide forms a class A amphipathic helix; comprises at least one “D” amino acid residue; and protects a phospholipid against oxidation by an oxidizing agent. In certain embodiments these peptides include but are not limited to a peptide having the amino acid sequence or the retro amino acid sequence of a peptide listed in Table 4. In still another embodiment, this invention provides a peptide that ameliorates a symptom of atherosclerosis, where the peptide: ranges in length from about 18 to 37 amino acids and comprises at least 3 alanines (A), 2 aspartates (D), 2 glutamates (E), 4 phenylalanines (F), 4 lysines (K), 1 valine (V), 1 tryptophan (W), 1 tyrosine (Y); where the peptide forms a class A amphipathic helix; comprises at least one “D” amino acid residue; and protects a phospholipid against oxidation by an oxidizing agent. In certain embodiments these peptides comprise an amino acid sequence selected from the group consisting of D-W-F-K-A-F-Y-D-K-V-A-E-K-F-K-E-A-F (SEQ ID NO: 1191), -D-W-L-K-A-F-Y-D-K-V-A-E-K-L-K-E-A-F-P-D-W-L-K-A-F-Y-D-K-V-A-E-K-L-K-E-A-F (SEQ ID NO: 1192), -D-W-L-K-A-F-Y-D-K-V-A-E-K-L-K-E-F-F-P-D-W-L-K-A-F-Y-D-K-V-A-E-K-L-K-E-F-F (SEQ ID NO: 1193), -D-W-F-K-A-F-Y-D-K-V-A-E-K-L-K-E-A-F-P-D-W-F-K-A-F-Y-D-K-V-A-E-K-L-K-E-A-F (SEQ ID NO: 1194), D-K-L-K-A-F-Y-D-K-V-F-E-W-A-K-E-A-F-P-D-K-L-K-A-F-Y-D-K-V-F-E-W-L-K-E-A-F (SEQ ID NO: 1195), D-K-W-K-A-V-Y-D-K-F-A-E-A-F-K-E-F-L-P-D-K-W-K-A-V-Y-D-K-F-A-E-A-F-K-E-F-L (SEQ ID NO: 1196), D-W-F-K-A-F-Y-D-K-V-A-E-K-F-K-E-A-F-P-D-W-F-K-A-F-Y-D-K-V-A-E-K-F-K-E-A-F-(SEQ ID NO: 1197), or the reverse of any of these sequences. In still yet another embodiment this invention provides a peptide that forms a class A amphipathic helix or a class Y amphipathic helix and is described by the formula: D¹-X¹-X¹-K¹-Y¹-X³-X⁴-D²-K²-X-⁵-Y-D³-K³-X⁶-K⁴-D⁴-Y²-X⁷where X¹, X², X³, X⁴, X⁵, and X⁶are independently selected from the group consisting of Leu, norLeu, Val, Ile, Trp, Phe, Tyr, β-Nal, and α-Nal, and all X residues are on the non-polar face of the peptide, except for one that can be on the polar face between two K residues; K′, K², K³, and K⁴are independently Lys or Arg, and no more than two K's are adjacent to each other in a helical wheel diagram of the peptide; Y¹and Y²are independently selected from the group consisting of Ala, His, Ser, Gln, Asn, and Thr, when present on the non-polar face of the molecule; when one of Y¹or Y²are present on the polar face of the molecule, the Y¹or Y²on the polar face of the molecule is selected from the group consisting of Ala, His, Ser, Gln, Asn, and Thr; D¹, D², D³, and D⁴are independently Asp or Glu, and no more than 3 Ds are contiguous in a helical wheel diagram of the peptide, and the remaining D is separated from the other D's by a Y. In certain embodiments these peptides comprise the amino acid sequence or the retro amino acid sequence of a peptide listed in Table 5.
• In certain embodiments any one or more of these peptides further comprise a protecting group coupled to the amino or carboxyl terminus. In certain embodiments the peptides comprise a first protecting group coupled to the amino terminus and a second protecting group coupled to the carboxyl terminus. In certain embodiments the protecting groups can be independently selected from the group consisting of acetyl, amide, and 3 to 20 carbon alkyl groups, Fmoc, Tboc, 9-fluoreneacetyl group, 1-fluorenecarboxylic group, 9-florenecarboxylic group, 9-fluorenone-1-carboxylic group, benzyloxycarbonyl, Xanthyl (Xan), Trityl (Trt), 4-methyltrityl (Mtt), 4-methoxytrityl (Mmt), 4-methoxy-2,3,6-trimethyl-benzenesulphonyl (Mtr), Mesitylene-2-sulphonyl (Mts), 4,4-dimethoxybenzhydryl (Mbh), Tosyl (Tos), 2,2,5,7,8-pentamethyl chroman-6-sulphonyl (Pmc), 4-methylbenzyl (MeBzl), 4-methoxybenzyl (MeOBzl), Benzyloxy (BzlO), Benzyl (Bzl), Benzoyl (Bz), 3-nitro-2-pyridinesulphenyl (Npys), 1-(4,4-dimentyl-2,6-diaxocyclohexylidene)ethyl (Dde), 2,6-dichlorobenzyl (2,6-DiCl-Bzl), 2-chlorobenzyloxycarbonyl (2—Cl-Z), 2-bromobenzyloxycarbonyl (2—Br-Z), Benzyloxymethyl (Bom), t-butoxycarbonyl (Boc), cyclohexyloxy (cHxO), t-butoxymethyl (Bum), t-butoxy (tBuO), t-Butyl (tBu), Acetyl (Ac), and Trifluoroacetyl (TFA).
• In certain embodiments the peptide comprises a protecting group coupled to the amino terminal and the amino terminal protecting group is a protecting group selected from the group consisting of acetyl, propeonyl, and a 3 to 20 carbon alkyl. In certain embodiments the peptide comprises a protecting group coupled to the carboxyl terminal and the carboxyl terminal protecting group is an amide. In certain embodiments the peptide comprises: a first protecting group coupled to the amino terminus where the protecting group is a protecting group selected from the group consisting of acetyl, propeonyl, and a 3 to 20 carbon alkyl; and a second protecting group coupled to the carboxyl terminal and the carboxyl terminal protecting group is an amide.
• In various embodiments one or more amino acids comprising the peptide are “D” amino acids. In various embodiments all amino acids comprising the peptide “D” amino acids. The peptide(s) can, optionally, be mixed/combined with a pharmacologically acceptable excipient. In certain embodiments the excipient is an excipient suitable for oral administration to a mammal.
• In certain embodiments this invention provides methods of treating a vascular condition and/or a condition characterized by an inflammatory response and/or a condition characterized by the formation of oxidized reactive species in a mammal. The methods typically involve administering to a mammal in need thereof one or more of the active agents described in Tables 2-18, and/or a small organic molecule as described herein in an amount sufficient to ameliorate one or more symptoms of the condition. In certain embodiments the active agent is a polypeptide comprising the amino acid sequence of 4F (SEQ ID NO:5). In certain embodiments the administration is by a route selected from the group consisting of oral administration, nasal administration, rectal administration, intraperitoneal injection, and intravascular injection, intraocular injection, intravitreal injection, subconjuctival injection, peri-/retrobulbar injection, subcutaneous injection, eye drops, eye gel, eye ointment, spray, emulsion, suspension, transcutaneous administration, and intramuscular injection, via any drug carriers as sponges, contact lenses, polymers, microspheres, implants, pellets, and genetically engineered cells. In certain embodiments the active agent is administered in conjunction with a drug selected from the group consisting of CETP inhibitors, FTY720, Certican, DPP4 inhibitors, Calcium channel blockers, ApoA1 derivative or mimetic or agonist, PPAR agonists, Steroids, Gleevec, Cholesterol Absorption blockers (Zetia), Vytorin, Any Renin Angiotensin pathway blockers, Angiotensin II receptor antagonist (Diovan etc), ACE inhibitors, Renin inhibitors, MR antagonist and Aldosterone synthase inhibitor, Beta-blockers, Alpha-adrenergic antagonists, LXR agonist, FXR agonist, Scavenger Receptor B1 agonist, ABCA1 agonist, Adiponectic receptor agonist or adiponectin inducers, Stearoyl-CoA Desaturase I (SCD1) inhibitor, Cholesterol synthesis inhibitors (non-statins), Diacylglycerol Acyltransferase I (DGAT1) inhibitor,Acetyl CoA Carboxylase 2 inhibitor, PAI-1 inhibitor, LP-PLA2 inhibitor, GLP-1, Glucokinase activator, CB-1 agonist, AGE inhibitor/breaker, PKC inhibitors, Anti-thrombotic/coagulants: Aspirin, ADP receptor blockers e.g. Clopidigrel, Factor Xa inhibitor, GPIIb/IIIa inhibitor, Factor VIIa inhibitor, Warfarin, Low molecular weight heparin, Tissue factor inhibitor, Anti-inflammatory drugs: Probucol and derivative e.g. AGI-1067 etc, CCR2 antagonist, CX3CR1 antagonist, IL-1 antagonist, Nitrates and NO donors, and Phosphodiesterase inhibitors.
• In various embodiments this invention provides for the use of an active agent described in Tables 2-18, and/or a small organic molecule as described herein in a treatment of a condition selected from the group consisting of atherosclerotic plaque formation, atherosclerotic lesion formation, myocardial infarction, stroke, congestive heart failure, arteriole function, arteriolar disease, arteriolar disease associated with aging, arteriolar disease associated with Alzheimer's disease, arteriolar disease associated with chronic kidney disease, arteriolar disease associated with hypertension, arteriolar disease associated with multi-infarct dementia, arteriolar disease associated with subarachnoid hemorrhage, peripheral vascular disease, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), emphysema, asthma, idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, pulmonary fibrosis, adult respiratory distress syndrome, osteoporosis, Paget's disease, coronary calcification, rheumatoid arthritis, polyarteritis nodosa, polymyalgia rheumatica, lupus erythematosus, multiple sclerosis, Wegener's granulomatosis, central nervous system vasculitis (CNSV), Sjogren's syndrome, scleroderma, polymyositis, AIDS inflammatory response, bacterial infection, fungal infection, viral infection, parasitic infection, influenza, avian flu, viral pneumonia, endotoxic shock syndrome, sepsis, sepsis syndrome, trauma/wound, organ transplant, transplant atherosclerosis, transplant rejection, corneal ulcer, chronic/non-healing wound, ulcerative colitis, reperfusion injury (prevent and/or treat), ischemic reperfusion injury (prevent and/or treat), spinal cord injuries (mitigating effects), cancers, myeloma/multiple myeloma, ovarian cancer, breast cancer, colon cancer, bone cancer, osteoarthritis, inflammatory bowel disease, allergic rhinitis, cachexia, diabetes, Alzheimer's disease, implanted prosthesis, biofilm formation, Crohns' disease, dermatitis, acute and chronic, eczema, psoriasis, contact dermatitis, scleroderma, Type I Diabetes, Type II Diabetes, juvenile onset diabetes, prevention of the onset of diabetes, diabetic nephropathy, diabetic neuropathy, diabetic retinopathy, erectile dysfunction, macular degeneration, multiple sclerosis, nephropathy, neuropathy, Parkinson's Disease, peripheral vascular disease, and meningitis.
• This invention additionally provides for the use of active agent described in Tables 2-18, and/or a small organic molecule as described herein for the manufacture of a medicament for the treatment of a condition selected from the group consisting of atherosclerotic plaque formation, atherosclerotic lesion formation, myocardial infarction, stroke, congestive heart failure, arteriole function, arteriolar disease, arteriolar disease associated with aging, arteriolar disease associated with Alzheimer's disease, arteriolar disease associated with chronic kidney disease, arteriolar disease associated with hypertension, arteriolar disease associated with multi-infarct dementia, arteriolar disease associated with subarachnoid hemorrhage, peripheral vascular disease, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), emphysema, asthma, idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, pulmonary fibrosis, adult respiratory distress syndrome, osteoporosis, Paget's disease, coronary calcification, rheumatoid arthritis, polyarteritis nodosa, polymyalgia rheumatica, lupus erythematosus, multiple sclerosis, Wegener's granulomatosis, central nervous system vasculitis (CNSV), Sjogren's syndrome, scleroderma, polymyositis, AIDS inflammatory response, bacterial infection, fungal infection, viral infection, parasitic infection, influenza, avian flu, viral pneumonia, endotoxic shock syndrome, sepsis, sepsis syndrome, trauma/wound, organ transplant, transplant atherosclerosis, transplant rejection, corneal ulcer, chronic/non-healing wound, ulcerative colitis, reperfusion injury (prevent and/or treat), ischemic reperfusion injury (prevent and/or treat), spinal cord injuries (mitigating effects), cancers, myeloma/multiple myeloma, ovarian cancer, breast cancer, colon cancer, bone cancer osteoarthritis, inflammatory bowel disease, allergic rhinitis, cachexia, diabetes, Alzheimer's disease, implanted prosthesis, biofilm formation, Crohns' disease, dermatitis, acute and chronic, eczema, psoriasis, contact dermatitis, scleroderma, Type I Diabetes, Type II Diabetes, juvenile onset diabetes, prevention of the onset of diabetes, diabetic nephropathy, diabetic neuropathy, diabetic retinopathy, erectile dysfunction, macular degeneration, multiple sclerosis, nephropathy, neuropathy, Parkinson's Disease, peripheral vascular disease, and meningitis.
• In certain embodiments this invention provides a stent for delivering drugs to a vessel in a body. The stent typically comprises a stent framework including a plurality of reservoirs formed therein, and a peptide comprising the amino acid sequence or the retro amino acid sequence of a peptide listed in Tables 2-18 (e.g., Table 4, Table 5, or Table 6) and/or the inverse thereof. In certain embodiments the stent comprises a peptide comprising the amino acid sequence of 4F (SEQ ID NO:5) or the inverse thereof. In certain embodiments the active agent is contained within a polymer. In certain embodiments the stent framework comprises one of a metallic base or a polymeric base. In certain embodiments the stent framework base comprises a material selected from the group consisting of stainless steel, nitinol, tantalum, MP35N alloy, platinum, titanium, a suitable biocompatible alloy, a suitable biocompatible polymer, and a combination thereof. The reservoir(s) comprising said stent can, in some embodiments, comprise micropores (e.g. having a diameter of about 20 microns or less). In certain embodiments the micropores have a diameter in the range of about 20 microns to about 50 microns. In various embodiments the micropores have a depth in the range of about 10 to about 50 microns. The micropores, in certain embodiments, extend through the stent framework having an opening on an interior surface of the stent and an opening on an exterior surface of the stent. In various embodiments the stent can further comprise a cap layer disposed on the interior surface of the stent framework, the cap layer covering at least a portion of the through-holes and providing a barrier characteristic to control an elution rate of a drug in the drug polymer from the interior surface of the stent framework. In various embodiments the reservoirs comprise channels along an exterior surface of the stent framework. In various embodiments the polymer comprises a first layer of a first drug polymer having a first pharmaceutical characteristic and the polymer layer comprises a second drug polymer having a second pharmaceutical characteristic. In certain embodiments the stent further comprises a barrier layer positioned between the polymer comprising the active agent. In various embodiments a catheter can be coupled to the stent framework. In certain embodiments the catheter can include a balloon used to expand the stent. In certain embodiments the catheter includes a sheath that retracts to allow expansion of the stent.
• Also provided is a method of manufacturing a drug-polymer stent. The method typically involves providing a stent framework; cutting a plurality of reservoirs in the stent framework; applying a composition comprising one or more peptides comprising the amino acid sequence or the retro amino acid sequence of a peptide listed in any of Tables 2-18 to at least one reservoir; and drying the composition. The method can further involve applying a polymer layer to the dried composition; and drying the polymer layer.
• This invention also provides a method of treating a vascular condition. The method involves positioning a stent as described above, within a vessel of a body; expanding the stent; and eluting at least one active agent (e.g., an active agent from any of Tables 2-18) from at least a surface of the stent.
• In certain embodiments, this invention expressly excludes one or more of the peptides described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,037,323; 4,643,988; 6,933,279; 6,930,085; 6,664,230; 3,767,040; 6,037,323; U.S. Patent Publications 2005/0164950; 2004/0266671; 2004/0254120; 2004/0057871; 2003/0229015; 2003/0191057; 2003/0171277; 2003/0045460; 2003/0040505; PCT Publications WO 2002/15923; WO 1999/16408; WO 1997/36927; and/or in Garber et al. (1992) Arteriosclerosis and Thrombosis, 12: 886-894, which are incorporated herein by reference.
• Also disclosed herein are methods for treating a subject with eye disease, the method comprising administering to the subject in need thereof an effective amount of one or more of the active agents described in Tables 2-18, and/or a small organic molecule as described herein in an amount sufficient to ameliorate one or more symptoms of said condition. The active agent can be a polypeptide comprising the amino acid sequence of 4F (SEQ ID NO:5). Administration can be by a route selected from the group consisting of oral administration, nasal administration, rectal administration, intraperitoneal injection, and intravascular injection, intraocular injection, intravitreal injection, subconjuctival injection, peri-/retrobulbar injection, subcutaneous injection, eye drops, eye gel, eye ointment, spray, emulsion, suspension, transcutaneous administration, and intramuscular injection, via any drug carriers as sponges, contact lenses, polymers, microspheres, implants, pellets, and genetically engineered cells.
• Also disclosed herein are methods for treating a subject with eye disease, the method comprising administering to the subject in need thereof an effective amount of one or more of the active agents described in Tables 2-18, and/or a small organic molecule as described herein in an amount sufficient to ameliorate one or more symptoms of said condition, wherein said active agent is administered in conjunction with an antiangiogenic agent.
• Also disclosed herein are methods of ameliorating a symptom of eye disease, the method comprising administering to the subject to the subject in need thereof an effective amount of one or more of the active agents described in Tables 2-18, and/or a small organic molecule as described herein in an amount sufficient to ameliorate one or more symptoms of said condition. Symptoms of eye disease can include, but are not limited to accumulation of extracellular lipids in Bruch's membranes, accumulation of lipid rich debris, vision loss, formation of choriocapillaris, thickening of the Bruch's membrane, accumulation of neutral lipids in the Bruch's membrane, formation of a diffusion barrier between the retinal pigment epithelium and choriocapillaris, deposition of debris (basal linear deposits and drusen) between the basal membrane of the RPE, and the inner collagenous layer, accumulation of lipofuscin in the RPE cells, RPE atrophy, photoreceptor degeneration, choroidal neovascularization, as well as leakage, bleeding, scarring of the eye
• Also disclosed herein are methods of ameliorating a symptom of eye disease, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a peptide wherein said peptide: ranges in length from about 18 to 37 amino acids and comprises at least 3 alanines (A), 2 aspartates (D), 2 glutamates (E), 4 phenylalanines (F), 4 lysines (K), 1 valine (V), 1 tryptophan (W), 1 tyrosine (Y); wherein said peptide forms a class A amphipathic helix; comprises at least one “D” amino acid residue; and protects a phospholipid against oxidation by an oxidizing agent.
• Also disclosed herein are methods of ameliorating a symptom of eye disease, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a peptide wherein said peptide: ranges in length from about 18 to 37 amino acids and comprises at least 3 alanines (A), 2 aspartates (D), 2 glutamates (E), 4 phenylalanines (F), 4 lysines (K), 1 valine (V), 1 tryptophan (W), 1 tyrosine (Y); wherein said peptide forms a class A amphipathic helix; comprises at least one “D” amino acid residue; and protects a phospholipid against oxidation by an oxidizing agent, wherein said peptide further comprises a protecting group coupled to the amino or carboxyl terminus.
• Also disclosed herein are methods of ameliorating a symptom of eye disease, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a peptide wherein said peptide: ranges in length from about 18 to 37 amino acids and comprises at least 3 alanines (A), 2 aspartates (D), 2 glutamates (E), 4 phenylalanines (F), 4 lysines (K), 1 valine (V), 1 tryptophan (W), 1 tyrosine (Y); wherein said peptide forms a class A amphipathic helix; comprises at least one “D” amino acid residue; and protects a phospholipid against oxidation by an oxidizing agent, wherein said peptide comprises an amino acid sequence selected from the group consisting of D-W-F-K-A-F-Y-D-K-V-A-E-K-F-K-E-A-F (SEQ ID NO: 1191), -D-W-L-K-A-F-Y-D-K-V-A-E-K-L-K-E-A-F-P-D-W-L-K-A-F-Y-D-K-V-A-E-K-L-K-E-A-F (SEQ ID NO: 1192), -D-W-L-K-A-F-Y-D-K-V-A-E-K-L-K-E-F-F-P-D-W-L-K-A-F-Y-D-K-V-A-E-K-L-K-E-F-F (SEQ ID NO: 1193), -D-W-F-K-A-F-Y-D-K-V-A-E-K-L-K-E-A-F-P-D-W-F-K-A-F-Y-D-K-V-A-E-K-L-K-E-A-F (SEQ ID NO: 1194), D-K-L-K-A-F-Y-D-K-V-F-E-W-A-K-E-A-F-P-D-K-L-K-A-F-Y-D-K-V-F-E-W-L-K-E-A-F (SEQ ID NO: 1195), D-K-W-K-A-V-Y-D-K-F-A-E-A-F-K-E-F-L-P-D-K-W-K-A-V-Y-D-K-F-A-E-A-F-K-E-F-L (SEQ ID NO: 1196), D-W-F-K-A-F-Y-D-K-V-A-E-K-F-K-E-A-F-P-D-W-F-K-A-F-Y-D-K-V-A-E-K-F-K-E-A-F-(SEQ ID NO: 1197), or the reverse of any of these sequences.
• Also discloses is the use of an active agent described in Tables 2-18, and/or a small organic molecule as described herein in a treatment of macular degeneration.
• Also disclose are methods of treating a subject with eye disease, the method comprising administering to the subject in need thereof an effective amount of one or more of the active agents described in Tables 2-18, and/or a small organic molecule as described herein in an amount sufficient to ameliorate one or more symptoms of said condition in combination with an anti-angiogenic therapy.
• Also disclosed are methods of ameliorating a symptom of eye disease, the method comprising administering to the subject to the subject in need thereof an effective amount of one or more of the active agents described in Tables 2-18, and/or a small organic molecule as described herein in an amount sufficient to ameliorate one or more symptoms of said condition in combination with an anti-angiogenic therapy.
DEFINITIONS
• The term “treat” when used with reference to treating, e.g. a pathology or disease refers to the mitigation and/or elimination of one or more symptoms of that pathology or disease, and/or a reduction in the rate of onset or severity of one or more symptoms of that pathology or disease, and/or the prevention of that pathology or disease.
• The terms “isolated”, “purified”, or “biologically pure” when referring to an isolated polypeptide refer to material that is substantially or essentially free from components that normally accompany it as found in its native state. With respect to nucleic acids and/or polypeptides the term can refer to nucleic acids or polypeptides that are no longer flanked by the sequences typically flanking them in nature. Chemically synthesized polypeptides are “isolated” because they are not found in a native state (e.g. in blood, serum, etc.). In certain embodiments, the term “isolated” indicates that the polypeptide is not found in nature.
• The terms “polypeptide”, “peptide” and “protein” are used interchangeably herein to refer to a polymer of amino acid residues. The terms apply to amino acid polymers in which one or more amino acid residues is an artificial chemical analogue of a corresponding naturally occurring amino acid, as well as to naturally occurring amino acid polymers.
• The term “an amphipathic helical peptide” refers to a peptide comprising at least one amphipathic helix (amphipathic helical domain). Certain amphipathic helical peptides of this invention can comprise two or more (e.g., 3, 4, 5, etc.) amphipathic helices.
• The term “class A amphipathic helix” refers to a protein structure that forms an α-helix producing a segregation of a polar and nonpolar faces with the positively charged residues residing at the polar-nonpolar interface and the negatively charged residues residing at the center of the polar face (see, e.g., Segrest et al. (1990) Proteins: Structure, Function, and Genetics 8: 103-117).
• “Apolipoprotein J” (apo J) is known by a variety of names including clusterin, TRPM2, GP80, and SP 40 (see, e.g., Fritz (1995) Pp 112 In: Clusterin: Role in Vertebrate Development, Function, and Adaptation (Harmony JAK Ed.), R. G. Landes, Georgetown, Tex.,). It was first described as a heterodimeric glycoprotein and a component of the secreted proteins of cultured rat Sertoli cells (see, e.g., Kissinger et al. (1982) Biol. Reprod.; 27: 233240). The translated product is a single-chain precursor protein that undergoes intracellular cleavage into a disulfide-linked 34 kDa α-subunit and a 47 kDa β-subunit (see, e.g., Collard and Griswold (1987) Biochem., 26: 3297-3303). It has been associated with cellular injury, lipid transport, apoptosis and it may be involved in clearance of cellular debris caused by cell injury or death. Clusterin has been shown to bind to a variety of molecules with high affinity including lipids, peptides, and proteins and the hydrophobic probe 1-anilino-8-naphthalenesulfonate (Bailey et al. (2001) Biochem., 40: 11828-11840).
• The class G amphipathic helix is found in globular proteins, and thus, the name class G. The feature of this class of amphipathic helix is that it possesses a random distribution of positively charged and negatively charged residues on the polar face with a narrow nonpolar face. Because of the narrow nonpolar face this class does not readily associate with phospholipid (see, e.g., Segrest et al. (1990) Proteins: Structure, Function, and Genetics. 8: 103-117; Erratum (1991) Proteins: Structure, Function and Genetics, 9: 79). Several exchangeable apolipoproteins possess similar but not identical characteristics to the G amphipathic helix. Similar to the class G amphipathic helix, this other class possesses a random distribution of positively and negatively charged residues on the polar face. However, in contrast to the class G amphipathic helix which has a narrow nonpolar face, this class has a wide nonpolar face that allows this class to readily bind phospholipid and the class is termed G* to differentiate it from the G class of amphipathic helix (see, e.g., Segrest et al. (1992) J. Lipid Res., 33: 141-166; Anantharamaiah et al. (1993) Pp. 109-142 In: The Amphipathic Helix, Epand, R. M. Ed CRC Press, Boca Raton, Fla.). Computer programs to identify and classify amphipathic helical domains have been described by Jones et al. (1992) J. Lipid Res. 33: 287-296) and include, but are not limited to the helical wheel program (WHEEL or WHEEL/SNORKEL), helical net program (HELNET, HELNET/SNORKEL, HELNET/Angle), program for addition of helical wheels (COMBO or COMBO/SNORKEL), program for addition of helical nets (COMNET, COMNET/SNORKEL, COMBO/SELECT, COMBO/NET), consensus wheel program (CONSENSUS, CONSENSUS/SNORKEL), and the like.
• The term “ameliorating” when used with respect to “ameliorating one or more symptoms of atherosclerosis” refers to a reduction, prevention, or elimination of one or more symptoms characteristic of atherosclerosis and/or associated pathologies. Such a reduction includes, but is not limited to a reduction or elimination of oxidized phospholipids, a reduction in atherosclerotic plaque formation and rupture, a reduction in clinical events such as heart attack, angina, or stroke, a decrease in hypertension, a decrease in inflammatory protein biosynthesis, reduction in plasma cholesterol, and the like.
• The term “eye disease” as used herein includes diseases associated or compromised with/by a reduced hydraulic conductivity and metabolic exchange via Bruch's membrane, diseases characterized by an accumulation of extra-/intracellular lipids in the eye, diseases that use lipid-derived mediators of inflammation or benefit from oxidized lipid removal as well as diseases that benefit from Bruch's membrane remodeling. “eye disease” as used herein includes, but is not limited to, macular degeneration, age related maculopathy (ARM), age related macular degeneration (AMD) including both the dry and wet forms of age related macular degeneration, glaucoma, ocular hypertension, macular edema, retinal pigment epithelium detachments, coats disease, uveitis, sicca syndrome, hereditary diseases associated with increased extra-/intracellular lipid storage/accumulation, and juvenile macular degeneration as well as all risk factors for each mentioned disease
• The term “ameliorating” when used with respect to “ameliorating one or more symptoms of eye disease” refers to a reduction, prevention, or elimination of one or more symptoms characteristic of eye disease and/or associated pathologies. Such a reduction includes, but is not limited to a reduction or elimination of oxidized phospholipids, accumulation of extracellular lipids in Bruch's membranes, accumulation of lipid rich debris in Bruch's membranes, vision loss, formation of choriocapillaris, thickening of the Bruch's membrane, accumulation of neutral lipids in the Bruch's membrane, formation of a diffusion barrier between the retinal pigment epithelium, deposition of debris (basal linear deposits and drusen) between the basal membrane of the RPE and the inner collagenous layer, accumulation of lipofuscin in the RPE cells, RPE atrophy, photoreceptor degeneration, choroidal neovascularization, trapped fluid accumulation in the retina and retinal pigment epithelial cells, elevated intraocular pressure, as well as leakage, bleeding, scarring of the eye, and the like.
• The term “enantiomeric amino acids” refers to amino acids that can exist in at least two forms that are nonsuperimposable mirror images of each other. Most amino acids (except glycine) are enantiomeric and exist in a so-called L-form (L amino acid) or D-form (D amino acid). Most naturally occurring amino acids are “L” amino acids. The terms “D amino acid” and “L amino acid” are used to refer to absolute configuration of the amino acid, rather than a particular direction of rotation of plane-polarized light. The usage herein is consistent with standard usage by those of skill in the art. Amino acids are designated herein using standard 1-letter or three-letter codes, e.g. as designated in Standard ST.25 in the Handbook On Industrial Property Information and Documentation.
• The term “protecting group” refers to a chemical group that, when attached to a functional group in an amino acid (e.g. a side chain, an alpha amino group, an alpha carboxyl group, etc.) blocks or masks the properties of that functional group. Preferred amino-terminal protecting groups include, but are not limited to acetyl, or amino groups. Other amino-terminal protecting groups include, but are not limited to alkyl chains as in fatty acids, propeonyl, formyl and others. Preferred carboxyl terminal protecting groups include, but are not limited to groups that form amides or esters.
• The phrase “protect a phospholipid from oxidation by an oxidizing agent” refers to the ability of a compound to reduce the rate of oxidation of a phospholipid (or the amount of oxidized phospholipid produced) when that phospholipid is contacted with an oxidizing agent (e.g. hydrogen peroxide, 13-(S)-HPODE, 15-(S)-HPETE, HPODE, HPETE, HODE, HETE, etc.).
• The terms “low density lipoprotein” or “LDL” is defined in accordance with common usage of those of skill in the art. Generally, LDL refers to the lipid-protein complex which when isolated by ultracentrifugation is found in the density range d=1.019 to d=1.063.
• The terms “high density lipoprotein” or “HDL” is defined in accordance with common usage of those of skill in the art. Generally “HDL” refers to a lipid-protein complex which when isolated by ultracentrifugation is found in the density range of d=1.063 to d=1.21.
• The term “Group I HDL” refers to a high density lipoprotein or components thereof (e.g. apo A-I, paraoxonase, platelet activating factor acetylhydrolase, etc.) that reduce oxidized lipids (e.g. in low density lipoproteins) or that protect oxidized lipids from oxidation by oxidizing agents.
• The term “Group II HDL” refers to an HDL that offers reduced activity or no activity in protecting lipids from oxidation or in repairing (e.g. reducing) oxidized lipids.
• The term “HDL component” refers to a component (e.g. molecules) that comprises a high density lipoprotein (HDL). Assays for HDL that protect lipids from oxidation or that repair (e.g. reduce oxidized lipids) also include assays for components of HDL (e.g. apo A-I, paraoxonase, platelet activating factor acetylhydrolase, etc.) that display such activity.
• The term “human apo A-I peptide” refers to a full-length human apo A-I peptide or to a fragment or domain thereof comprising a class A amphipathic helix.
• A “monocytic reaction” as used herein refers to monocyte activity characteristic of the “inflammatory response” associated with atherosclerotic plaque formation. The monocytic reaction is characterized by monocyte adhesion to cells of the vascular wall (e.g. cells of the vascular endothelium), and/or chemotaxis into the subendothelial space, and/or differentiation of monocytes into macrophages.
• The term “absence of change” when referring to the amount of oxidized phospholipid refers to the lack of a detectable change, more preferably the lack of a statistically significant change (e.g. at least at the 85%, preferably at least at the 90%, more preferably at least at the 95%, and most preferably at least at the 98% or 99% confidence level). The absence of a detectable change can also refer to assays in which oxidized phospholipid level changes, but not as much as in the absence of the protein(s) described herein or with reference to other positive or negative controls.
• The following abbreviations may be used herein: PAPC: L-α-1-palmitoyl-2-arachidonoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine; POVPC: 1-palmitoyl-2-(5-oxovaleryl)-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine; PGPC: 1-palmitoyl-2-glutaryl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine; PEIPC: 1-palmitoyl-2-(5,6-epoxyisoprostane E₂)-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine; ChC18:2: cholesteryl linoleate; ChC18:2-OOH: cholesteryl linoleate hydroperoxide; DMPC: 1,2-ditetradecanoyl-rac-glycerol-3-phosphocholine; PON: paraoxonase; HPF: Standardized high power field; PAPC: L-α-1-palmitoyl-2-arachidonoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine; BL/6:C57BL/6J; C3H:C3H/HeJ.
• The term “conservative substitution” is used in reference to proteins or peptides to reflect amino acid substitutions that do not substantially alter the activity (specificity (e.g. for lipoproteins)) or binding affinity (e.g. for lipids or lipoproteins)) of the molecule. Typically conservative amino acid substitutions involve substitution one amino acid for another amino acid with similar chemical properties (e.g. charge or hydrophobicity). The following six groups each contain amino acids that are typical conservative substitutions for one another: 1) Alanine (A), Serine (S), Threonine (T); 2) Aspartic acid (D), Glutamic acid (E); 3) Asparagine (N), Glutamine (Q); 4) Arginine (R), Lysine (K); 5) Isoleucine (I), Leucine (L), Methionine (M), Valine (V); and 6) Phenylalanine (F), Tyrosine (Y), Tryptophan (W).
• The terms “identical” or percent “identity,” in the context of two or more nucleic acids or polypeptide sequences, refer to two or more sequences or subsequences that are the same or have a specified percentage of amino acid residues or nucleotides that are the same, when compared and aligned for maximum correspondence, as measured using one of the following sequence comparison algorithms or by visual inspection. With respect to the peptides of this invention sequence identity is determined over the full length of the peptide.
• For sequence comparison, typically one sequence acts as a reference sequence, to which test sequences are compared. When using a sequence comparison algorithm, test and reference sequences are input into a computer, subsequence coordinates are designated, if necessary, and sequence algorithm program parameters are designated. The sequence comparison algorithm then calculates the percent sequence identity for the test sequence(s) relative to the reference sequence, based on the designated program parameters.
• Optimal alignment of sequences for comparison can be conducted, e.g., by the local homology algorithm of Smith & Waterman, Adv. Appl. Math. 2:482 (1981), by the homology alignment algorithm of Needleman & Wunsch, J. Mol. Biol. 48:443 (1970), by the search for similarity method of Pearson & Lipman (1988) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 85:2444, by computerized implementations of these algorithms (GAP, BESTFIT, FASTA, and TFASTA in the Wisconsin Genetics Software Package, Genetics Computer Group, 575 Science Dr., Madison, Wis.), or by visual inspection (see generally Ausubel et al., supra).
• One example of a useful algorithm is PILEUP. PILEUP creates a multiple sequence alignment from a group of related sequences using progressive, pairwise alignments to show relationship and percent sequence identity. It also plots a tree or dendogram showing the clustering relationships used to create the alignment. PILEUP uses a simplification of the progressive alignment method of Feng & Doolittle (1987) J. Mol. Evol. 35:351-360. The method used is similar to the method described by Higgins & Sharp (1989) CABIOS 5: 151-153. The program can align up to 300 sequences, each of a maximum length of 5,000 nucleotides or amino acids. The multiple alignment procedure begins with the pairwise alignment of the two most similar sequences, producing a cluster of two aligned sequences. This cluster is then aligned to the next most related sequence or cluster of aligned sequences. Two clusters of sequences are aligned by a simple extension of the pairwise alignment of two individual sequences. The final alignment is achieved by a series of progressive, pairwise alignments. The program is run by designating specific sequences and their amino acid or nucleotide coordinates for regions of sequence comparison and by designating the program parameters. For example, a reference sequence can be compared to other test sequences to determine the percent sequence identity relationship using the following parameters: default gap weight (3.00), default gap length weight (0.10), and weighted end gaps.
• Another example of algorithm that is suitable for determining percent sequence identity and sequence similarity is the BLAST algorithm, which is described in Altschul et al. (1990) J. Mol. Biol. 215: 403-410. Software for performing BLAST analyses is publicly available through the National Center for Biotechnology Information (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/). This algorithm involves first identifying high scoring sequence pairs (HSPs) by identifying short words of length W in the query sequence, which either match or satisfy some positive-valued threshold score T when aligned with a word of the same length in a database sequence. T is referred to as the neighborhood word score threshold (Altschul et al, supra). These initial neighborhood word hits act as seeds for initiating searches to find longer HSPs containing them. The word hits are then extended in both directions along each sequence for as far as the cumulative alignment score can be increased. Cumulative scores are calculated using, for nucleotide sequences, the parameters M (reward score for a pair of matching residues; always >0) and N (penalty score for mismatching residues; always <0). For amino acid sequences, a scoring matrix is used to calculate the cumulative score. Extension of the word hits in each direction are halted when: the cumulative alignment score falls off by the quantity X from its maximum achieved value; the cumulative score goes to zero or below, due to the accumulation of one or more negative-scoring residue alignments; or the end of either sequence is reached. The BLAST algorithm parameters W, T, and X determine the sensitivity and speed of the alignment. The BLASTN program (for nucleotide sequences) uses as defaults a wordlength (W) of 11, an expectation (E) of 10, M=5, N=−4, and a comparison of both strands. For amino acid sequences, the BLASTP program uses as defaults a wordlength (W) of 3, an expectation (E) of 10, and the BLOSUM62 scoring matrix (see Henikoff & Henikoff (1989) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 89:10915).
• In addition to calculating percent sequence identity, the BLAST algorithm also performs a statistical analysis of the similarity between two sequences (see, e.g., Karlin & Altschul (1993) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 90: 5873-5787). One measure of similarity provided by the BLAST algorithm is the smallest sum probability (P(N)), which provides an indication of the probability by which a match between two nucleotide or amino acid sequences would occur by chance. For example, a nucleic acid is considered similar to a reference sequence if the smallest sum probability in a comparison of the test nucleic acid to the reference nucleic acid is less than about 0.1, more preferably less than about 0.01, and most preferably less than about 0.001.
• The phrase “in conjunction with” when used in reference to the use of one or more drugs in conjunction with one or more active agents described herein indicates that the drug(s) and the active agent(s) are administered so that there is at least some chronological overlap in their physiological activity on the organism. Thus the drug(s) and active agent(s) can be administered simultaneously and/or sequentially. In sequential administration there may even be some substantial delay (e.g., minutes or even hours or days) before administration of the second moiety as long as the first administered drug/agent has exerted some physiological alteration on the organism when the second administered agent is administered or becomes active in the organism.
• The phrases “adjacent to each other in a helical wheel diagram of a peptide” or “contiguous in a helical wheel diagram of a peptide” when referring to residues in a helical peptide indicates that in the helical wheel representation the residues appear adjacent or contiguous even though they may not be adjacent or contiguous in the linear peptide. Thus, for example, the residues “A, E, K, W, K, and F” are contiguous in the helical wheel diagrams shown inFIG. 15 even though these residues are not contiguous in the linear peptide.
BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS
• FIG. 1 shows a comparison of the effect of D4F (Navab, et al. (2002) Circulation, 105: 290-292) and apo-J peptide 336 made from D amino acids (D-J336*) on the prevention of LDL-induced monocyte chemotactic activity in vitro in a co-incubation experiment. The data are mean±SD of the number of migrated monocytes in nine high power fields in quadruple cultures. (D-J336=Ac-LLEQLNEQFNWVSRLANLTQGE-NH₂, SEQ ID NO:1011).
• FIG. 2 illustrates the prevention of LDL-induced monocyte chemotactic activity by pre-treatment of artery wall cells with D-J336 as compared to D-4F. The data are mean±SD of the number of migrated monocytes in nine high power fields in quadruple cultures.
• FIG. 3 illustrates the effect of apo J peptide mimetics on HDL protective capacity in LDL receptor null mice. The values are the mean±SD of the number of migrated monocytes in 9 high power fields from each of quadruple assay wells.
• FIG. 4 illustrates protection against LDL-induced monocyte chemotactic activity by HDL from apo E null mice given oral peptides. The values are the mean±SD of the number of migrated monocytes in 9 high power fields from each of quadruple assay wells. Asterisks indicate significant difference (p<0.05) as compared to No Peptide mHDL.
• FIG. 5 illustrates the effect of oral apo A-1 peptide mimetic and apoJ peptide on LDL susceptibility to oxidation. The values are the mean±SD of the number of migrated monocytes in 9 high power fields from each of quadruple assay wells. Asterisks indicate significant difference (p<0.05) as compared to No Peptide LDL.
• FIG. 6 illustrates the effect of oral apoA-1 peptide mimetic and apoJ peptide on HDL protective capacity. The values are the mean±SD of the number of migrated monocytes in 9 high power fields from each of quadruple assay wells. Asterisks indicate significant difference (p<0.05) as compared to No Peptide mHDL.
• FIG. 7 illustrates the effect of oral apoA-1 peptide mimetic and apoJ peptide on plasma paraoxonase activity. The values are the mean±SD of readings from quadruple plasma aliquots. Asterisks indicate significant differences (p<0.05) as compared to No Peptide control plasma.
• FIG. 8 shows the effect of oral G* peptides on HDL protective capacity in apoE−/− mice. The values are the mean±SD of readings from quadruple plasma aliquots. Asterisks indicate significant differences (p<0.05) as compared to no peptide control plasma.
• FIG. 9 shows the effect of Oral G* peptide, 146-156, on HDL protective capacity in ApoE−/− mice.
• FIGS. 10A through 10C illustrate helical wheel diagrams of certain peptides of this invention.FIG. 10A: V²W³A⁵F^10,17-D-4F (SEQ ID NO. 1168);FIG. 10B: W³-D-4F (SEQ ID NO. 1132);FIG. 10C: V²W³F¹⁰-D-4F (SEQ ID NO. 1169).
• FIG. 11A standard human LDL (LDL) was added to human artery wall cocultures without (No Addition) or with human HDL (+Control HDL) or with mouse HDL from apoE null mice given Chow overnight (+Chow HDL), or given D-4F in the chow overnight (+D4F HDL) or given G5-D-4F in the chow overnight (+G5 HDL), or given G5,10-D-4F in the chow overnight (+5-10 HDL), or given G5,11-D-4F in the chow overnight (+5-11 HDL) and the resulting monocyte chemotactic activity determined as previously described (Navab et al. (2002) Circulation, 105: 290-292).
• FIG. 12 shows that peptides of this invention are effective in mitigating symptoms of diabetes (e.g., blood glucose). Obese Zucker rats 26 weeks of age were bled and then treated with daily intraperitoneal injections of D-4F (5.0 mg/kg/day). After 10 days the rats were bled again plasma glucose and lipid hydroperoxides (LOOH) were determined. *p=0.027; **p=0.0017.
• FIG. 13. Sixteen week old Obese Zucker Rats were injected with D-4F (5 mg/kg/daily) for 1 week at which time they underwent balloon injury of the common carotid artery. Two weeks later the rats were sacrificed and the intimal media ratio determined.
• FIG. 14 demonstrates that the product of the solution phase synthesis scheme is very biologically active in producing HDL and pre-beta HDL that inhibit LDL-induced monocyte chemotaxis in apo E null mice. ApoE null mice were fed 5 micrograms of the D-4F synthesized as described above (Frgmnt) or the mice were given the same amount of mouse chow without D-4F (Chow). Twelve hours after the feeding was started, the mice were bled and their plasma was fractionated on FPLC. LDL (100 micrograms LDL-cholesterol) was added to cocultures of human artery wall cells alone (LDL) or with a control human HDL (Control HDL) or with HDL (50 micrograms HDL-cholesterol) or post-HDL (pHDL; prebeta HDL) from mice that did (Frgmnt) or did not (Chow) receive the D-4F and the monocyte chemotactic activity produced was determined
• FIG. 15 illustrates a helical wheel representation of 4F and reverse (retro) 4F. Reverse-4F is a mirror image of 4F with the relative positions of the amino acids to each other and to the hydrophilic and hydrophobic faces being identical.
• FIG. 16 shows a comparison of the HDL inflammatory index of D-4F versus reverse D-4F.
• FIG. 17A (1A from Rudolf Summary) shows electron microscopy of untreated eyes (controls) at a magnification of 5,000×; Bruch's membrane (BrM, arrow heads) structure loosen up with many translucent lipid vacuoles, these degenerative changes can be observed in both control eyes in at least ¾ of the entire Bruch's membrane. In every other RPE cell big lipid vacuoles (asterisks) are found, a sign of stress and beginning degeneration. PR: photo receptors; CC: choriocapillaris: EC: vascular endothelial cell of the choriocapillaris.
• FIG. 17B (1B from Rudolf Summary) shows electron microscopy of untreated eyes (controls) at a magnification of 20,000×; Bruch's membrane (BrM, arrow heads) shows a significant compromised morphology without the regular and uniform five layer arrangement. The membrane is slightly thickened with multiple translucent lipid vacuoles. A few are marked with asterisks. EC: vascular endothelial cell of choriocapillaris.
• FIG. 18A (2A from Rudolf Summary) shows electron microscopy of treated eyes (Apolipoprotein mimetic peptide L-4F) at a magnification of 5,000×; regular and uniform Bruch's membrane structure (BrM, black arrow heads) which resembles Bruch's membrane in healthy wild type mice (Dithmar et al. (2000) Invest Opthalmol Vis Sci 41:2035-42); only occasionally a lipid vacuole left (white arrow head); this effect was found in the entire Bruch's membrane; none of the RPE cells showed lipid droplets.
• FIG. 18B (2B from Rudolf Summary) shows electron microscopy of a treated eye (Apolipoprotein mimetic peptide L-4F) at a magnification of 20,000×; regular and uniform Bruch's membrane (BrM, black arrow heads) no translucent lipid vacuoles shown.
DETAILED DESCRIPTIONI. Methods of Treatment
• The active agents (e.g. peptides, small organic molecules, amino acid pairs, etc.) described herein are effective for mitigating one or more symptoms and/or reducing the rate of onset and/or severity of one or more indications described herein. In particular, the active agents (e.g. peptides, small organic molecules, amino acid pairs, etc.) described herein are effective for mitigating one or more symptoms of atherosclerosis and/or eye disease. Without being bound to a particular theory, it is believed that the peptides bind the “seeding molecules” required for the formation of pro-inflammatory oxidized phospholipids such as Ox-PAPC, POVPC, PGPC, and PEIPC.
• In addition, since many inflammatory conditions and/or other pathologies are mediated at least in part by oxidized lipids, we believe that the peptides of this invention are effective in ameliorating conditions that are characterized by the formation of biologically active oxidized lipids. In addition, there are a number of other conditions for which the active agents described herein appear to be efficacious.
• A number of pathologies for which the active agents described herein appear to be a palliative and/or a preventative are described below.
A) Atherosclerosis and Associated Pathologies.
• We discovered that normal HDL inhibits three steps in the formation of mildly oxidized LDL. In particular, we demonstrated that treating human LDL in vitro with apo A-I or an apo A-I mimetic peptide (37 pA) removed seeding molecules from the LDL that included HPODE and HPETE. These seeding molecules were required for cocultures of human artery wall cells to be able to oxidize LDL and for the LDL to induce the artery wall cells to produce monocyte chemotactic activity. We also demonstrated that after injection of apo A-I into mice or infusion into humans, the LDL isolated from the mice or human volunteers after injection/infusion of apo A-I was resistant to oxidation by human artery wall cells and did not induce monocyte chemotactic activity in the artery wall cell cocultures.
• The protective function of various active agents of this invention is illustrated in the parent applications (Ser. No. 09/645,454, filed Aug. 24, 2000, Ser. No. 09/896,841, filed Jun. 29, 2001, and WO 02/15923 (PCT/US01/26497), filed Jun. 29, 2001, see, e.g., FIGS. 1-5 in WO 02/15923. FIG. 1, panels A, B, C, and D in WO 02/15923 show the association of 14C-D-5F with blood components in an ApoE null mouse). It is also demonstrated that HDL from mice that were fed an atherogenic diet and injected with PBS failed to inhibit the oxidation of human LDL and failed to inhibit LDL-induced monocyte chemotactic activity in human artery wall cocultures. In contrast, HDL from mice fed an atherogenic diet and injected daily with peptides described herein was as effective in inhibiting human LDL oxidation and preventing LDL-induced monocyte chemotactic activity in the cocultures as was normal human HDL (FIGS. 2A and 2B in WO 02/15923). In addition, LDL taken from mice fed the atherogenic diet and injected daily with PBS was more readily oxidized and more readily induced monocyte chemotactic activity than LDL taken from mice fed the same diet but injected with 20.mu.g daily of peptide 5F. The D peptide did not appear to be immunogenic (FIG. 4 in WO 02/15923).
• The in vitro responses of human artery wall cells to HDL and LDL from mice fed the atherogenic diet and injected with a peptide according to this invention are consistent with the protective action shown by such peptides in vivo. Despite, similar levels of total cholesterol, LDL-cholesterol, IDL+VLDL-cholesterol, and lower HDL-cholesterol as a percent of total cholesterol, the animals fed the atherogenic diet and injected with the peptide had significantly lower lesion scores (FIG. 5 in WO 02/15923). The peptides of this invention thus prevented progression of atherosclerotic lesions in mice fed an atherogenic diet.
• Thus, in one embodiment, this invention provides methods for ameliorating and/or preventing one or more symptoms of atherosclerosis by administering one or more of the active agents described herein.
• It is also noted that c-reactive protein, a marker for inflammation, is elevated in congestive heart failure. Also, in congestive heart failure there is an accumulation of reactive oxygen species and vasomotion abnormalities. Because of their effects in preventing/reducing the formation of various oxidized species and/or because of their effect in improving vasoreactivity and/or arteriole function (see below) the active agents described herein will be effective in treating congestive heart failure.
B) Arteriole/Vascular Indications.
• Vessels smaller than even the smallest arteries (i.e., arterioles) thicken, become dysfunctional and cause end organ damage to tissues as diverse as the brain and the kidney. It is believed the active agents described herein can function to improve areteriole structure and function and/or to slow the rate and/or severity of arteriole dysfunction. Without being bound to a particular theory, it is believed that arteriole dysfunction is a causal factor in various brain and kidney disorders. Use of the agents described herein thus provides a method to improve the structure and function of arterioles and preserve the function of end organs such as the brain and kidney.
• Thus, for example, administration of one or more of the active agents described herein is expected to reduce one or more symptoms or to slow the onset or severity of arteriolar disease associated with aging, and/or Alzheimer's disease, and/or Parkinson's disease, and/or with multi-infarct dementia, and/or subarachnoid hemorrhage, and the like. Similarly, administration of one or more agents described herein is expected to mitigate one or more symptoms and/or to slow the onset and/or severity of chronic kidney disease, and/or hypertension.
• Similarly, the agents described herein appear to improve vasoreactivity. Because of the improvement of vasoreactivity and/or arteriole function, the agents described herein are suitable for the treatment of peripheral vascular disease, erectile dysfunction, and the like.
C) Pulmonary Indications.
• The agents described herein are also suitable for treatment of a variety of pulmonary indications. These include, but are not limited to chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), emphysema, pulmonary disease, asthma, idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, and the like.
• D) Mitigation of a Symptom or Condition Associated with Coronary Calcification and Osteoporosis.
• Vascular calcification and osteoporosis often co-exist in the same subjects (Ouchi et al. (1993) Ann NY Acad. Sci., 676: 297-307; Boukhris and Becker (1972) JAMA, 219: 1307-1131; Banks et al. (1994) Eur J Clin Invest., 24: 813-817; Laroche et al. (1994) Clin Rheumatol., 13: 611-614; Broulik and Kapitola (1993) Endocr Regul., 27: 57-60; Frye et al. (1992) Bone Mine., 19: 185-194; Barengolts et al. (1998) Calcif Tissue Int., 62: 209-213; Burnett and Vasikaran (2002) Ann Clin Biochem., 39: 203-210. Parhami et al. (1997) Arterioscl Thromb Vasc Biol., 17: 680-687, demonstrated that mildly oxidized LDL (MM-LDL) and the biologically active lipids in MM-LDL [i.e. oxidized 1-palmitoyl-2-arachidonoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphorylcholine) (Ox-PAPC)], as well as the isoprostane, 8-iso prostaglandin F₂, but not the unoxidized phospholipid (PAPC) or isoprostane 8-iso progstaglandin F₂α induced alkaline phosphatase activity and osteoblastic differentiation of calcifying vascular cells (CVCs) in vitro, but inhibited the differentiation of MC3T3-E1 bone cells.
• The osteon resembles the artery wall in that the osteon is centered on an endothelial cell-lined lumen surrounded by a subendothelial space containing matrix and fibroblast-like cells, which is in turn surrounded by preosteoblasts and osteoblasts occupying a position analogous to smooth muscle cells in the artery wall (Id.). Trabecular bone osteoblasts also interface with bone marrow subendothelial spaces (Id.). Parhami et al. postulated that lipoproteins could cross the endothelium of bone arteries and be deposited in the subendothelial space where they could undergo oxidation as in coronary arteries (Id.). Based on their in vitro data they predicted that LDL oxidation in the subendothelial space of bone arteries and in bone marrow would lead to reduced osteoblastic differentiation and mineralization which would contribute to osteoporosis (Id.). Their hypothesis further predicted that LDL levels would be positively correlated with osteoporosis as they are with coronary calcification (Pohle et al. (2001) Circulation, 104: 1927-1932), but HDL levels would be negatively correlated with osteoporosis (Parhami et al. (1997) Arterioscl Thromb Vase Biol., 17: 680-687).
• In vitro, the osteoblastic differentiation of the marrow stromal cell line M2-10B4 was inhibited by MM-LDL but not native LDL (Parhami et al. (1999) J Bone Miner Res., 14: 2067-2078). When marrow stromal cells from atherosclerosis susceptible C57BU6 (BL6) mice fed a low fat chow diet were cultured there was robust osteogenic differentiation (Id.). In contrast, when the marrow stromal cells taken from the mice after a high fat, atherogenic diet were cultured they did not undergo osteogenic differentiation (Id.). This observation is particularly important since it provides a possible explanation for the decreased osteogenic potential of marrow stromal cells in the development of osteoporosis (Nuttall and Gimble (2000) Bone, 27: 177-184). In vivo the decrease in osteogenic potential is accompanied by an increase in adipogenesis in osteoporotic bone (Id.).
• It was found that adding D-4F to the drinking water of apoE null mice for 6 weeks dramatically increased trabecular bone mineral density and it is believed that the other active agents of this invention will act similarly.
• Our data indicate that osteoporosis can be regarded as an “atherosclerosis of bone”. It appears to be a result of the action of oxidized lipids. HDL destroys these oxidized lipids and promotes osteoblastic differentiation. Our data indicate that administering active agent (s) of this invention to a mammal (e.g., in the drinking water of apoE null mice) dramatically increases trabecular bone in just a matter of weeks.
• This indicates that the active agents, described herein are useful for mitigation one or more symptoms of osteoporosis (e.g., for inhibiting decalcification) or for inducing recalcification of osteoporotic bone. The active agents are also useful as prophylactics to prevent the onset of symptom(s) of osteoporosis in a mammal (e.g., a patient at risk for osteoporosis).
• We believe similar mechanisms are a cause of coronary calcification, e.g., calcific aortic stenosis. Thus, in certain embodiments, this invention contemplates the use of the active agents described herein to inhibit or prevent a symptom of a disease such as coronary calcification, calcific aortic stenosis, osteoporosis, and the like.
E) Inflammatory and Autoimmune Indications.
• Chronic inflammatory and/or autoimmune conditions are also characterized by the formation of a number of reactive oxygen species and are amenable to treatment using one or more of the active agents described herein. Thus, without being bound to a particular theory, we also believe the active agents described herein are useful, prophylactically or therapeutically, to mitigate the onset and/or more or more symptoms of a variety of other conditions including, but not limited to rheumatoid arthritis, lupus erythematous, polyarteritis nodosa, polymyalgia rheumatica, scleroderma, multiple sclerosis, and the like.
• In certain embodiments, the active agents are useful in mitigating one or more symptoms caused by, or associated with, an inflammatory response in these conditions.
• Also, in certain embodiments, the active agents are useful in mitigating one or more symptoms caused by or associated with an inflammatory response associated with AIDS.
F) Infections/Trauma/Transplants.
• We have observed that a consequence of influenza infection and other infections is the diminution in paraoxonase and platelet activating acetylhydrolase activity in the HDL. Without being bound by a particular theory, we believe that, as a result of the loss of these HDL enzymatic activities and also as a result of the association of pro-oxidant proteins with HDL during the acute phase response, HDL is no longer able to prevent LDL oxidation and is no longer able to prevent the LDL-induced production of monocyte chemotactic activity by endothelial cells.
• We observed that in a subject injected with very low dosages of certain agents of this invention (e.g., 20 micrograms for mice) daily after infection with the influenza A virus paraoxonase levels did not fall and the biologically active oxidized phospholipids were not generated beyond background. This indicates that 4F, D4F (and/or other agents of this invention) can be administered (e.g. orally or by injection) to patients (including, for example with known coronary artery disease during influenza infection or other events that can generate an acute phase inflammatory response, e.g. due to viral infection, bacterial infection, trauma, transplant, various autoimmune conditions, etc.) and thus we can prevent by this short term treatment the increased incidence of heart attack and stroke associated with pathologies that generate such inflammatory states.
• In addition, by restoring and/or maintaining paroxonase levels and/or monocyte activity, the agent(s) of this invention are useful in the treatment of infection (e.g., viral infection, bacterial infection, fungal infection) and/or the inflammatory pathologies associated with infection (e.g. meningitis) and/or trauma.
• In certain embodiments, because of the combined anti-inflammatory activity and anti-infective activity, the agents described herein are also useful in the treatment of a wound or other trauma, mitigating adverse effects associated with organ or tissue transplant, and/or organ or tissue transplant rejection, and/or implanted prostheses, and/or transplant atherosclerosis, and/or biofilm formation. In addition, we believe that L-4F, D-4F, and/or other agents described herein are also useful in mitigating the effects of spinal cord injuries.
• G) Diabetes and Associated Conditions.
• Various active agents described herein have also been observed to show efficacy in reducing and/or preventing one or more symptoms associated with diabetes. Thus, in various embodiments, this invention provides methods of treating (therapeutically and/or prophylactically) diabetes and/or associated pathologies (e.g., Type I diabetes, Type II diabetes, juvenile onset diabetes, diabetic nephropathy, nephropathy, diabetic neuropathy, diabetic retinopathy, and the like.
H) Cancer.
• NFκB is a transcription factor that is normally activated in response to proinflammatory cytokines and that regulates the expression of more than 200 genes. Many tumor cell lines show constitutive activation of NFκB signaling. Various studies of mouse models of intestinal, and mammary tumors conclude that activation of the NFκB pathway enhances tumor development and may act primarily in the late stages of tumorigenesis (see, e.g., (2004) Cell 118: 285; (2004) J. Clin. Invest., 114: 569). Inhibition of NFκB signaling suppressed tumor development. Without being bound to a particular theory, mechanisms for this suppression are believed to include an increase in tumor cell apoptosis, reduced expression of tumor cell growth factors supplied by surrounding stromal cells, and/or abrogation of a tumor cell dedifferentiation program that is critical for tumor invasion/metastasis.
• Without being bound by a particular theory, it is believed the administration of one or more active agents described herein will inhibit expression and/or secretion, and/or activity of NFκB. Thus, in certain embodiments, this invention provides methods of treating a pathology characterized by elevated NFκB by administering one or more active agents described herein. Thus, In various embodiments this invention contemplates inhibiting NFκB activation associated with cancer by administering one or more active agents described herein, optionally in combination with appropriate cancer therapeutics.
I) Biochemical Activity.
• The active agent(s) described herein have been shown to exhibit a number of specific biological activities. Thus, for example, they increaseheme oxygenase 1, they increase extracellular superoxide dismutase, they reduce or prevent the association of myeloperoxidase with apoA-I, they reduce or prevent the nitrosylation of tyrosine in apoA-I, they render HDL Anti-inflammatory or more anti-inflammatory, and they increase the formation cycling of pre-βHDL, they promote reverse cholesterol transport, in particular, reverse cholesterol transport from macrophages, and they synergize the activity of statins. The active agents described herein can thus be administered to a mammal to promote any of these activities, e.g. to treat a condition/pathology whose severity, and/or likelihood of onset is reduced by one or more of these activities.
• J) Mitigation of a Symptom of Atherosclerosis Associated with an Acute Inflammatory Response.
• The active agents, of this invention are also useful in a number of contexts. For example, we have observed that cardiovascular complications (e.g., atherosclerosis, stroke, etc.) frequently accompany or follow the onset of an acute phase inflammatory response, e.g., such as that associated with a recurrent inflammatory disease, a viral infection (e.g., influenza), a bacterial infection, a fungal infection, an organ transplant, a wound or other trauma, and so forth.
• Thus, in certain embodiments, this invention contemplates administering one or more of the active agents described herein to a subject at risk for, or incurring, an acute inflammatory response and/or at risk for or incurring a symptom of atherosclerosis and/or an associated pathology (e.g., stroke).
• Thus, for example, a person having or at risk for coronary disease may prophylactically be administered a one or more active agents of this invention during flu season. A person (or animal) subject to a recurrent inflammatory condition, e.g., rheumatoid arthritis, various autoimmune diseases, etc., can be treated with a one or more agents described herein to mitigate or prevent the development of atherosclerosis or stroke. A person (or animal) subject to trauma, e.g., acute injury, tissue transplant, etc. can be treated with a polypeptide of this invention to mitigate the development of atherosclerosis or stroke.
• In certain instances such methods will entail a diagnosis of the occurrence or risk of an acute inflammatory response. The acute inflammatory response typically involves alterations in metabolism and gene regulation in the liver. It is a dynamic homeostatic process that involves all of the major systems of the body, in addition to the immune, cardiovascular and central nervous system. Normally, the acute phase response lasts only a few days; however, in cases of chronic or recurring inflammation, an aberrant continuation of some aspects of the acute phase response may contribute to the underlying tissue damage that accompanies the disease, and may also lead to further complications, for example cardiovascular diseases or protein deposition diseases such as amyloidosis.
• An important aspect of the acute phase response is the radically altered biosynthetic profile of the liver. Under normal circumstances, the liver synthesizes a characteristic range of plasma proteins at steady state concentrations. Many of these proteins have important functions and higher plasma levels of these acute phase reactants (APRs) or acute phase proteins (APPs) are required during the acute phase response following an inflammatory stimulus. Although most APRs are synthesized by hepatocytes, some are produced by other cell types, including monocytes, endothelial cells, fibroblasts and adipocytes. Most APRs are induced between 50% and several-fold over normal levels. In contrast, the major APRs can increase to 1000-fold over normal levels. This group includes serum amyloid A (SAA) and either C-reactive protein (CRP) in humans or its homologue in mice, serum amyloid P component (SAP). So-called negative APRs are decreased in plasma concentration during the acute phase response to allow an increase in the capacity of the liver to synthesize the induced APRs.
• In certain embodiments, the acute phase response, or risk therefore is evaluated by measuring one or more APPs. Measuring such markers is well known to those of skill in the art, and commercial companies exist that provide such measurement (e.g., AGP measured by Cardiotech Services, Louisville, Ky.).
K) Eye Disease
• Also disclosed are methods for ameliorating and/or preventing one or more symptoms of eye disease by administering one or more of the active agents described herein. As described above, the “eye disease” includes, but is not limited to, age related maculopathy (ARM), age related macular degeneration (AMD) including both the dry and wet forms of age related macular degeneration, glaucoma, ocular hypertension, macular edema, retinal pigment epithelium detachments, coats disease, uveitis, sicca syndrome, hereditary diseases associated with increased extra-/intracellular lipid storage/accumulation, juvenile macular degeneration as well as all risk factors for each mentioned disease.
• For example the active agents disclosed herein can mobilize and remove accumulated intra-/extracellular lipid deposits in all eye structures. The active agents can also structurally remodel essential transport passages and supply structures and/or they have the highest affinity to oxidized lipids, which removal of such oxidized lipids can causes an anti-inflammatory effect.
• The active agents can be used prophylactically in both the treatment and prevention of eye diseases if risk factors are present. Risk factors for eye disease are described elsewhere herein.
1) Macular Degeneration.
• Age-related macular degeneration sometimes begins with characteristic yellow deposits in the macula (central area of the retina which provides detailed central vision) called drusen between the retinal pigment epithelium and the underlying choroid. Most people with these early changes (sometimes referred to as age-related maculopathy) have good vision. People with drusen can go on to develop advanced macular degeneration. The risk is considerably higher when the drusen are large and numerous and associated with disturbance in the pigmented cell layer under the macula. Recent research suggests that large and soft drusen are related to elevated cholesterol deposits and may respond to cholesterol lowering agents or the Rheo Procedure.
• Advanced AMD, which is responsible for profound vision loss, has two forms: dry and wet. Central geographic atrophy, the dry form of advanced AMD, results from atrophy to the retinal pigment epithelial layer below the retina, which causes vision loss through loss of photoreceptors (rods and cones) in the central part of the eye. While no treatment is available for this condition, vitamin supplements with high doses of antioxidants, lutein and zeaxanthin, have been demonstrated by the National Eye Institute and others to slow the progression of dry macular degeneration and in some patients, improve visual acuity.
• Neovascular or exudative AMD, the wet form of advanced AMD, causes vision loss due to abnormal blood vessel growth in the choriocapillaries, through Bruch's membrane, ultimately leading to blood and protein leakage below the macula. Bleeding, leaking, and scarring from these blood vessels eventually cause irreversible damage to the photoreceptors and rapid vision loss if left untreated.
• Until recently, no effective treatments were known for wet macular degeneration. However, new drugs, called anti-angiogenics or anti-VEGF (anti-Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor) agents, when injected directly into the vitreous humor of the eye using a small, painless needle, can cause regression of the abnormal blood vessels and improvement of vision. The injections frequently have to be repeated on a monthly or bi-monthly basis. Examples of these agents include Lucentis, Avastin and Macugen. Only Lucentis and Macugen are FDA approved as of April 2007. Macugen has been found to have only minimal benefits in neovascular AMD and is no longer used. Worldwide, Avastin has been used extensively despite its “off label” status. The cost of Lucentis is approximately $2000 US while the cost of Avastin is approximately $150.
• 2) AMD: Dry from: Geographic Atrophy,
• The remodeling of Bruch's membrane provides an undisturbed passage between retinal pigment epithelium and choriocapillaris, which is essential for the health of the retina. The retinal pigment epithelium stands with the choriocapillaris in a close relationship and they are dependent on each other. An uncompromised communication between these structures improves the blood supply for the outer retina by the choriocapillaris and the retinal pigment epithelium layer integrity by improved anchorage on Bruch's membrane via water soluble proteins.
3) AMD: Wet Form: Choroidal Neovascularization,
• The same mechanism as for dry AMD applies. Due to the improved environmental conditions retinal pigment epithelium cells also reduce the secretion of pro-angiogenic factors, which normally keeps a neovascularization active for a longer period. In combination with anti-angiogenic treatments (elsewhere herein) pro-angiogenic mechanisms are not just temporarily blocked but the secretion stimulus can be long-term reduced.
4) Glaucoma/Ocular Hypertension
• One main characteristic of glaucoma/ocular hypertension is elevated intraocular pressure (TOP). The treatment of the age-related “lipid wall” in Bruch's membrane increases the hydraulic conductivity along Bruch's membrane again and facilitates fluid transport from the vitreous to the choroid (vitreoretinal-choroidal outflow, uveoscleral outflow), which can normalize the IOP.
5) Macular Edema, Retinal Pigment Epithelium Detachments
• Macular edema is characterized by trapped fluid accumulations in the retina and RPE detachments by fluid accumulations under the retinal pigment epithelium. The normal fluid transport is directed across Bruch's membrane into the choriocapillaris. An improved transport across Bruch's membrane after lipid clean up (“lipid wall”) and remodeling due to ApoA-I/ApoE mimetic peptide treatment facilitates the natural fluid transport and helps to resolve the sight-threatening macular edema and RPE detachment.
L) Mitigation of a Symptom of Macular Degeneration.
• The active agents, of this invention are also useful in a number of contexts. For example, we have observed that eye disease (e.g., macular degeneration, etc.) are frequently associated with drusen, basal linear deposit, basal laminar deposit, lipid accumulation in Bruch's membrane, and/or positive genetic risk profiles, and so forth.
• Thus, in certain embodiments, this invention contemplates administering one or more of the active agents described herein to a subject at risk for, or incurring, one or more of the symptoms and/or at risk for or incurring a symptom of an eye disease and/or an associated pathology (e.g., blindness).
• Thus, for example, a person having or at risk for eye disease may prophylactically be administered a one or more active agents of this invention during flu season. A person (or animal) subject to an eye disease, e.g., macular degeneration, glaucoma, etc., can be treated with a one or more agents described herein to mitigate or prevent the development of eye disease. A person (or animal) subject to trauma, e.g., acute injury, tissue transplant, etc. can also be treated with a polypeptide of this invention to mitigate the development of eye disease.
• In certain instances such methods will entail a diagnosis of the occurrence or risk of an eye disease. The eye disease typically involves alterations in drusen, basal linear deposit, basal laminar deposit, lipid accumulation in and/or Bruch's membrane.
M) Other Indications.
• In various embodiments it is contemplated that the active agents described herein are useful in the treatment (e.g. mitigation and/or prevention) of corneal ulcers, endothelial sloughing, Crohn's disease, acute and chronic dermatitis (including, but not limited to eczema and/or psoriasis), macular degeneration, neuropathy, scleroderma, and ulcerative colitis.
• A summary of indications/conditions for which the active agents have been shown to be effective and/or are believed to be effective is shown in Table 1.

• TABLE 1
  Summary of conditions in which the active agents (e.g., D-
  4F) have been shown to be or are believed to be effective.

  atherosclerosis/symptoms/consequences thereof

  	plaque formation
  	lesion formation
  	myocardial infarction
  	stroke

  congestive heart failure

  vascular function:

  	arteriole function
  	arteriolar disease

  	associated with aging
  	associated with alzheimer's disease
  	associated with chronic kidney disease
  	associated with hypertension
  	associated with multi-infarct dementia
  	associated with subarachnoid hemorrhage peripheral vascular
  	disease

  peripheral vascular disease

  pulmonary disease:

  	chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)
  	emphysema
  	asthma
  	idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis
  	Pulmonary fibrosis
  	adult respiratory distress syndrome

  osteoporosis

  Paget's disease

  coronary calcification

  autoimmune:

  	rheumatoid arthritis
  	polyarteritis nodosa
  	polymyalgia rheumatica
  	lupus erythematosus
  	multiple sclerosis
  	Wegener's granulomatosis
  	central nervous system vasculitis (CNSV)
  	Sjogren's syndrome
  	Scleroderma
  	polymyositis

  AIDS inflammatory response

  infections:

  	bacterial
  	fungal
  	viral
  	parasitic
  	influenza

  avian flu

  	viral pneumonia
  	endotoxic shock syndrome
  	sepsis
  	sepsis syndrome
  	(clinical syndrome where it appears that the patient is septic
  	but no organisms are recovered from the blood)

  trauma/wound:

  	organ transplant
  	transplant atherosclerosis
  	transplant rejection
  	corneal ulcer
  	chronic/non-healing wound
  	ulcerative colitis
  	reperfusion injury (prevent and/or treat)
  	ischemic reperfusion injury (prevent and/or treat)
  	spinal cord injuries (mitigating effects)

  cancers

  	myeloma/multiple myeloma
  	ovarian cancer
  	breast cancer
  	colon cancer
  	bone cancer

  osteoarthritis

  inflammatory bowel disease

  allergic rhinitis

  cachexia

  diabetes

  Alzheimer's disease

  implanted prosthesis

  biofilm formation

  Crohns' disease

  dermatitis, acute and chronic

  	eczema
  	psoriasis
  	contact dermatitis
  	scleroderma

  diabetes and related conditions

  	Type I Diabetes
  	Type II Diabetes
  	Juvenile Onset Diabetes
  	Prevention of the onset of diabetes
  	Diabetic Nephropathy
  	Diabetic Neuropathy
  	Diabetic Retinopathy

  erectile dysfunction

  macular degeneration

  multiple sclerosis

  nephropathy

  neuropathy

  Parkinson's Disease

  peripheral Vascular Disease

  meningitis

  Specific biological activities:

  	increase Heme Oxygenase 1
  	increase extracellular superoxide dismutase
  	prevent endothelial sloughing
  	prevent the association of myeloperoxidase with ApoA-I
  	prevent the nitrosylation of tyrosine in ApoA-I
  	render HDL anti-inflammatory
  	improve vasoreactivity
  	increase the formation of pre-beta HDL
  	promote reverse cholesterol transport
  	promote reverse cholesterol transport from macrophages
  	synergize the action of statins

• It is noted that the conditions listed in Table 1 are intended to be illustrative and not limiting.
• It is noted that the conditions listed in Table 1 are intended to be illustrative and not limiting.
N) Administration.
• Typically the active agent(s) will be administered to a mammal (e.g., a human) in need thereof. Such a mammal will typically include a mammal (e.g. a human) having or at risk for one or more of the pathologies described herein.
• The active agent(s) can be administered, as described herein, according to any of a number of standard methods including, but not limited to injection, suppository, nasal spray, time-release implant, transdermal patch, eye drops, gels, ointments, orally, intraocular injection, parenterally (e.g., intravenously or subcutaneous administration), by intramuscular injection, by intraperitoneal injection, subconjuctival injection, peri-/retrobulbar injection, transdermally, extracorporeally, by intracavity administration, transdermally, or topically or the like, including topical intranasal administration or administration by inhalant, and the like spray, emulsion, suspension, via any drug carriers as sponges, contact lenses, polymers, microspheres, implants, pellets, and genetically engineered cells. The topical administration can be ophthalmically, vaginally, rectally, or intranasally. As used herein, “topical intranasal administration” means delivery of the compositions into the nose and nasal passages through one or both of the nares and can comprise delivery by a spraying mechanism or droplet mechanism, or through aerosolization of the nucleic acid or vector. Administration of the compositions by inhalant can be through the nose or mouth via delivery by a spraying or droplet mechanism. Delivery can also be directly to any area of the respiratory system (e.g., lungs) via intubation. The exact amount of the compositions required will vary from subject to subject, depending on the species, age, weight and general condition of the subject, the severity of the disorder being treated, the particular nucleic acid or vector used, its mode of administration and the like. An appropriate amount for a particular composition and a particular subject can be determined by one of ordinary skill in the art using only routine experimentation given the teachings herein.
• Parenteral administration of the composition, if used, is generally characterized by injection. Injectables can be prepared in conventional forms, either as liquid solutions or suspensions, solid forms suitable for solution of suspension in liquid prior to injection, or as emulsions. Parenteral administration includes use of a slow release, a time release or a sustained release system such that a constant dosage is maintained.
• The active agent(s) can also be administered, as described herein, for immediate delivery or extended release. The active agent(s) can also be administered as dilutions, suspensions, emulsions, polymers, microspheres, gels, crèmes, and/or pellets. The active agents can also be administered in the form of drug carriers, sponges, polymers encapsulated cells, engineered cells, implants, and the like.
• In one particularly preferred embodiment, the peptide(s) are administered orally (e.g. as a syrup, capsule, or tablet).
• The methods involve the administration of a single active agent of this invention or the administration of two or more different active agents. The active agents can be provided as monomers (e.g., in separate or combined formulations), or in dimeric, oligomeric or polymeric forms. In certain embodiments, the multimeric forms may comprise associated monomers (e.g., ionically or hydrophobically linked) while certain other multimeric forms comprise covalently linked monomers (directly linked or through a linker).
• While the invention is described with respect to use in humans, it is also suitable for animal, e.g. veterinary use. Thus certain preferred organisms include, but are not limited to humans, non-human primates, canines, equines, felines, porcines, ungulates, largomorphs, and the like.
• The methods of this invention are not limited to humans or non-human animals showing one or more symptom(s) of the pathologies described herein, but are also useful in a prophylactic context. Thus, the active agents of this invention can be administered to organisms to prevent the onset/development of one or more symptoms of the pathologies described herein (e.g., atherosclerosis, stroke, macular degeneration, etc.). Particularly preferred subjects in this context are subjects showing one or more risk factors for the pathology. Thus, for example, in the case of atherosclerosis risk factors include family history, hypertension, obesity, high alcohol consumption, smoking, high blood cholesterol, high blood triglycerides, elevated blood LDL, VLDL, IDL, or low HDL, diabetes, or a family history of diabetes, high blood lipids, heart attack, angina or stroke, etc.
• In the case of eye disease, factors can include, but are not limited to age, family history, genetic predisposition, hypertension, obesity, cardiovascular health, fat intake, plasma lipids, oxidative stress, race, and exposure to sunlight.
P) Dosages
• Effective dosages and schedules for administering the compositions may be determined empirically, and making such determinations is within the skill in the art. The dosage ranges for the administration of the compositions are those large enough to produce the desired effect in which the symptoms of the disorder are affected. The dosage should not be so large as to cause adverse side effects, such as unwanted cross-reactions, anaphylactic reactions, and the like. Generally, the dosage will vary with the age, condition, sex and extent of the disease in the patient, route of administration, or whether other drugs are included in the regimen, and can be determined by one of skill in the art. The dosage can be adjusted by the individual physician in the event of any counter-indications. Dosage can vary, and can be administered in one or more dose administrations daily, for one or several days. Guidance can be found in the literature for appropriate dosages for given classes of pharmaceutical products. For example, disclosed herein are methods comprising administering one or more of the disclosed synthetic apolipoprotein E-mimicking peptides to a subject, whereby plasma LDL, plasma VLDL, or both, are affected, wherein said synthetic apolipoprotein E-mimicking peptide is administered in an amount of about 0.01 mg/kg to about 5 mg/kg.
• Dosages also suitable for administration of the active agents disclosed herein include, but are not limited to dosages of 10 μg/ml to 400 μg/ml. For example, For example, disclosed herein are methods comprising administering one or more of the disclosed synthetic apolipoprotein E-mimicking peptides to a subject, whereby plasma LDL, plasma VLDL, or both, are affected, wherein said synthetic apolipoprotein E-mimicking peptide is administered in an amount of about 200 ug/ml to 800 ug/ml.
II. Active Agents
• A wide variety of active agents are suitable for the treatment of one or more of the indications discussed above. These agents include, but are not limited to class A amphipathic helical peptides, class A amphipathic helical peptide mimetics of apoA-I having aromatic or aliphatic residues in the non-polar face, small peptides including pentapeptides, tetrapeptides, tripeptides, dipeptides and pairs of amino acids, Apo-J (G* peptides), and peptide mimetics, e.g., as described below.
A) Class A Amphipathic Helical Peptides.
• In certain embodiments, the activate agents for use in the method of this invention include class A amphipathic helical peptides, e.g. as described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,664,230, and PCT Publications WO 02/15923 and WO 2004/034977. It was discovered that peptides comprising a class A amphipathic helix (“class A peptides”), in addition to being capable of mitigating one or more symptoms of atherosclerosis are also useful in the treatment of one or more of the other indications described herein.
• Class A peptides are characterized by formation of an α-helix that produces a segregation of polar and non-polar residues thereby forming a polar and a nonpolar face with the positively charged residues residing at the polar-nonpolar interface and the negatively charged residues residing at the center of the polar face (see, e.g., Anantharamaiah (1986) Meth. Enzymol, 128: 626-668). It is noted that the fourth exon of apo A-I, when folded into 3.667 residues/turn produces a class A amphipathic helical structure.
• One class A peptide, designated 18A (see, e.g., Anantharamaiah (1986) Meth. Enzymol, 128: 626-668) was modified as described herein to produce peptides orally administrable and highly effective at inhibiting or preventing one or more symptoms of atherosclerosis and/or other indications described herein. Without being bound by a particular theory, it is believed that the peptides of this invention may act in vivo by picking up seeding molecule(s) that mitigate oxidation of LDL.
• Another theory could be that with macular degeneration, where the presence of lipids in the Bruch's membrane causes the transfer of blood from the eye vessels through the Bruch's membrane to the retinal pigment cells and then to the photoreceptors to decrease. The decrease in blood flow leads to a decrease in oxygen getting to the photoreceptors. The body then responds by creating more vasculature that invades the Bruch's membrane and into the retinal pigment epithelial cells to compensate for the decrease in oxygen supply to the photoreceptors and retinal pigment epithelial cells. By providing one or more of the active agents described herein, the lipid accumulation could be removed and/or prevented, thereby relieving the need for increased vasculature. In addition, by providing one or more of the active agents described herein in combination with an anti-angiogenic factor, not only could the lipid accumulation be removed and/or prevented, the revascularization could be prevented as well, thereby relieving the need for increased vasculature and preventing detrimental vascular growth.
• We determined that increasing the number of Phe residues on the hydrophobic face of 18A would theoretically increase lipid affinity as determined by the computation described by Palgunachari et al. (1996) Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis, & Vascular Biol. 16: 328-338. Theoretically, a systematic substitution of residues in the nonpolar face of 18A with Phe could yield six peptides. Peptides with an additional 2, 3 and 4 Phe would have theoretical lipid affinity (X) values of 13, 14 and 15 units, respectively. However, the X values jumped four units if the additional Phe were increased from 4 to 5 (to 19× units). Increasing to 6 or 7 Phe would produce a less dramatic increase (to 20 and 21× units, respectively).
• A number of these class A peptides were made including, the peptide designated 4F, D4F, 5F, and D5F, and the like. Various class A peptides inhibited lesion development in atherosclerosis-susceptible mice. In addition, the peptides show varying, but significant degrees of efficacy in mitigating one or more symptoms of the various pathologies described herein. A number of such peptides are illustrated in Table 2.

• TABLE 2
  Peptide Name	Amino Acid Sequence	SEQ ID NO.

  18F	D-W-L-K-A-F-Y-D-K-V-A-E-K-L-K-E-A-F	1
  2F	Ac-D-W-L-K-A-F-Y-D-K-V-A-E-K-L-K-E-A-F-NH2	2
  3F	Ac-D-W-F-K-A-F-Y-D-K-V-A-E-K-L-K-E-A-F-NH2	3
  3F14	Ac-D-W-L-K-A-F-Y-D-K-V-A-E-K-F-K-E-A-F-NH2	4
  4F	Ac-D-W-F-K-A-F-Y-D-K-V-A-E-K-F-K-E-A-F-NH2	5
  5F	Ac-D-W-L-K-A-F-Y-D-K-V-F-E-K-F-K-E-F-F-NH2	6
  6F	Ac-D-W-L-K-A-F-Y-D-K-F-F-E-K-F-K-E-F-F-NH2	7
  7F	Ac-D-W-F-K-A-F-Y-D-K-F-F-E-K-F-K-E-F-F-NH2	8
  	Ac-D-W-L-K-A-F-Y-D-K-V-A-E-K-L-K-E-F-F-NH2	9
  	Ac-D-W-L-K-A-F-Y-D-K-V-F-E-K-F-K-E-A-F-NH2	10
  	Ac-D-W-L-K-A-F-Y-D-K-V-F-E-K-L-K-E-F-F-NH2	11
  	Ac-D-W-L-K-A-F-Y-D-K-V-A-E-K-F-K-E-F-F-NH2	12
  	Ac-D-W-L-K-A-F-Y-D-K-V-F-E-K-F-K-E-F-F-NH2	13
  	Ac-E-W-L-K-L-F-Y-E-K-V-L-E-K-F-K-E-A-F-NH2	14
  	Ac-E-W-L-K-A-F-Y-D-K-V-A-E-K-F-K-E-A-F-NH2	15
  	Ac-E-W-L-K-A-F-Y-D-K-V-A-E-K-L-K-E-F-F-NH2	16
  	Ac-E-W-L-K-A-F-Y-D-K-V-F-E-K-F-K-E-A-F-NH2	17
  	Ac-E-W-L-K-A-F-Y-D-K-V-F-E-K-L-K-E-F-F-NH2	18
  	Ac-E-W-L-K-A-F-Y-D-K-V-A-E-K-F-K-E-F-F-NH2	19
  	Ac-E-W-L-K-A-F-Y-D-K-V-F-E-K-F-K-E-F-F-NH2	20
  	Ac-A-F-Y-D-K-V-A-E-K-L-K-E-A-F-NH2	21
  	Ac-A-F-Y-D-K-V-A-E-K-F-K-E-A-F-NH2	22
  	Ac-A-F-Y-D-K-V-A-E-K-F-K-E-A-F-NH2	23
  	Ac-A-F-Y-D-K-F-F-E-K-F-K-E-F-F-NH2	24
  	Ac-A-F-Y-D-K-F-F-E-K-F-K-E-F-F-NH2	25
  	Ac-A-F-Y-D-K-V-A-E-K-F-K-E-A-F-NH2	26
  	Ac-A-F-Y-D-K-V-A-E-K-L-K-E-F-F-NH2	27
  	Ac-A-F-Y-D-K-V-F-E-K-F-K-E-A-F-NH2	28
  	Ac-A-F-Y-D-K-V-F-E-K-L-K-E-F-F-NH2	29
  	Ac-A-F-Y-D-K-V-A-E-K-F-K-E-F-F-NH2	30
  	Ac-K-A-F-Y-D-K-V-F-E-K-F-K-E-F-NH2	31
  	Ac-L-F-Y-E-K-V-L-E-K-F-K-E-A-F-NH2	32
  	Ac-A-F-Y-D-K-V-A-E-K-F-K-E-A-F-NH2	33
  	Ac-A-F-Y-D-K-V-A-E-K-L-K-E-F-F-NH2	34
  	Ac-A-F-Y-D-K-V-F-E-K-F-K-E-A-F-NH2	35
  	Ac-A-F-Y-D-K-V-F-E-K-L-K-E-F-F-NH2	36
  	Ac-A-F-Y-D-K-V-A-E-K-F-K-E-F-F-NH2	37
  	Ac-A-F-Y-D-K-V-F-E-K-F-K-E-F-F NH2	38
  	Ac-D-W-L-K-A-L-Y-D-K-V-A-E-K-L-K-E-A-L-NH2	39
  	Ac-D-W-F-K-A-F-Y-E-K-V-A-E-K-L-K-E-F-F-NH2	40
  	Ac-D-W-F-K-A-F-Y-E-K-F-F-E-K-F-K-E-F-F-NH2	41
  	Ac-E-W-L-K-A-L-Y-E-K-V-A-E-K-L-K-E-A-L-NH2	42
  	Ac-E-W-L-K-A-F-Y-E-K-V-A-E-K-L-K-E-A-F-NH2	43
  	Ac-E-W-F-K-A-F-Y-E-K-V-A-E-K-L-K-E-F-F-NH2	44
  	Ac-E-W-L-K-A-F-Y-E-K-V-F-E-K-F-K-E-F-F-NH2	45
  	Ac-E-W-L-K-A-F-Y-E-K-F-F-E-K-F-K-E-F-F-NH2	46
  	Ac-E-W-F-K-A-F-Y-E-K-F-F-E-K-F-K-E-F-F-NH2	47
  	Ac-D-F-L-K-A-W-Y-D-K-V-A-E-K-L-K-E-A-W-NH2	48
  	Ac-E-F-L-K-A-W-Y-E-K-V-A-E-K-L-K-E-A-W-NH2	49
  	Ac-D-F-W-K-A-W-Y-D-K-V-A-E-K-L-K-E-W-W-NH2	50
  	Ac-E-F-W-K-A-W-Y-E-K-V-A-E-K-L-K-E-W-W-NH2	51
  	Ac-D-K-L-K-A-F-Y-D-K-V-F-E-W-A-K-E-A-F-NH2	52
  	Ac-D-K-W-K-A-V-Y-D-K-F-A-E-A-F-K-E-F-L-NH2	53
  	Ac-E-K-L-K-A-F-Y-E-K-V-F-E-W-A-K-E-A-F-NH2	54
  	Ac-E-K-W-K-A-V-Y-E-K-F-A-E-A-F-K-E-F-L-NH2	55
  	Ac-D-W-L-K-A-F-V-D-K-F-A-E-K-F-K-E-A-Y-NH2	56
  	Ac-E-K-W-K-A-V-Y-E-K-F-A-E-A-F-K-E-F-L-NH2	57
  	Ac-D-W-L-K-A-F-V-Y-D-K-V-F-K-L-K-E-F-F-NH2	58
  	Ac-E-W-L-K-A-F-V-Y-E-K-V-F-K-L-K-E-F-F-NH2	59
  	Ac-D-W-L-R-A-F-Y-D-K-V-A-E-K-L-K-E-A-F-NH2	60
  	Ac-E-W-L-R-A-F-Y-E-K-V-A-E-K-L-K-E-A-F-NH2	61
  	Ac-D-W-L-K-A-F-Y-D-R-V-A-E-K-L-K-E-A-F-NH2	62
  	Ac-E-W-L-K-A-F-Y-E-R-V-A-E-K-L-K-E-A-F-NH2	63
  	Ac-D-W-L-K-A-F-Y-D-K-V-A-E-R-L-K-E-A-F-NH2	64
  	Ac-E-W-L-K-A-F-Y-E-K-V-A-E-R-L-K-E-A-F-NH2	65
  	Ac-D-W-L-K-A-F-Y-D-K-V-A-E-K-L-R-E-A-F-NH2	66
  	Ac-E-W-L-K-A-F-Y-E-K-V-A-E-K-L-R-E-A-F-NH2	67
  	Ac-D-W-L-K-A-F-Y-D-R-V-A-E-R-L-K-E-A-F-NH2	68
  	Ac-E-W-L-K-A-F-Y-E-R-V-A-E-R-L-K-E-A-F-NH2	69
  	Ac-D-W-L-R-A-F-Y-D-K-V-A-E-K-L-R-E-A-F-NH2	70
  	Ac-E-W-L-R-A-F-Y-E-K-V-A-E-K-L-R-E-A-F-NH2	71
  	Ac-D-W-L-R-A-F-Y-D-R-V-A-E-K-L-K-E-A-F-NH2	72
  	Ac-E-W-L-R-A-F-Y-E-R-V-A-E-K-L-K-E-A-F-NH2	73
  	Ac-D-W-L-K-A-F-Y-D-K-V-A-E-R-L-R-E-A-F-NH2	74
  	Ac-E-W-L-K-A-F-Y-E-K-V-A-E-R-L-R-E-A-F-NH2	75
  	Ac-D-W-L-R-A-F-Y-D-K-V-A-E-R-L-K-E-A-F-NH2	76
  	Ac-E-W-L-R-A-F-Y-E-K-V-A-E-R-L-K-E-A-F-NH2	77
  	D-W-L-K-A-F-Y-D-K-V-A-E-K-L-K-E-A-F-P-D-W	78
  	L-K-A-F-Y-D-K-V-A-E-K-L-K-E-A-F
  	D-W-L-K-A-F-Y-D-K-V-A-E-K-L-K-E-F-F-P-D-W	79
  	L-K-A-F-Y-D-K-V-A-E-K-L-K-E-F-F
  	D-W-F-K-A-F-Y-D-K-V-A-E-K-L-K-E-A-F-P-D-W	80
  	F-K-A-F-Y-D-K-V-A-E-K-L-K-E-A-F
  	D-K-L-K-A-F-Y-D-K-V-F-E-W-A-K-E-A-F-P-D-K	81
  	L-K-A-F-Y-D-K-V-F-E-W-L-K-E-A-F
  	D-K-W-K-A-V-Y-D-K-F-A-E-A-F-K-E-F-L-P-D-K	82
  	W-K-A-V-Y-D-K-F-A-E-A-F-K-E-F-L
  	D-W-F-K-A-F-Y-D-K-V-A-E-K-F-K-E-A-F-P-D-W	83
  	F-K-A-F-Y-D-K-V-A-E-K-F-K-E-A-F
  	D-W-L-K-A-F-V-Y-D-K-V-F-K-L-K-E-F-F-P-D-W	84
  	L-K-A-F-V-Y-D-K-V-F-K-L-K-E-F-F
  	D-W-L-K-A-F-Y-D-K-F-A-E-K-F-K-E-F-F-P-D-W	85
  	L-K-A-F-Y-D-K-F-A-E-K-F-K-E-F-F
  	Ac-E-W-F-K-A-F-Y-E-K-V-A-E-K-F-K-E-A-F-NH2	86
  	Ac-D-W-F-K-A-F-Y-D-K-V-A-E-K-F-NH2	87
  	Ac-F-K-A-F-Y-D-K-V-A-E-K-F-K-E-NH2	88
  	Ac-F-K-A-F-Y-E-K-V-A-E-K-F-K-E-NH2	89
  	NMA-F-K-A-F-Y-D-K-V-A-E-K-F-K-E-NH2	90
  	NMA-F-K-A-F-Y-E-K-V-A-E-K-F-K-E-NH2	91
  	NMA-D-W-F-K-A-F-Y-D-K-V-A-E-K-F-K-E-A-F-NH2	92
  	NMA-E-W-F-K-A-F-Y-E-K-V-A-E-K-F-K-E-A-F-NH2	93
  	NMA-A-F-Y-D-K-V-A-E-K-F-K-E-A-F-NH2	94
  	NMA-D-W-F-K-A-F-Y-D-K-V-A-E-K-F-NH2	95
  	Ac-D-W-L-K-A-F-Y-D-K-V-F-E-K-F-K-E-F-F-NH2	96
  	NMA-D-W-L-K-A-F-Y-D-K-V-F-E-K-F-K-E-F-F-NH2	1198
  	Ac-E-W-L- K-A-F-Y-E-K-V-F-E-K-F-K-E-F-F-NH2	97
  	NMA-E-W-L-K-A-F-Y-E-K-V-F-E-K-F-K-E-F-F-NH2	1199
  	Ac-A-F-Y-D-K-V-F-E-K-F-K-E-F-F-NH2	98
  	NMA-A-F-Y-D-K-V-F-E-K-F-K-E-F-F-NH2	1200
  	Ac-A-F-Y-E-K-V-F-E-K-F-K-E-F-F-NH2	99
  	NMA-A-F-Y-E-K-V-F-E-K-F-K-E-F-F-NH2	1201
  	Ac-D-W-L-K-A-F-Y-D-K-V-F-E-K-F-NH2	100
  	NMA-D-W-L-K-A-F-Y-D-K-V-F-E-K-F-NH2	1202
  	Ac-E-W-L-K-A-F-Y-E-K-V-F-E-K-F-NH2	101
  	NMA-E-W-L-K-A-F-Y-E-K-V-F-E-K-F-NH2	1203
  	Ac-L-K-A-F-Y-D-K-V-F-E-K-F-K-E-NH2	102
  	NMA-L-K-A-F-Y-D-K-V-F-E-K-F-K-E-NH2	1204
  	Ac-L-K-A-F-Y-E-K-V-F-E-K-F-K-E-NH2	103
  	NMA-L-K-A-F-Y-E-K-V-F-E-K-F-K-E-NH2	1205
  *Linkers are underlined.
  NMA is N-Methyl Anthranilyl.

• In certain preferred embodiments, the peptides include variations of 4F ((SEQ ID NO:5 in Table 2), also known as L-4F, where all residues are L form amino acids) or D-4F where one or more residues are D form amino acids). In any of the peptides described herein, the C-terminus, and/or N-terminus, and/or internal residues can be blocked with one or more blocking groups as described herein.
• While various peptides of Table 2, are illustrated with an acetyl group or an N-methylanthranilyl group protecting the amino terminus and an amide group protecting the carboxyl terminus, any of these protecting groups may be eliminated and/or substituted with another protecting group as described herein. In particularly preferred embodiments, the peptides comprise one or more D-form amino acids as described herein. In certain embodiments, every amino acid (e.g., every enantiomeric amino acid) of the peptides of Table 2 is a D-form amino acid.
• It is also noted that Table 2 is not fully inclusive. Using the teachings provided herein, other suitable class A amphipathic helical peptides can routinely be produced (e.g., by conservative or semi-conservative substitutions (e.g., D replaced by E), extensions, deletions, and the like). Thus, for example, one embodiment utilizes truncations of any one or more of peptides shown herein (e.g., peptides identified by SEQ ID Nos:2-20 and 39—in Table 2). Thus, for example, SEQ ID NO:21 illustrates a peptide comprising 14 amino acids from the C-terminus of 18A comprising one or more D amino acids, while SEQ ID NOS:22-38 illustrate other truncations.
• Longer peptides are also suitable. Such longer peptides may entirely form a class A amphipathic helix, or the class A amphipathic helix (helices) can form one or more domains of the peptide. In addition, this invention contemplates multimeric versions of the peptides (e.g., concatamers). Thus, for example, the peptides illustrated herein can be coupled together (directly or through a linker (e.g., a carbon linker, or one or more amino acids) with one or more intervening amino acids). Illustrative polymeric peptides include 18A-Pro-18A and the peptides of SEQ ID NOs:78-85, in certain embodiments comprising one or more D amino acids, more preferably with every amino acid a D amino acid as described herein and/or having one or both termini protected.
• It will also be appreciated in addition to the peptide sequences expressly illustrated herein, this invention also contemplates retro and retro-inverso forms of each of these peptides. In retro forms, the direction of the sequence is reversed. In inverse forms, the chirality of the constituent amino acids is reversed (i.e., L form amino acids become D form amino acids and D form amino acids become L form amino acids). In the retro-inverso form, both the order and the chirality of the amino acids is reversed. Thus, for example, a retro form of the 4F peptide (DWFKAFYDKVAEKFKEAF, SEQ ID NO:5), where the amino terminus is at the aspartate (D) and the carboxyl terminus is at the phenylalanine (F), has the same sequence, but the amino terminus is at the phenylalanine and the carboxy terminus is at the aspartate (i.e., FAEKFKEAVKDYFAKFWD, SEQ ID NO:104). Where the 4F peptide comprises all L amino acids, the retro-inverso form will have the sequence shown above (SEQ ID NO:104) and comprise all D form amino acids. As illustrated in the helical wheel diagrams ofFIG. 15, 4F and retroinverso (Rev-4F) are mirror images of each other with identical segregation of the polar and nonpolar faces with the positively charged residues residing at the polar-nonpolar interface and the negatively charged residues residing at the center of the polar face. These mirror images of the same polymer of amino acids are identical in terms of the segregation of the polar and nonpolar faces with the positively charged residues residing at the polar-nonpolar interface and the negatively charged residues residing at the center of the polar face. For a discussion of retro- and retro-inverso peptides see, e.g., Chorev and Goodman, (1995) TibTech, 13: 439-445.
• Where reference is made to a sequence and orientation is not expressly indicated, the sequence can be viewed as representing the amino acid sequence in the amino to carboxyl orientation, the retro form (i.e., the amino acid sequence in the carboxyl to amino orientation), the retro form where L amino acids are replaced with D amino acids or D amino acids are replaced with L amino acids, and the retro-inverso form where both the order is reversed and the amino acid chirality is reversed.
• C) Class A Amphipathic Helical Peptide Mimetics of apoA-1 having Aromatic or Aliphatic Residues in the Non-Polar Face.
• In certain embodiments, this invention also provides modified class A amphipathic helix peptides. Certain preferred peptides incorporate one or more aromatic residues at the center of the nonpolar face, e.g., 3F^cπ, (as present in 4F), or with one or more aliphatic residues at the center of the nonpolar face, e.g., 3F^Iπ, see, e.g., Table 3. Without being bound to a particular theory, we believe the central aromatic residues on the nonpolar face of the peptide 3F^Cπ, due to the presence of π electrons at the center of the nonpolar face, allow water molecules to penetrate near the hydrophobic lipid alkyl chains of the peptide-lipid complex, which in turn would enable the entry of reactive oxygen species (such as lipid hydroperoxides) shielding them from the cell surface. Similarly, we also believe the peptides with aliphatic residues at the center of the nonpolar face, e.g., 3E^Iπ, will act similarly but not quite as effectively as 3F^Cπ.
• Preferred peptides will convert pro-inflammatory HDL to anti-inflammatory HDL or make anti-inflammatory HDL more anti-inflammatory, and/or decrease LDL-induced monocyte chemotactic activity generated by artery wall cells equal to or greater than D4F or other peptides shown in Table 2.

• TABLE 3
  Name	Sequence	SEQ ID NO
  (3cn)	Ac-DKWKAVYDKFAEAFKEFL-NH2	105
  (31n)	Ac-DKLKAFYDKVFEWAKEAF-NH2	106

D) Other Class A and Some Class Y Amphipathic Helical Peptides.
• In certain embodiments this invention also contemplates class a amphipathic helical peptides that have an amino acid composition identical to one or more of the class a amphipathic helical peptides described above. Thus, for example, in certain embodiments this invention contemplates peptides having an amino acid composition identical to 4F. Thus, in certain embodiments, this invention includes active agents that comprise a peptide that consists of 18 amino acids, where the 18 amino acids consist of 3 alanines (A), 2 aspartates (D), 2 glutamates (E), 4 phenylalanines (F), 4 lysines (K), 1 valine (V), 1 tryptophan (W), and 1 tyrosine (Y); and where the peptide forms a class A amphipathic helix; and protects a phospholipid against oxidation by an oxidizing agent. In various embodiments, the peptides comprise least one “D” amino acid residue; and in certain embodiments, the peptides comprise all “D: form amino acid residues. A variety of such peptides are illustrated in Table 4. Reverse (retro-), inverse, retro-inverso-, and circularly permuted forms of these peptides are also contemplated.

• TABLE 4
  Illustrative 18 amino acid length class A amphipathic helical
  peptides with the amino acid composition 3 alanines (A),
  2 aspartates (D), 2 glutamates (E), 4 phenylalanines (F),
  4 lysines (K), 1 valine (V), 1 tryptophan (W), and 1 tyrosine (Y).

  Name	Sequence	SEQ ID NO
  [Switch D-E]-4F analogs		107
  [Switch D-E]-1-4F	Ac-EWFKAFYEKVADKFKDAF-NH2	108
  [Switch D-E]-2-4F	Ac-EWFKAFYDKVADKFKEAF-NH2	109
  [Switch D-E]-3-4F	Ac-DWFKAFYEKVADKFKEAF-NH2	110
  [Switch D-E]-4-4F	Ac-DWFKAFYEKVAEKFKDAF-NH2	111
  [W-2, F-3 positions reversed]		112
  4F-2	Ac-DFWKAFYDKVAEKFKEAF-NH2	113
  [Switch D-E]-1-4F-2	Ac-EFWKAFYEKVADKFKDAF-NH2	114
  [Switch D-E]-2-4F-2	Ac-EFWKAFYDKVADKFKEAF-NH2	115
  [Switch D-E]-3-4F-2	Ac-DFWKAFYEKVADKFKEAF-NH2	116
  [Switch D-E]-4-4F-2	Ac-DFWKAFYEKVAEKFKDAF-NH2	117
  [F-6 and Y-7 positions switched]		118
  4F-3	Ac-DWFKAYFDKVAEKFKEAF-NH2	119
  [Switch D-E]-1-4F-5	Ac-EWFKAYFEKVADKFKDAF-NH2	120
  [Switch D-E]-2-4F-5	Ac-EWFKAYFDKVADKFKEAF-NH2	121
  [Switch D-E]-3-4F-5	Ac-DWFKAYFEKVADKFKEAF-NH2	122
  [Switch D-E]-4-4F-5	Ac-DWFKAYFEKVAEKFKDAF-NH2	123
  [Y-land 10V positions switched]		124
  4F-4	Ac-DWFKAFVDKYAEKFKEAF-NH2	125
  [Switch D-E]-1-4F-4	Ac-EWFKAFVEKYADKFKDAF-NH2	126
  [Switch D-E]-2-4F-4	Ac-EWFKAFVDKYADKFKEAF-NH2	127
  [Switch D-E]-3-4F-4	Ac-DWFKAFVEKYADKFKEAF-NH2	128
  [Switch D-E]-4-4F	Ac-DWFKAFVEKYAEKFKDAF-NH2	129
  [V-10 and A-11 switched]		130
  4-F-5	Ac-DWFKAFYDKAVEKFKEAF-NH2	131
  [Switch D-E]-1-4F-5	Ac-EWFKAFYEKAVDKFKDAF-NH2	132
  [Switch D-E]-2-4F-5	Ac-EWFKAFYDKAVDKFKEAF-NH2	133
  [Switch D-E]-3-4F-5	Ac-DWFKAFYEKAVDKFKEAF-NH2	134
  [Switch D-E]-4-4F-5	Ac-DWFKAFYEKAVEKFKDAF-NH2	135
  [A-11 and F-14 switched]		136
  4F-6	Ac-DWFKAFYDKVFEKAKEAF-NH2	137
  [Switch D-E]-1-4F-6	Ac-EWFKAFYEKVFDKAKDAF-NH2	138
  [Switch D-E]-2-4F-6	Ac-EWFKAFYDKVFDKAKEAF-NH2	139
  [Switch D-E]-3-4F-6	Ac-DWFKAFYEKVFDKAKEAF-NH2	140
  [Switch D-E]-4-4F-6	Ac-DWFKAFYEKVFEKAKDAF-NH2	141
  [F-14 and A-17 switched]		142
  4F-7	Ac-DWFKAFYDKVAEKAKEFF-NH2	143
  [Switch D-E]-1-4F-7A	Ac-EWFKAFYEKVADKAKDFF-NH2	144
  [Switch D-E]-2-4F-7	Ac-EWFKAFYDKVADKAKEFF-NH2	145
  [Switch D-E]-3-4F-7	Ac-DWFKAFYEKVADKAKEFF-NH2	146
  [Switch D-E]-4-4F-7	Ac-DWFKAFYEKVAEKAKDFF-NH2	147
  [A-17 and F-18 switched]		148
  4F-8	Ac-DWFKAFYDKVAEKFKEFA-NH2	149
  [Switch D-E]-1-4F-8	Ac-EWFKAFYEKVADKFKDFA-NH2	150
  [Switch D-E]-2-4F-8	Ac-EWFKAFYDKVADKFKEFA-NH2	151
  [Switch D-E]-3-4F-8	Ac-DWFKAFYEKVADKFKEFA-NH2	152
  [Switch D-E]-4-4F-8	Ac-DWFKAFYEKVAEKFKDFA-NH2	153
  [W-2 and A-17 switched]		154
  4F-9	Ac-DAFKAFYDKVAEKFKEWF-NH2	155
  [Switch D-E]-1-4F-9	Ac-EAFKAFYEKVADKFKDWF-NH2	156
  [Switch D-E]-2-4F-9	Ac-EAFKAFYDKVADKFKEWF-NH2	157
  [Switch D-E]-3-4F-9	Ac-DAFKAFYEKVADKFKEWF-NH2	158
  [Switch D-E]-4-4F-9	Ac-DAFKAFYEKVAEKFKDWF-NH2	159
  [W-2 and A-11 switched]		160
  4F-10	Ac-DAFKAFYDKVWEKFKEAF-NH2	161
  [Switch D-E]-1-4F-10	Ac-EAFKAFYEKVWDKFKDAF-NH2	162
  [Switch D-E]-2-4F-10	Ac-EAFKAFYDKVWDKFKEAF-NH2	163
  [Switch D-E]-3-4F-10	Ac-DAFKAFYEKVWDKFKEAF-NH2	164
  [Switch D-E]-4-4F-10	Ac-DAFKAFYEKVWEKFKDAF-NH2	165
  [W-2 and Y-7 switched]		166
  4F-11	Ac-DYFKAFWDKVAEKFKEAF-NH	167
  [Switch D-E]-1-4F-11	Ac-EYFKAFWEKVADKFKDAF-NH2	168
  [Switch D-E]-2-4F-11	Ac-EYFKAFWDKVADKFKEAF-NH2	169
  [Switch D-E]-3-4F-11	Ac-DYFKAFWEKVADKFKEAF-NH2	170
  [Switch D-E]-4-4F-11	Ac-DYFKAFWEKVAEKFKDAF-NH2	171
  [F-3 and A-17 switched]		172
  4F-12	Ac-DWAKAFYDKVAEKFKEFF-NH2	173
  [Switch D-E]-1-4F-12	Ac-EWAKAFYEKVADKFKDFF-NH2	174
  [Switch D-E]-2-4F-12	Ac-EWAKAFYDKVADKFKEFF-NH2	175
  [Switch D-E]-3-4F-12	Ac-DWAKAFYEKVADKFKEFF-NH2	176
  [Switch D-E]-4-4F-12	Ac-DWAKAFYEKVAEKFKDFF-NH2	177
  [F-6 and A-17 switched]		178
  4F-13	Ac-DWFKAAYDKVAEKFKEFF-NH2	179
  [Switch D-E]-1-4F-13	Ac-EWFKAAYEKVADKFKDFF-NH2	180
  [Switch D-E]-2-4F-13	Ac-EWFKAAYDKVADKFKEFF-NH2	181
  [Switch D-E]-3-4F-13	Ac-DWFKAAYEKVADKFKEFF-NH2	182
  [Switch D-E]-4-4F-13	Ac-DWFKAAYEKVAEKFKDFF-NH2	183
  [Y-7 and A-17 switched		184
  4F-14	Ac-DWFKAFADKVAEKFKEYF-NH2	185
  [Switch D-E]-1-4F-14	Ac-EWFKAFAEKVADKFKDYF-NH2	186
  [Switch D-E]-2-4F-14	Ac-EWFKAFADKVADKFKEYF-NH2	187
  [Switch D-E]-3-4F-14	Ac-DWFKAFAEKVADKFKEYF-NH2	188
  [Switch D-E] -4-4F	Ac-DWFKAFAEKVAEKFKDYF-NH2	189
  [V-10 and A-17 switched]		190
  4F-15	Ac-DWFKAFYDKAAEKFKEVF-NH2	191
  [Switch D-E]-1-4F-15	Ac-EWFKAFYEKAADKFKDVF-NH2	192
  [Switch D-E]-2-4F-15	Ac-EWFKAFYDKAADKFKEVF-NH2	193
  [Switch D-E]-3-4F-15	Ac-DWFKAFYEKAADKFKEVF-NH2	194
  [Switch D-E]-4-4F-15	Ac-DWFKAFYEKAAEKFKDVF-NH2	195
  [F3 and Y-7 switched]		196
  4F-16	Ac-DWYKAFFDKVAEKFKEAF-NH2	197
  [Switch D-E]-1-4F-16	Ac-EWYKAFFEKVADKFKDAF-NH2	198
  [Switch D-E]-2-4F-16	Ac-EWYKAFFDKVADKFKEAF-NH2	199
  [Switch D-E]-3-4F-16	Ac-DWYKAFFEKVADKFKEAF-NH2	200
  [Switch D-E]-4-4F-16	Ac-DWYKAFFEKVAEKFKDAF-NH2	201
  [F-3 and V-10 switched]		202
  4F-17	Ac-DWVKAFYDKFAEKFKEAF-NH2	203
  [Switch D-E]-1-4F-17	Ac-EWVKAFYEKFADKFKDAF-NH2	204
  [Switch D-E]-2-4F-17	Ac-EWVKAFYDKFADKFKEAF-NH2	205
  [Switch D-E]-3-4F-17	Ac-DWVKAFYEKFADKFKEAF-NH2	206
  [Switch D-E]-4-4F-17	Ac-DWVKAFYEKFAEKFKDAF-NH2	207
  [Y-7 and F-14 switched]		208
  4F-18	Ac-DWFKAFFDKVAEKYKEAF-NH2	209
  [Switch D-E]-1-4F-18	Ac-EWFKAFFEKVADKYKDAF-NH2	210
  [Switch D-E]-2-4F-18	Ac-EWFKAFFDKVADKYKEAF-NH2	211
  [Switch D-E]-3-4F-18	Ac-DWFKAFFEKVADKYKEAF-NH2	212
  [Switch D-E]-4F-18	Ac-DWFKAFFEKVADKYKEAF-NH2	213
  [Y-7 and F-18 switched]		214
  4F-19	Ac-DWFKAFFDKVAEKFKEAY-NH2	215
  [Switch D-E]-1-4F-19	Ac-EWFKAFFEKVADKFKDAY-NH2	216
  [Switch D-E]-2-4F-19	Ac-EWFKAFFDKVADKFKEAY-NH2	217
  [Switch D-E]-3-4F-19	Ac-DWFKAFFEKVADKFKEAY-NH2	218
  [Switch D-E]-4-4F-19	Ac-DWFKAFFEKVAEKFKDAY-NH2	219
  [V-10 and F-18 switched]		220
  4F-20	Ac-DWFKAFYDKFAEKFKEAV-NH2	221
  [Switch D-E]-1-4F-20	Ac-EWFKAFYEKFADKFKDAV-NH2	222
  [Switch D-E]-2-4F-20	Ac-EWFKAFYDKFADKFKEAV-NH2	223
  [Switch D-E]-3-4F-20	Ac-DWFKAFYEKFADKFKEAV-NH2	224
  [Switch D-E]-4-4F-20	Ac-DWFKAFYEKFAEKFKDAV-NH2	225
  [W-2 and K13 switched]		226
  4F-21	Ac-DKFKAFYDKVAEKFWEAF-NH2	227
  [Switch D-E]-1-4F-21	Ac-EKFKAFYEKVADKFWDAF-NH2	228
  [Switch D-E]-2-4F-21	Ac-EKFKAFYDKVADKFWEAF-NH2	229
  [Switch D-E]-3-4F-21	Ac-DKFKAFYEKVADKFWEAF-NH2	230
  [Switch D-E]-4-4F-21	Ac-DKFKAFYEKVAEKFWDAF-NH2	231
  [W-3, F-13 and K-2 4F]		232
  4F-22	Ac-DKWKAYYDKVAEKFFEAF-NH2	233
  [Switch D-E]-1-4F-22	Ac-EKWKAFYEKVADKFFDAF-NH2	234
  [Switch D-E]-2-4F-22	Ac-EKWKAFYDKVADKFFEAF-NH2	235
  [Switch D-E]-3-4F-22	Ac-DKWKAFYEKVADKFFEAF-NH2	236
  [Switch D-E]-4-4F-22	Ac-DKWKAFYEKVAEKFFDAF-NH2	237
  [K-2, W10, V-13]		238
  4F-23	Ac-DKFKAFYDKWAEVFKEAF-NH2	239
  [Switch D-E]-4F analogs		240
  [Switch D-E]-1-4F-23	Ac-EKFKAFYEKWADVFKDAF-NH2	241
  [Switch D-E]-2-4F-23	Ac-EKFKAFYDKWADVFKEAF-NH2	242
  [Switch D-E]-3-4F-23	Ac-DKFKAFYEKWADVFKEAF-NH2	243
  [Switch D-E]-4-4F-23	Ac-DKFKAFYEKWAEVFKDAF-NH2	244
  [K-2, F-13, W-14 4F]		245
  4F-24	Ac-DKFKAFYDKVAEFWKEAF-NH2	246
  [Switch D-E]-4F analogs		247
  [Switch D-E]-1-4F-24	Ac-EKFKAFYEKVADFWKDAF-NH2	248
  [Switch D-E]-2-4F-24	Ac-EKFKAFYDKVADFWKEAF-NH2	249
  [Switch D-E]-3-4F-24	Ac-DKFKAFYEKVADFWKEAF-NH2	250
  [Switch D-E]-4-4F-24	Ac-DKFKAFYEKVAEFWKDAF-NH2	251
  Reverse 4F analogs		252
  Rev-4F	Ac-FAEKFKEAVKDYFAKFWD-NH2	253
  [Switch D-E]-1-Rev-4F	Ac-FADKFKDAVKEYFAKFWE-NH2	254
  [Switch D-E]-2-Rev-4F	Ac-FADKFKEAVKDYFAKFWE-NH2	255
  [Switch D-E]-3-Rev-4F	Ac-FAEKFKDAVKEYFAKFWD-NH2	256
  [Switch D-E]-4-Rev-4F	Ac-FAEKFKDAVKDYFAKFWE-NH2	257
  [A-2 and W-17 switched]		258
  Rev-4F-1	Ac-FWEKFKEAVKDYFAKFAD-NH2	259
  [Switch D-E]-1-Rev-4F-1	Ac-FWDKFKDAVKEYFAKFAE-NH2	260
  [Switch D-E]-2-Rev-4F-1	Ac-FADKFKEAVKDYFAKFWE-NH2	261
  [Switch D-E]-3-Rev-4F-1	Ac-FAEKFKDAVKEYFAKFWD-NH2	262
  [Switch D-E]-4-Rev-4F-1	Ac-FAEKFKDAVKDYFAKFWE-NH2	263
  [Switch A-2 and F-16]		264
  Rev-4F-2	Ac-FFEKFKEAVKDYFAKAWD-NH2	265
  [Switch D-E]-1-Rev-4F-2	Ac-FFDKFKDAVKEYFAKAWE-NH2	266
  [Switch D-E]-2-Rev-4F-2	Ac-FFDKFKEAVKDYFAKAWE-NH2	267
  [Switch D-E]-3-Rev-4F-2	Ac-FFEKFKDAVKEYFAKAWD-NH2	268
  [Switch D-E]-4-Rev-4F-2	Ac-FFEKFKDAVKDYFAKAWE-NH2	269
  [switch F-5 and A-8]		270
  Rev-4F-3	Ac-FAEKAKEFVKDYFAKFWD-NH2	271
  [Switch D-E]-1-Rev-4F-3	Ac-FADKAKDFVKEYFAKFWE-NH2	272
  [Switch D-E]-2-Rev-4F-3	Ac-FADKAKEFVKDYFAKFWE-NH2	273
  [Switch D-E]-3-Rev-4F-3	Ac-FAEKAKDFVKEYFAKFWD-NH2	274
  [Switch D-E]-4-Rev-4F-3	Ac-FAEKAKDFVKDYFAKFWE-NH2	275
  [Switch A-8 and V9]		276
  Rev-4F-4	Ac-FAEKFKEVAKDYFAKFWD-NH2	277
  [Switch D-E]-1-Rev-4F-4	Ac-FADKFKDVAKEYFAKFWE-NH2	278
  [Switch D-E]-2-Rev-4F-4	Ac-FADKFKEVAKDYFAKFWE-NH2	279
  [Switch D-E]-3-Rev-4F-4	Ac-FAEKFKDVAKEYFAKFWD-NH2	280
  [Switch D-E]-4-Rev-4F-4	Ac-FAEKFKDVAKDYFAKFWE-NH2	281
  [Switch V-9 to Y-12]		282
  Rev-4F-5	Ac-FAEKFKEAYKDVFAKFWD-NH2	283
  [Switch D-E]-1-Rev-4F-5	Ac-FADKFKDAYKEVFAKFWE-NH2	284
  [Switch D-E]-2-Rev-4F-5	Ac-FADKFKEAYKDVFAKFWE-NH2	285
  [Switch D-E]-3-Rev-4F-5	Ac-FAEKFKDAYKEVFAKFWD-NH2	286
  [Switch D-E]-4-Rev-4F-5	Ac-FAEKFKDAYKDVFAKFWE-NH2	287
  [Switch Y-12 and F-13]		288
  Rev-4F-6	Ac-FAEKFKEAVKDFYAKFWD-NH2	289
  [Switch D-E]-1-Rev-4F-6	Ac-FADKFKDAVKEFYAKFWE-NH2	290
  [Switch D-E]-2-Rev-4F-6	Ac-FADKFKEAVKDFYAKFWE-NH2	291
  [Switch D-E]-3-Rev-4F-6	Ac-FAEKFKDAVKEFYAKFWD-NH2	292
  [Switch D-E]-4-Rev-4F-6	Ac-FAEKFKDAVKDFYAKFWE-NH2	293
  [Switch K-6 and W-17]		294
  Rev-4F-7	Ac-FAEKFWEAVKDYFAKFKD-NH2	295
  [Switch D-E]-1-Rev-4F-7	Ac-FADKFWDAVKEYFAKFKE-NH2	296
  [Switch D-E]-2-Rev-4F-7	Ac-FADKFWEAVKDYFAKFKE-NH2	297
  [Switch D-E]-3-Rev-4F-7	Ac-FAEKFWDAVKEYFAKFKD-NH2	298
  [Switch D-E]-4-Rev-4F-7	Ac-FAEKFWDAVKDYFAKFKE-NH2	299
  [Switch F-1 and A-2]		300
  Rev-4F-8	Ac-AFEKFKEAVKDYFAKFWD-NH2	301
  [Switch D-E]-1-Rev-4F-8	Ac-AFDKFKDAVKEYFAKFWE-NH2	302
  [Switch D-E]-2-Rev-4F-8	Ac-AFDKFKEAVKDYFAKFWE-NH2	303
  [Switch D-E]-3-Rev-4F-8	Ac-AFEKFKDAVKEYFAKFWD-NH2	304
  [Switch D-E]-4-Rev-4F-8	Ac-AFEKFKDAVKDYFAKFWE-NH2	305
  [F-1 and V-9 are switched]		306
  Rev-F-9	Ac-VAEKFKEAFKDYFAKFWD-NH2	307
  [Switch D-E]-1-Rev-4F-9	Ac-VADKFKDAFKEYFAKFWE-NH2	308
  [Switch D-E]-2-Rev-4F-9	Ac-VADKFKEAFKDYFAKFWE-NH2	309
  [Switch D-E]-3-Rev-4F-9	Ac-VAEKFKDAFKEYFAKFWD-NH2	310
  [Switch D-E]-4-Rev-4F-9	Ac-VAEKFKDAFKDYFAKFWE-NH2	311
  [F-1 and Y-12 are switched]		312
  Rev-4F-10	Ac-YAEKFKEAVKDFFAKFWD-NH2	313
  [Switch D-E]-1-Rev-4F-10	Ac-YADKFKDAVKEFFAKFWE-NH2	314
  [Switch D-E]-2-Rev-4F-10	Ac-YADKFKEAVKDFFAKFWE-NH2	315
  [Switch D-E]-3-Rev-4F-10	Ac-YAEKFKDAVKEFFAKFWD-NH2	316
  [Switch D-E]-4-Rev-4F-10	Ac-YAEKFKDAVKDFFAKFWE-NH2	317
  [F-1 and A-8 are switched]		318
  Rev-4F-11	Ac-AAEKFKEFVKDYFAKFWD-NH2	319
  [Switch D-E]-1-Rev-4F-11	Ac-AADKFKDFVKEYFAKFWE-NH2	320
  [Switch D-E]-2-Rev-4F-11	Ac-AADKFKEFVKDYFAKFWE-NH2	321
  [Switch D-E]-3-Rev-4F-11	Ac-AAEKFKDFVKEYFAKFWD-NH2	322
  Switch D-E]-4-Rev-4F-11	Ac-AAEKFKDFVKDYFAKFWE-NH2	323
  [A-2 and F-5 are switched]		324
  Rev-4F-12	Ac-FFEKAKEAVKDYFAKFWD-NH2	325
  [Switch D-E]-1-Rev-4F-12	Ac-FFDKAKDAVKEYFAKFWE-NH2	326
  [Switch D-E]-2-Rev-4F-12	Ac-FFDKAKEAVKDYFAKFWE-NH2	327
  [Switch D-E]-3-Rev-4F-12	Ac-141-EKAKDAVKEYFAKFWD-NH2	328
  [Switch D-E]-4-Rev-4F-12	Ac-1-1-EKAKDAVKDYFAKFWE-NH2	329
  [A-2 and Y12 are switched		330
  Rev-4F-13	Ac-FYEKFKEAVKDAFAKFWD-NH2	331
  [Switch D-E]-1-Rev-4F-13	Ac-FYDKFKDAVKEAFAKFWE-NH2	332
  [Switch D-E]-2-Rev-4F-13	Ac-FYDKFKEAVKDAFAKFWE-NH2	333

  [Switch D-E]-3-Rev-4F-13	Ac-FYEKFKDAVKEAFAKFWD-NH2	334
  [Switch D-E]-4-Rev-4F-13	Ac-FYEKFKDAVKDAFAKFWE-NH2	335
  [A-2 and V-9 are switched]		336
  Rev-4F-14	Ac-FVEKFKEAAKDYFAKFWD-NH2	337
  [Switch D-E]-1-Rev-4F-14	Ac-FVDKFKDAAKEYFAKFWE-NH2	338
  [Switch D-E]-2-Rev-4F-14	Ac-FVDKFKEAAKDYFAKFWE-NH2	339
  [Switch D-E]-3-Rev-4F-14	Ac-FVEKFKDAAKEYFAKFWD-NH2	340
  [Switch D-E]-4-Rev-4F-14	Ac-FVEKFKDAAKDYFAKFWE-NH2	341
  [F-5 and Y-12 are switched]		342
  Rev-4F-15	Ac-FAEKYKEAVKDFFAKFWD-NH2	343
  [Switch D-E]-1-Rev-4F-15	Ac-FADKYKDAVKEFFAKFWE-NH2	344
  [Switch D-E]-2-Rev-4F-15	Ac-FADKYKEAVKDFFAKFWE-NH2	345
  [Switch D-E]-3-Rev-4F-15	Ac-FAEKYKDAVKEFFAKFWD-NH2	346
  [Switch D-E]-4-Rev-4F-15	Ac-FAEKYKDAVKDFFAKFWE-NH2	347
  [F-5 and V-9 are switched]		348
  Rev-4F-16	Ac-FAEKVKEAFKDYFAKFWD-NH2	349
  [Switch D-E]-1-Rev-4F-16	Ac-FADKVKDAFKEYFAKFWE-NH2	350
  [Switch D-E]-2-Rev-4F-16	Ac-FADKVKEAFKDYFAKFWE-NH2	351
  [Switch D-E]-3-Rev-4F-16	Ac-FAEKVKDAFKEYFAKFWD-NH2	352
  [Switch D-E]-4-Rev-4F-16	Ac-FAEKVKDAFKDYFAKFWE-NH2	353
  [A-8 and Y-12 switched]		354
  Rev-4F-17	Ac-FAEKFKEYVKDAFAKFWD-NH2	355
  [Switch D-E]-1-Rev-4F-17	Ac-FADKFKDYVKEAFAKFWE-NH2	356
  [Switch D-E]-2-Rev-4F-17	Ac-FADKFKEYVKDAFAKFWE-NH2	357
  [Switch D-E]-3-Rev-4F-17	Ac-FAEKFKDYVKEAFAKFWD-NH2	358
  [Switch D-E]-4-Rev-4F-17	Ac-FAEKFKDYVKDAFAKFWE-NH2	359
  [V-9 and F-13 are switched]		360
  Rev-4F-18	Ac-FAEKFKEAFKDYVAKFWD-NH2	361
  [Switch D-E]-1-Rev-4F-18	Ac-FADKFKDAFKEYVAKFWE-NH2	362
  [Switch D-E]-2-Rev-4F-18	Ac-FADKFKEAFKDYVAKFWE-NH2	363
  [Switch D-E]-3-Rev-4F-18	Ac-FAEKFKDAFKEYVAKFWD-NH2	364
  [Switch D-E]-4-Rev-4F-18	Ac-FAEKFKDAFKDYVAKFWE-NH2	365
  [V-9 and F-16 switched]		366
  Rev-4F-19	Ac-FAEKFKEAFKDYEAKVWD-NH2	367
  [Switch D-E]-1-Rev-4F-19	Ac-FADKFKDAFKEYFAKVWE-NH2	368
  [Switch D-E]-2-Rev-4F-19	Ac-FADKFKEAFKDYFAKVWE-NH2	369
  [Switch D-E]-3-Rev-4F-19	Ac-FAEKFKDAFKEYFAKVWD-NH2	370
  Switch D-E]-4-Rev-4F-19	Ac-FAEKFKDAFKDYFAKVWE-NH2	371
  [Y-12 and F-16 are switched		372
  Rev-4F-20	Ac-FAEKFKEAVKDFFAKYWD-NH2	373
  [Switch D-E]-1-Rev-4F-20	Ac-FADKFKDAVKEFFAKYWE-NH2	374
  [Switch D-E]-2-Rev-4F-20	Ac-FADKFKEAVKDFFAKYWE-NH2	375
  [Switch D-E]-3-Rev-4F-20	Ac-FAEKFKDAVKEFFAKYWD-NH2	376
  [Switch D-E]-4-Rev-4F-20	Ac-FAEKFKDAVKDFFAKYWE-NH2	377
  [W-1, F-6 and K-17 Rev 4F]		378
  Rev-4F-21	Ac-WAEKFFEAVKDYFAKFKD-NH2	379
  [Switch D-E]-1-Rev-4F-7	Ac-WADKFFDAVKEYFAKFKE-NH2	380
  [Switch D-E]-2-Rev-4F-7	Ac-WADKFFEAVKDYFAKFKE-NH2	381
  [Switch D-E]-3-Rev-4F-7	Ac-WAEKFFDAVKEYFAKFKD-NH2	382
  Switch D-E]-4-Rev-4F-7	Ac-WAEKFFDAVKDYFAKFKE-NH2	383
  [W-5, F-6 and K-17 Rev-4F]		384
  Rev-4F-22	Ac-FAEKWFEAVKDYFAKFKD-NH2	385
  [Switch D-E]-1-Rev-4F-22	Ac-FADKWFDAVKEYFAKFKE-NH2	386
  [Switch D-E]-2-Rev-4F-22	Ac-FADKWFEAVKDYFAKFKE-NH2	387
  [Switch D-E]-3-Rev-4F-22	Ac-FAEKWFDAVKEYFAKFKD-NH2	388
  [Switch D-E]-4-Rev-4F-22	Ac-FAEKWFDAVKDYFAKFKE-NH2	389
  [V-6, W-9, K-17 Rev-4F]		390
  Rev-4F-23	Ac-FAEKFVEAWKDYFAKFKD-NH2	391
  [Switch D-E]-1-Rev-4F-23	Ac-FADKFVDAWKEYFAKFKE-NH2	392
  [Switch D-E]-2-Rev-4F-23	Ac-FADKFVEAWKDYFAKFKE-NH2	393
  [Switch D-E]-3-Rev-4F-23	Ac-FAEKFVDAWKEYFAKFKD-NH2	394
  [Switch D-E]-4-Rev-4F-23	Ac-FAEKFVDAWKDYFAKFKE-NH2	395
  [Y-2, A-4, W-12, K-17 Rev-4F]		396
  Rev-4F-24	Ac-FYEKFAEAVKDWFAKFKD-NH2	397
  [Switch D-E]-1-Rev-4F-24	Ac-FYDKFADAVKEWFAKFKE-NH2	398
  [Switch D-E]-2-Rev-4F-24	Ac-FYDKFAEAVKDWFAKFKE-NH2	399
  [Switch D-E]-3-Rev-4F-24	Ac-FYEKFADAVKEWFAKFKD-NH2	400
  [Switch D-E]-4-Rev-4F-24	Ac-FYEKFADAVKDWFAKFKE-NH2	401

• Based on the helical wheel diagrams shown inFIG. 15 it is possible to readily identify biologically active and useful peptides. Thus, for example, the following peptides have been accurately identified as active: 3F1; 3F2; 4F the reverse (retro) forms thereof and the retro-inverso forms thereof. Thus, in certain embodiments, this invention contemplates active agents comprising a peptide that is 18 amino acids in length and forms a class A amphipathic helix where the peptide has theamino acid composition 2 aspartates, 2 glutamates, 4 lysines, 1 tryptophan, 1 tyrosine, no more than one leucine, no more than 1 valine, no less than 1 and no more than 3 alanines, and with 3 to 6 amino acids from the group: phenylalanine, alpha-naphthalanine, beta-naphthalanine, histidine, and contains either 9 or 10 amino acids on the polar face in a helical wheel representation of the class A amphipathic helix including 4 amino acids with positive charge at neutral pH with two of the positively charged residues residing at the interface between the polar and non-polar faces and with two of the four positively charged residues on the polar face that are contiguous and on the non-polar face two of the amino acid residues from the group: phenylalanine, alpha-naphthalanine, beta-naphthalanine, histidine are also contiguous and if there are 4 or more amino acids from this group on the non-polar face there are also at least 2 residues from this group that are not contiguous.
• In certain embodiments, this invention also contemplates certain class Y as well as class A amphipathic helical peptides. Class Y amphipathic helical peptides are known to those of skill in the art (see, e.g., Segrest et al. (1992) J. Lipid Res. 33: 141-166; Oram and Heinecke (2005) Physiol Rev. 85: 1343-1372, and the like). In various embodiments these peptides include, but are not limited to an 18 amino acid peptide that forms a class A amphipathic helix or a class Y amphipathic helix described by formula III (SEQ ID NO:402):

• D X X K Y X X D K X Y D KX K D Y X

  III

• where the D's are independently Asp or Glu; the Ks are independently Lys or Arg; the Xs are independently Leu, norLeu, Val, Ile, Trp, Phe, Tyr, β-Nal, or α-Nal and all X residues are on the non-polar face (e.g., when viewed in a helical wheel diagram) except for one that can be on the polar face between two K residues; the Y's are independently Ala, His, Ser, Gln, Asn, or Thr non-polar face (e.g., when viewed in a helical wheel diagram) and the Y's are independently one Ala on the polar face, one His, one Ser, one Gln one Asn, or one Thr on the polar face (e.g., when viewed in a helical wheel diagram), where no more than two K are be contiguous (e.g., when viewed in a helical wheel diagram); and where no more than 3 D's are contiguous (e.g., when viewed in a helical wheel diagram) and the fourth D is be separated from the other D's by a Y. Illustrative peptides of this kind which include peptides with histidine, and/or alpha- and/or beta-napthalanine are shown in Table 5. Reverse (retro-), inverse, retro-inverso-, and circularly permuted forms of these peptides are also contemplated.

• TABLE 5
  		SEQ ID
  Short Name	Peptide Sequence	NO.
  [A-5 > H]4F	Ac-DWFKHFYDKVAEKFKEAF-NH2	403
  [A-5 > H, D-E switched] 4F	Ac-EWFKHFYEKVADKFKDAF-NH2	404
  [A-5 > H, D-1 > E]4F	Ac-EWFKHFYDKVAEKFKEAF-NH2	405
  [A-5 > H, D-8 > E]4-F	Ac-DWFKHFYEKVAEKFKEAF-NH2	406
  [A-5 > H, E-12 > D] 4F	Ac-DWFKHFYDKVADKFKEAF-NH2	407
  [A-5 > H, E-16 > D]4F	Ac-DWFKHFYDKVAEKFKDAF-NH2	408
  [F-3 > H, A-5 > F]-4F	Ac-DWHKFFYDKVAEKFKEAF-NH2	409
  [F-3 > H, A-5 > F, D-E switched]-4F	Ac-EWHKFFYEKVADKFKDAF-NH2	410
  [F-3 > H, A-5 > F, D-1 > E]-4F	Ac-EWHKFFYDKVAEKFKEAF-NH2	411
  [F-3 > H, A-5 > F, D-8 > E]-4F	Ac-DWHKFFYEKVAEKFKEAF-NH2	412
  [F-3 > H, A-5 > F, E- 12 > D]-4F	Ac-DWHKFFYDKVADKFKEAF-NH2	413
  [F-3 > H, A-5 > F, E-16 > D]-4F	Ac-DWHKFFYDKVAEKFKDAF-NH2	414
  [A-5 > F, F-6 > H]4F	Ac-DWFKFHYDKVAEKFKEAF-NH2	415
  [A-5 > F, F-6 > H, D-E switched]4F	Ac-EWFKFHYEKVADKFKDAF-NH2	416
  [[A-5 > F, F-6 > H, D- 1 > E]4F	Ac-EWFKFHYDKVAEKFKEAF-NH2	417
  [A-5 > F, F-6 > H, D-8 > E]4F	Ac-DWFKFHYEKVAEKFKEAF-NH2	418
  [A-5 > F, F-6 > H, E-12 > D]4F	Ac-DWFKFHYDKVADKFKEAF-NH2	419
  [A-5 > F, F-6 > H, E- 16 > D]4F	Ac-DWFKFHYDKVAEKFKDAF-NH2	420
  [A-5 > V, V-10 > H]4F	Ac-DWFKVFYDKHAEKFKEAF-NH2	421
  [A-5 > V, V-10 > H, D-E switched]4F	Ac-EWFKVFYEKHADKFKDAF-NH2	422
  [A-5 > V, V-10 > H, D-1 > E]4F	Ac-EWFKVFYDKHAEKFKEAF-NH2	423
  [A-5 > V, V-10 > H, D-8 > E]4F	Ac-DWFKVFYEKHAEKFKEAF-NH2	424
  [A-5 > V, V-10 > H, E-12 > D]4F	Ac-DWFKVFYDKHADKFKEAF-NH2	425
  [A-5 > V, V-10 > H, E16 > D]4F	Ac-DWFKVFYDKHAEKFKDAF-NH2	426
  [[A-17 > H]4F	Ac-DWFKAFYDKVAEKFKEHF-NH2	427
  [A-17 > H, D-E switched]4F	Ac-EWFKAFYEKVADKFKDHF-NH2	428
  [[A-17 > H, D-1 > E]4F	Ac-EWFKAFYDKVAEKFKEHF-NH2	429
  [[A-17 > H, D-8 > E]4F	Ac-DWFKAFYEKVAEKFKEHF-NH2	430
  [[A-17 > H, E-12 > D]4F	Ac-DWFKAFYDKVADKFKEHF-NH2	431
  [[A-17 > H, E 1 6 > D]4F	Ac-DWFKAFYDKVAEKFKDHF-NH2	432
  [A-17 > F, F-18 > H]4F	Ac-DWFKAFYDKVAEKFKEFH-NH2	433
  [A-17 > F, F-18 > H, D-E switched]4F	Ac-EWFKAFYEKVADKFKDFH-NH2	434
  [A-17 > F, F-18 > H, D-1 > E]-4F	Ac-EWFKAFYDKVAEKFKEFH-NH2	435
  [A-17 > F, F-18 > H]4F	Ac-DWFKAFYDKVAEKFKEFH-NH2	436
  [A-17 > F, F-18 > H, D-8 > E]-4F	Ac-DWFKAFYEKVAEKFKEFH-NH2	437
  [A-17 > F, F-18 > H, E-12 > D]4F	Ac-DWFKAFYDKVAEKFKEFH-NH2	438
  [A-17 > F, F-18 > H], E-16 > D]-4F	Ac-DWFKAFYDKVAEKFKDFH-NH2	439
  Rev-4F	Ac-FAEKFKEAVKDYFAKFWD-NH2	440
  [A-2 > H]Rev4F	Ac-FHEKFKEAVKDYFAKFWD-NH2	441
  Rev-[A-2 > H, D > E]-4F	Ac-FHEKFKEAVKEYFAKFWE-NH2	442
  Rev-[A-2 > H, E]22D]4F	Ac-FHDKFKDAVKDYFAKFWD-NH2	443
  [A-2 > H, D-E switched]Rev-4F	Ac-FHDKFKDAVKEYFAKFWE-NH2	444
  [A-2 > H, E-3 > D]Rev-4F	Ac-FHDKFKEAVKDYFAKFWD-NH2	445
  [A-2 > H, E-7 > D]Rev-4F	Ac-FHEKFKDAVKDYFAKFWD-NH2	446
  [A-2 > 2H, D-11 > E]Rev-4F	Ac-FHEKFKEAVKEYFAKFWD-NH2	447
  [A-2 > H, D-18 > E]Rev-4F	Ac-FHEKFKEAVKDYFAKFWE-NH2	448
  [F-1 > H, A-2 > F+ Rev-4F	Ac-HFEKFKEAVKDYFAKFWD-NH2	449
  [F-1 > H, A-2 > F,D-E switched]Rev-4F	Ac-HFDKFKDAVKEYFAKFWE-NH2	450
  [F-1 > H, A-2 > F, D > E]Rev-4F	Ac-HFEKFKEAVKEYFAKFWE-NH2	451
  [F-1 > H, A-2 > F, E-3 > D]Rev-4F	Ac-HFDKFKEAVKDYFAKFWD-NH2	452
  [F-1 > H, A-2 > F, E-7 > D]Rev-4F	Ac-HFEKFKDAVKDYFAKFWD-NH2	453
  [F-1 > H, A-2 > F, D-11 > E]Rev-4F	Ac-HFEKFKEAVKEYFAKFWD-NH2	454
  [F-1 > H, A-2 > F, D-18 > E]Rev-4F	Ac-HFEKFKEAVKDYFAKFWE-NH2	455
  [A-2 > F, F-5 > H] Rev D-4F	Ac-FFEKHKEAVKDYFAKFWD-NH2	456
  [A-2 > F, F-5 > H, D-E switched]Rev D-4F	Ac-FFDKHKDAVKEYFAKFWE-NH2	457
  [A-2 > F, F-5 > H, D > E]Rev D-4F	Ac-FFEKHKEAVKEYFAKFWE-NH2	458
  [A-2 > F, F-5 > H, E]22D]Rev D-4F	Ac-FFDKHKDAVKDYFAKFWD-NH2	459
  A-2 > F, F-5 > H, E-3 > D]Rev	Ac-FFDKHKEAVKDYFAKFWD-NH2	460
  D-4F [A-2 > F, F-5 > H, D-11 > E]Rev D-4F	Ac-FFEKHKEAVKEYFAKFWD-NH2	461
  [A-2 > F, F-5 > H, D-18 > E]Rev D-4F	Ac-FFEKHKEAVKDYFAKFWE-NH2	462
  [A-2 > V, V-9 > H]Rev D-4F	Ac-FVEKFKEAHKDYFAKFWD-NH2	463
  [A-2 > V, V-9 > H, D- E switched]Rev D-4F	Ac-FVDKFKDAHKEYFAKFWE-NH2	464
  [A-2 > V, V-9 > H, D > E]Rev D-4F	Ac-FVEKFKEAHKEYFAKFWE-NH2	465
  [A-2 > V, V-9 > H, E]22D]Rev D-4F	Ac-FVDKFKDAHKDYFAKFWD-NH2	466
  [A-2 > V, V-9 > H, E-3 > D]Rev D-4F	Ac-FVDKFKEAHKDYFAKFWD-NH2	467
  [A-2 > V, V-9 > H, E-7 > D]Rev D-4F	Ac-FVEKFKDAHKDYFAKFWD-NH2	468
  [A-2 > V, V-9 > H, D-11 > E]Rev D-4F	Ac-FVEKFKEAHKEYFAKFWD-NH2	469
  [A-2 > V, V-9 > H, D-18 > E]Rev D-4F	Ac-FVEKFKEAHKDYFAKFWE-NH2	470
  [A-8 > H]Rev-4F	Ac-FAEKFKEHVKDYFAKFWD-NH2	471
  [A-8 > H,D-E switched]Rev-4F	Ac-FADKFKDHVKEYFAKFWE-NH2	472
  [A-8 > H, D > E]Rev-4F	Ac-FAEKFKEHVKEYFAKFWE-NH2	473
  [A-8 > H, E]22D]Rev-4F	Ac-FADKFKDHVKDYFAKFWD-NH2	474
  [A-8 > H, E-3 > D]Rev-4F	Ac-FADKFKEHVKDYFAKFWD-NH2	475
  [A-8 > H, E-7 > D]Rev-4F	Ac-FAEKFKDHVKDYFAKFWD-NH2	476
  [A-8 > H, D-11 > E]Rev-4F	Ac-FAEKFKEHVKEYFAKFWD-NH2	477
  [A-8 > H, D-18 > E] Rev-4F	Ac-FAEKFKEHVKDYFAKFWE-NH2	478
  [A-8 > F, F-13 > H]Rev-4F	Ac-FAEKFKEFVKDYHAKFWD-NH2	479
  [A-8 > F, F-13 > H, D-E switched]Rev-4F	Ac-FADKFKDFVKEYHAKFWE-NH2	480
  [A-8 > F, F-13 > H, E-3 > D]Rev-4F	Ac-FADKFKEFVKDYHAKFWD-NH2	481
  [A-8 > F, F-13 > H, E-7 > D]Rev-4F	Ac-FAEKFKDFVKDYHAKFWD-NH2	482
  [A-8 > F, F-13 > H, E]22D]Rev-4F	Ac-FADKFKDFVKDYHAKFWD-NH2	483
  [A-8 > F, F-13 > H, D > E]Rev-4F	Ac-FAEKFKEFVKEYHAKFWE-NH2	484
  [A-8 > F, F-13 > H, D-11 > E]Rev-4F	Ac-FAEKFKEFVKEYHAKFWD-NH2	485
  [A-8 > F, F-13 > H, D-18 > E]Rev-4F	Ac-FAEKFKEFVKDYHAKFWE-NH2	486
  [A-8 > F, F16 > H]Rev-4F	Ac-FAEKFKEFVKDYFAKHWD-NH2	487
  [A-8 > F, F16 > H, D-E switched]Rev-4F	Ac-FADKFKDFVKEYFAKHWE-NH2	488
  [A-8 > F, F16 > H, D > E]Rev-4F	Ac-FAEKFKEFVKEYFAKHWE-NH2	489
  [A-8 > F, F16 > H, E]22D]Rev-4F	Ac-FADKFKDFVKDYFAKHWD-NH2	490
  [A-8 > F, F16 > H, E- 3 > D]Rev-4F	Ac-FADKFKEFVKDYFAKHWD-NH2	491
  [A-8 > F, F16 > H, E-7 > D]Rev-4F	Ac-FAEKFKDFVKDYFAKHWD-NH2	492
  [A-8 > F, F16 > H, D- 11 > E]Rev-4F	Ac-FAEKFKEFVKEYFAKHWD-NH2	493
  [A-8 > F, F16 > H, D-18 > E] Rev-4F	Ac-FAEKFKEFVKDYFAKHWE-NH2	494

• Examples ofclass A 4F andRev 4F analogs with beta-Nph. Similarly, alpha-Nph analogs can be designed. Similarly to the above analogs, His can be incorporated to Nph analogs. D>E analogs, E>D analogs and D-E switch analogs are additional possibilities similarly to the above described analogs.

• 4Nph	Ac-DWNphKANphYDKVAEKNphKEANph-NH2	495
  [D-E switched]	Ac-EWNphKANphYEKVADKNphKDANph-NH2	496
  4Nph
  [D > E]4Nph	Ac-EWNphKANphYEKVAEKNphKEANph-NH2	497
  [E > D]4Nph	Ac-DWNphKANphYDKVADKNphKDANph-NH2	498
  [D > E]4Nph	Ac-EWNphKANphYDKVAEKNphKEANph-NH2	499
  [D > E]4Nph	Ac-DWNphKANphYEKVAEKNphKEANph-NH2	500
  [E-12 > D]4Nph	Ac-DWNphKANphYDKVADKNphKEANph-NH2	501
  [E-16 > D]4Nph	Ac-DWNphKANphYDKVAEKNphKDANph-NH2	502

• As described above for 4Nph, a minimum of 7 additional analogs for each of the analogs given below.

• [F-3, 6, > Nph]	Ac-DWNphKANphYDKVAEKFKEAF-NH2	503
  4F
  [F-14, 18 > Nph]	Ac-DWFKAFYDKVAEKNphKEANph-NH2	504
  4F
  [[F-3 > Nph] 4F	Ac-DWNphKAFYDKVAEKFKEAF-NH2	505
  [F-6 > Nph]4F	Ac-DWFKANphYDKVAEKFKEAF-NH2	506
  [F-14 > Nph]4F	Ac-DWFKAFYDKVAEKNphKEAF-NH2	507
  [F-18 > Nph]4F	Ac-DWFKAFYDKVAEKFKEANph-NH2	508

• For each of the analog described below, a minimum of 7 additional analogs are possible as described above by switching D-E, D>E and E>D and single D or E analogs.

• Rev-4Nph	Ac-NphAEKNphKEAVKDYNphAKNph	509
  	WD-NH2
  [F-3, 6 > Nph]Rev	Ac-NphAEKNphKEAVKDYFAKFWD-NH2	510
  4F[F-13, 16]Rev-	Ac-FAEKFKEAVKDYNphAKNphWD-NH2	511
  4F
  [F-3 > Nph]Rev-4F	Ac-NphAEKFKEAVKDYFAKFWD-NH2	512
  [F-6 > Nph]Rev-4F	Ac-FAEKNphKEAVKDYFAKFWD-NH2	513
  [F-13 > Nph]Rev-	Ac-FAEKFKEAVKDYNphAKFWD-NH2	514
  4F
  [F-16 > Nph]Rev-	Ac-FAEKEKEAVKDYFAKNphWD-NH2	515
  4F

• For the analogs described below, additional analogs are possible by incorporating His or alpha-Nph and beta-Nph

• 	Rev-[D > E]-4F	Ac-FAEKFKEAVKEYFAKFWE-NH2	516
  	Rev-[E > D]4F	Ac-FADKFKDAVKDYFAKFWD-NH2	517
  	Rev-R4-4F	Ac-FAERFREAVKDYFAKFWD-NH2	518
  	Rev-R6-4F	Ac-FAEKFREAVKDYFAKFWD-NH2	519
  	Rev-R10-4F	Ac-FAEKFKEAVRDYFAKFWD-NH2	520
  	Rev-R14-4F	Ac-FAEKFKEAVKDYFARFWD-NH2	521
  	Rev-> E]-4F	Ac-FAEKFKEAVKEYFAKFWE-NH2	522
  	Rev-[E > D]4F	Ac-FADKFKDAVKDYFAKFWD-NH2	523
  	Rev-R4-4F	Ac-FAERFREAVKDYFAKFWD-NH2	524
  	Rev-R6-4F	Ac-FAEKFREAVKDYFAKFWD-NH2	525
  	Rev-R10-4F	Ac-FAEKFKEAVRDYFAKFWD-NH2	526
  	Rev-R14-4F	Ac-FAEKFKEAVKDYFARFWD-NH2	527
  	Rev- > E]-4F	Ac-FAEKFKEAVKEYFAKFWE-NH2	528
  	Rev-[E > ]4F	Ac-FADKFKDAVKDYFAKFWD-NH2	529
  	Rev-R4-4F	Ac-FAERFREAVKDYFAKFWD-NH2	530
  	Rev-R6-4F	Ac-FAEKFREAVKDYFAKFWD-NH2	531
  	Rev-R10-4F	Ac-FAEKFKEAVRDYFAKFWD-NH2	532
  	Rev-R14-4F	Ac-FAEKFKEAVKDYFARFWD-NH2	533
  	Rev-R4-4F	Ac-FAERFREAVKDYFAKFWD-NH2	534
  	Rev-R6-4F	Ac-FAEKFREAVKDYEAKFWD-NH2	535
  	Rev-R10-4F	Ac-FAEKFKEAVRDYFAKFWD-NH2	536
  	Rev-R14-4F	Ac-FAEKFKEAVKDYFARFWD-NH2	537
  	Rev-[D > E]-4F	Ac-FAEKFKEAVKEYFAKFWE-NH2	538
  	Rev-[E > D]4F	Ac-FADKFKDAVKDYFAKFWD-NH2	539
  	Rev-R4-4F	Ac-FAERFREAVKDYFAKFWD-NH2	540
  	Rev-R6-4F	Ac-FAEKFREAVKDYFAKFWD-NH2	541
  	Rev-R10-4F	Ac-FAEKFKEAVRDYFAKFWD-NH2	542
  	Rev-R14-4F	Ac-FAEKFKEAVKDYFARFWD-NH2	543

• For each of the analogs below, additional H and Nph analogs are possible using the examples described above. Each analog can yield 7 analogs with the changes described in the examples given above.

• Rev3F-2	Ac-LFEKFAEAFKDYVAKWKD-NH2	544
  RevR4-3F-2	Ac-LFERFAEAFKDYVAKWKD-NH2	545
  RevR10-3F2	Ac-LFEKFAEAFRDYVAKWKD-NH2	546
  RevR15-3F-2	Ac-LFEKFAEAFKDYVARWKD-NH2	547
  RevR17-3F-2	Ac-LFEKFAEAFKDYVAKWRD-NH2	548
  Rev[D > E]3F2	Ac-LFEKFAEAFKEYVAKWKE-NH2	549
  Rev[E] > D]3F-2	Ac-LFDKFADAFKDYVAKWKD-NH2	550
  Rev-[E3 > D]-3F-2	Ac-LFDKFAEAFKDYVAKWKD-NH2	551
  Rev-[E7 > D]-3F-2	Ac-LFEKFADAFKDYVAKWKD-NH2	552
  Rev[D11 > E]3F-2	Ac-LFEKFAEAFKEYVAKWKD-NH2	553
  Rev-[D18 > E]3F-2	Ac-LFEKFAEAFKDYVAKWKE-NH2	554
  Rev3F-1	Ac-FAEKAWEFVKDYFAKLKD-NH2	555
  RevR4-3F-1	Ac-FAERAWEFVKDYFAKLKD-NH2	556
  RevR10-3F-1	Ac-FAEKAWEFVKDYFAKLKD-NH2	557
  RevR15-3F-1	Ac-FAEKAWEFVKDYFAKLKD-NH2	558
  RevR17-3F-1	Ac-FAEKAWEFVKDYFAKLRD-NH2	559
  Rev[D > E]3F-1	Ac-FAEKAWEFVKEYFAKLKE-NH2	560
  Rev[E > D}3F-1	Ac-FADKAWDFVKDYFAKLKD-NH2	561
  Rev[E3 > D]-3F-1	Ac-FADKAWEFVKDYFAKLKD-NH2	562
  Rev[E7 > D]3F-1	Ac-FAEKAWDFVKDYFAKLKD-NH2	563
  Rev-[D11 > E]3F-1	Ac-FAEKAWEFVKEYFAKLKD-NH2	564
  Rev-[D18 > E]3F-1	Ac-FAEKAWEFVKDYFAKLKE-NH2	565
  Rev-5F	Ac-FFEKFKEFVKDYFAKLWD-NH2	566
  Rev-D > E]5F	Ac-FFEKFKEFVKEYFAKLWE-NH2	567
  Rev-[E > D]5F	Ac-FFDKFKDFVKDYFAKLWD-NH2	568
  Rev-R4-5F	Ac-FFERFKEFVKDYFAKLWD-NH2	569
  Rev-R6-5F	Ac-FFEKFREFVKDYFAKLWD-NH2	570
  Rev-R10-5F	Ac-FFEKFKEFVRDYFAKLWD-NH2	571
  Rev-R15-5F	Ac-FFEKFKEFVKDYFARLWD-NH2	572
  Rev-[E3 > D]-5F	Ac-FFDKFKEFVKDYFAKLWD-NH2	573
  Rev-[E7 > D]5F	Ac-FFEKFKDFVKDYFAKLWD-NH2	574
  Rev-[D11 > E]-5F	Ac-FFEKFKEFVKEYFAKLWD-NH2	575
  Rev-[D18 > E]-5F	Ac-FFEKFKEFVKDYFAKLWE-NH2	576
  Rev-5F-2	Ac-FLEKFKEFVKDYFAKFWD-NH2	577
  Rev-[D > E]-5F-2	Ac-FLEKFKEFVKEYFAKFWE-NH2	578
  Rev-[E > D]-5F-2	Ac-FLDKFKEFVKDYFAKFWD-NH2	579
  Rev-[E3 > D]-5F-2	Ac-FLDKFKEFVKDYFAKFWD-NH2	580
  Rev-[E7 > D]-5F-2	Ac-FLEKFKDFVKDYFAKFWD-NH2	581
  Rev-[D11 > E]-5F-2	Ac-FLEKFKEFVKEYFAKFWD-NH2	582
  Rev-[D18 > E]-5F-2	Ac-FLEKFKEFVKDYFAKFWE-NH2	583
  Rev-R4-5F-2	Ac-FLERFKEFVKDYFAKFWD-NH2	584
  Rev-R6-5F-2	Ac-FLEKFREFVKDYFAKFWD-NH2	585
  RevR10-5F-2	Ac-FLEKFKEFVRDYFAKFWD-NH2	586
  Rev-R16-5F-2	Ac-FLEKFKEFVKDYFARFWD-NH2	587
  Rev-6F	Ac-FFEKFKEFFKDYFAKLWD-NH2	588
  Rev-[D > E]-6F	Ac-FFEKFKEFFKEYFAKLWE-NH2	589
  Rev-[E > D]-6F	Ac-FFDKFKDFFKDYFAKLWD-NH2	590
  Rev-R4-6F	Ac-FFERFKEFFKDYFAKLWD-NH2	591
  Rev-R6-6F	Ac-FFEKFREFFKDYFAKLWD-NH2	592
  Rev-R10-6F	Ac-FFEKYKEFFRDYFAKLWD-NH2	593
  Rev-R14-6F	Ac-FFERFKEFFKDYFARLWD-NH2	594
  Rev-[E3 > D]-6F	Ac-FFDKFKEFFKDYFAKLWD-NH	595
  Rev-[E7 > D]-6F	Ac-FFEKEKDFFKDYFAKLWD-NH2	596
  Rev-[D11 > E]-6F	Ac-FFEKFKEFFKEYFAKLWD-NH2	597
  Rev-[D18 > E]-6F	Ac-FFEKFKEFFKDYFAKLWE-NH2	598
  Rev-4F	Ac-FAEKFKEAVKDYFAKFWD-NH2	599
  Rev-[D > E]-4F	Ac-FAEKFKEAVKEYFAKFWE-NH2	600
  Rev-[E > D]4F	Ac-FADKFKDAVKDYFAKFWD-NH2	601
  Rev-R4-4F	Ac-FAERFREAVKDYFAKFWD-NH2	602
  Rev-R6-4F	Ac-FAEKFREAVKDYFAKFWD-NH2	603
  Rev-R10-4F	Ac-FAEKFKEAVRDYFAKFWD-NH2	604
  Rev-R14-4F	Ac-FAEKFKEAVKDYFARFWD-NH2	605
  4F-2	Ac-DKWKAVYDKFAEAFKEFF-NH2	606
  [D > E]-4F-2	Ac-EKWKAVYEKFAEAFKEFF-NH2	607
  [E > D]-4F-2	Ac-DKWKAVYDKFADAFKDFF-NH2	608
  R2-4F-2	Ac-DRWKAVYDKFAEAFKEFF-NH2	609
  R4-4F-2	Ac-DKWRAVYDKFAEAFKEFF-NH2	610
  R9-4F-2	Ac-DKWKAVYDRFAEAFKEFF-NH2	611
  R14-4F-2	Ac-DKWKAVYDKFAEAFREFF-NH2	612
  Rev4F-2	Ac-FFEKFAEAFKDYVAKWKD-NH2	613
  Rev-[D > E]-4F-2	Ac-FFEKFAEAFKEYVAKWKE-NH2	614
  Rev-[E > D]-3F-2	Ac-FFDKFADAFKDYVAKWKD-NH2	615
  Rev-R4-4F-2	Ac-FFERFAEAFKDYVAKWKD-NH2	616
  Rev-R10-4F-2	Ac-EFERFAEAFRDYVAKWKD-NH2	617
  Rev-R15-4F-2	Ac-FFEKFAEAFKDYVARWKD-NH2	618
  Rev-R17-4F-2	Ac-FFERFAEAFKDYVAKWRD-NH2	619
  Rev-[E3 > D]-4F-2	Ac-FFDKFAEAFKDYVAKWKD-NH2	620
  Rev-[E7 > D] -4F-2	Ac-FFEKFADAFKDYYAKWKD-NH2	621
  Rev-[D11 > E]-4F-2	Ac-FFERFAEAFKEYVAKWKD-NH2	622
  Rev-[D18 > E]-4F-2	Ac-FFERFAEAFKDYVAKWKE-NH2	623
  Rev-7F	Ac-FFEKFKEFFKDYFAKFWD-NH2	624
  Rev-[E > D]-7F	Ac-FFDKFKDFFKDYFAKFWD-NH2	625
  Rev-[D > E]-7F	Ac-FFEKFKEFFKEYFAKFWE-NH2	626
  Rev-R4-7F	Ac-FFERFKEFFKDYFAKFWD-NH2	627
  Rev-R6-7F	Ac-FFEKFREFFKDYFAKFWD-NH2	628
  Rev-R10-7F	Ac-FFEKFKEFFRDYFAKFWD-NH2	629
  Rev-R14-7F	Ac-FFEKFKEFFKDYFARFWD-NH2	630
  Rev-[E3 > D]-7F	Ac-FFDKFKEFFKDYFAKFWD-NH2	631
  Rev-[E7 > D]7F	Ac-FFEKFKDFFKDYFAKFWD-NH2	632
  Rev-[D11 >E]-7F	Ac-FFEKFKEFFKEYFAKFWD-NH2	633
  Rev-[D18 > E]-7F	Ac-FFEKFKEFFKDYFAKFWE-NH2	634

• It is also noted that any of the peptides described herein can comprise non-natural amino acids in addition to or instead of the corresponding the natural amino acids identified herein. Such modifications include, but are not limited to acetylation, amidation, formylation, methylation, sulfation, and the like. Illustrative non-natural amino acids include, but are not limited to Ornithine, norleucine, norvaline, N-methylvaline, 6-N-methyllysine, N-methylisoleucine, N-methylglycine, sarcosine, inosine, allo-isoleucine, isodesmolysine, 4-hydroxyproline, 3-hydroxyproline, allo-hydroxylysine, hydroxylisine, N-ethylasparagine, N-ethylglycine, 2,3-diaminopropionic acid, 2,2′-diaminopropionic acid, desmosine, 2,4-diaminobutyric acid, 2-aminopimelic acid, 3-aminoisobutyric acid, 2-aminoisobutyric acid, 2-aminoheptanoic acid, 6-aminocaproic acid, 4-aminobutyric acid, 2-aminobutyric acid, beta-alanine, 3-aminoadipic acid, 2-aminoadipic acid, and the like. In certain embodiments and one or more of the “natural” amino acids of the peptides described herein, can be substituted with the corresponding non-natural amino acid (e.g. as describe above).
• In certain embodiments, this invention contemplates particularly the use of modified lysines. Such modifications include, but are not limited to, biotin modification of epsilon lysines and/or methylation of the epsilon lysines. Illustrative peptide comprising epsilon methylated lysines include, but are not limited to: Ac-D-W-F-K(eCH₃)₂-A-F-Y-D-K(eCH₃)₂-V-A-E-K(eCH₃)-₂-F-K(eCH₃)₂-E-A-F-NH(CH₃)₂(SEQ ID NO:635) and: Ac-DWFK(eCH₃)₂AFYDK(eCH₃)₂VAEK(eCH₃)₂FK(eCH₃)₂EAF-NH(CH₃) (SEQ ID NO:636). Other modified amino acids include but are not limited to ornithine analogs and homoaminoalanine analogs (instead of (CH₂)₄—NH₂for Lys it can be —(CH₂)₂—NH₂for Haa and —(CH₂)₃—NH₂for Orn] and the like. It is noted that these modifications are illustrative and not intended to be limiting. Illustrative 4F analogues that possess modified amino acids are shown in Table 6.

• TABLE 6
  Illustrative 4F analogs that
  comprise modified amino acids.

  εN-Dimethyl-Lys derivative of 4F (εN-Dime)

  Ac-D-W-F-K(εN-Dime)-A-F-Y-D-K(εN-Dime)-V-	637
  A-E-K(εN-Dime)-F-K(εN-Dime)-E-A-F-NH2
  Ac-D-W-F-K-(εN-Dime)-A-F-Y-D-K(εN-Dime)-V-	638
  A-E-K(εN-Dime)-F-K((εN-Dime)-E-A-F-NH-Me
  Ac-D-W-F-K-(εN-Dime)-A-F-Y-D-K(εN-Dime)-V-	639
  A-E-K(εN-Dime)-F-K(εN-Dime)-E-A-F-N-(Me)2

  εN-Diethyl-Lys derivatives of 4F (εN-Diet)

  Ac-D-W-F-K(εN-Diet)-A-F-Y-D-K(εN-Diet)-V-	640
  A-E-K(εN-Diet)-F-K(εN-Diet)-E-A-F-NH2
  Ac-D-W-F-K(εN-Diet)-A-F-Y-D-K(εN-Diet)-V-	641
  A-E-K(εN-Diet)-F-K(εN-Diet)-E-A-F-NH-Et
  Ac-D-W-F-K(εN-Diet)-A-F-Y-D-K(εN-Diet)-V-	642
  A-E-K(εN-Diet)-F-K(εN-Diet)-E-A-F-NH-(Et)2

  εN-Monomethyl-Lys derivative of 4F (εN-Me)

  Ac-D-W-F-K(εN-Me)-A-F-Y-D-K(εN-Me)-V-A-	643
  E-K(εN-Me)-F-K(εN-Me)-E-A-F-NH2
  Ac-D-W-F-K(εN-Me)-A-F-Y-D-K(εN-Me)-V-A-	644
  E-K(εN-Me)-F-K(εN-Me)-E-A-F-NH-Me
  Ac-D-W-F-K(εN-Me)-A-F-Y-D-K(εN-Me)-V-A-	645
  E-K(εN-Me)-F-K(εN-Me)-E-A-F-N-(Me)2

  εN-ethylLys derivative of 4F (εN-Et)

  Ac-D-W-F-K(εN-Et)-A-F-Y-D-K(εN-E0-V-A-	646
  E-K(εN-Et)-F-K(εN-Et)-E-A-F-NH2
  Ac-D-W-F-K(εN-Et)-A-F-Y-D-K(εN-E0-V-A-	647
  E-K(εN-Et)-F-K(εN-E0-E-A-F-NH-Et
  Ac-D-W-F-K(εN-Et)-A-F-Y-D-K(εN-Et)-V-A-	648
  E-K(εN-Et)-F-K(εN-Et)-E-A-F-NH-(Et)2

  HomoLys analogs of 4F(hK)(--CH2)ζ5-NH2

  Ac-D-W-F-hK-A-F-Y-D-hK-V-A-E-hK-F-hK-E-A-F-NH2	649
  Ac-D-W-F-hK(εN-Dime)-A-F-Y-D-hK(εN-Dime)-V-	650
  A-E-hK(εN-Dime)-F-hK(εN-Dime)-E-A-F-NH2
  Ac-D-W-F-hK(εN-Dime)-A-F-Y-D-hK(εN-Dime)-V-	651
  A-E-hK(εN-Dime)-F-hK(εN-Dime)-E-A-F-N-(Me)2
  Ac-D-W-F-hK(εN-Dime)-A-F-Y-D-hK(εN-Dime)-V-	652
  A-E-hK(εN -Dime)-F-hK(εN-Dime)-E-A-F-NH-Me
  Ac-D-W-F-hK(εN-Diet)-A-F-Y-D-hK(εN-Diet)-V-	653
  A-E-hK(εN -Diet)-F-hK(N-Diet)-E-A-F-NH-Et
  Ac-D-W-F-hK(εN-Me)-A-F-Y-D-hK(εN-Me)-V-	654
  A-E-hK(εN-Me)-F-hK(εN-Me)-E-A-F-NH
  Ac-D-W-F-hK(εN-Me)-A-F-Y-D-hK(εN-Me)-V-	655
  A-E-hK(εN-Me)-F-hK(εN-Me)-E-A-F-NH-Me
  Ac-D-W-F-hK(εN-Me)-A-F-Y-D-hK(εN-Me)-V-	656
  A-E-hK(εN-Me)-F-hK(εN-Me)-E-A-F-N-(Me)2
  Ac-D-W-F-hK(εN-Et)-A-F-Y-D-hK(εN-Et)-V-	657
  A-E-hK(εN-Et)-F-hK(εN-Et)-E-A-F-NH2
  Ac-D-W-F-hK(εN-Et-A-F-Y-D-hK(εN-Et)-V-	658
  A-E-hK(εN-Et)-F-hK(N-Et)-E-A-F-NH-Et
  Ac-D-W-F-hK(εN-Et)-A-F-Y-D-hK(εN-Et)-V-	659
  A-E-hK(N-Et)-F-hK(εN-Et)-E-A-F-NH-(Et)2
  4F analogs in which K is replaced O	660
  (O = Ornithine, --(CH2)3-NH2)
  Ac-D-W-F-O-A-F-Y-D-O-V-A-E-O-F-O-E-A-F-NH2	661
  Ac-D-W-F-O(δ-Dime)-A-F--Y-D-O(δN-Dime)-	662
  V-A-E-O(δN-Dime)-F-O(δN-Dime)-E-A-F-NH2
  Ac-D-W-F-O(δN-Dime)-A-F-Y-D-)(δN-Dime)-	663
  V-A-E-O(δN-Dime)-F-O(δN-Dime)-E-A-F-N-(Me)2
  Ac-D-W-F-O(δN-Dime)-A-F-Y-D-O(δ3N-Dime)-	664
  V-A-E-O(δN-Dime)-F-O(δ5N-Dime)-E-A-F-NH-Me
  Ac-D-W-F-O(δN-Diet)-A-F-Y-D-O(δN-Diet)-	665
  V-A-E-O(δN-Diet)-F-O(δN-Diet)-E-A-F-NH-Et
  Ac-D-W-F-O(δN-Me)-A-F-Y-D-O(δN-Me)-V-A-E-O	666
  (δN-Me)-F-O(δN-Me)-E-A-F-NH2
  Ac-D-W-F-O(δN-Me)-A-F-Y-D-O(δN-Me)-V-A-E-O	667
  (δN-Me)-F-O(δ3N-Me)-E-A-F-NH-Me
  Ac-D-W-F-O(δN-Me)-A-F-Y-D-O(δN-Me)-V-A-E-O	668
  (δN-Me)-F-O(δN-Me)-E-A-F-N-(Me)2
  Ac-D-W-F-O(δN-Et)-A-F-Y-D-O(δN-Et)-V-A-E-O	669
  (δN-Et)-F-O(δN-Et)-E-A-F-NH2
  Ac-D-W-F-O(δN-ED-A-F-Y-D-O(δN-Et)-V-A-E-O	670
  (δN-Et)-F-O(δN-Et)-E-A-F-NH-Et
  Ac-D-W-F-O(δN-Et)-A-F-Y-D-O(δN-Et)-V-A-E-	671
  O(δN-Et)-F-O(δN-Et)-E-A-F-NH-(Et)2

• The peptides and modifications shown above are intended to be illustrative and not limiting.
E) Smaller Peptides.
• It was also a surprising discovery that certain small peptides consisting of a minimum of three amino acids preferentially (but not necessarily) with one or more of the amino acids being the D-stereoisomer of the amino acid, and possessing hydrophobic domains to permit lipid protein interactions, and hydrophilic domains to permit a degree of water solubility also possess significant anti-inflammatory properties and are useful in treating one or more of the pathologies described herein. The “small peptides” typically range in length from 2 amino acids to about 15 amino acids, more preferably from about 3 amino acids to about 10 or 11 amino acids, and most preferably from about 4 to about 8 or 10 amino acids. In various embodiments the peptides are typically characterized by having hydrophobic terminal amino acids or terminal amino acids rendered hydrophobic by the attachment of one or more hydrophobic “protecting” groups. Various “small peptides” are described in copending applications U.S. Ser. No. 10/649,378, filed Aug. 26, 2003, and in U.S. Ser. No. 10/913,800, filed on Aug. 6, 2004, and in PCT Application PCT/US2004/026288.
• In certain embodiments, the peptides can be characterized by Formula I, below: X¹-X²-X³_n-X⁴I where, n is 0 or 1, X¹is a hydrophobic amino acid and/or bears a hydrophobic protecting group, X⁴is a hydrophobic amino acid and/or bears a hydrophobic protecting group; and when n is 0 X²is an acidic or a basic amino acid; when n is 1: X²and X³are independently an acidic amino acid, a basic amino acid, an aliphatic amino acid, or an aromatic amino acid such that when X²is an acidic amino acid; X³is a basic amino acid, an aliphatic amino acid, or an aromatic amino acid; when X²is a basic amino acid; X³is an acidic amino acid, an aliphatic amino acid, or an aromatic amino acid; and when X²is an aliphatic or aromatic amino acid, X³is an acidic amino acid, or a basic amino acid.
• Longer peptides (e.g., up to 10, 11, or 15 amino acids) are also contemplated within the scope of this invention. Typically where the shorter peptides (e.g., peptides according to formula I) are characterized by an acidic, basic, aliphatic, or aromatic amino acid, the longer peptides are characterized by acidic, basic, aliphatic, or aromatic domains comprising two or more amino acids of that type.
1) Functional Properties of Active Small Peptides.
• It was a surprising finding of this invention that a number of physical properties predict the ability of small peptides (e.g., less than 10 amino acids, preferably less than 8 amino acids, more preferably from about 3 to about 5 or 6 amino acids) of this invention to render HDL more anti-inflammatory and to mitigate atherosclerosis and/or other pathologies characterized by an inflammatory response in a mammal. The physical properties include high solubility in ethyl acetate (e.g., greater than about 4 mg/mL), and solubility in aqueous buffer at pH 7.0. Upon contacting phospholipids such as 1,2-Dimyristoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DMPC), in an aqueous environment, the particularly effective small peptides induce or participate in the formation of particles with a diameter of approximately 7.5 nm (±0.1 nm), and/or induce or participate in the formation of stacked bilayers with a bilayer dimension on the order of 3.4 to 4.1 nm with spacing between the bilayers in the stack of approximately 2 nm, and/or also induce or participate in the formation of vesicular structures of approximately 38 nm). In certain preferred embodiments, the small peptides have a molecular weight of less than about 900 Da.
• Thus, in certain embodiments, this invention contemplates small peptides that ameliorate one or more symptoms of an indication/pathology described herein, e.g., an inflammatory condition, where the peptide(s): ranges in length from about 3 to about 8 amino acids, preferably from about 3 to about 6, or 7 amino acids, and more preferably from about 3 to about 5 amino acids; are soluble in ethyl acetate at a concentration greater than about 4 mg/mL; are soluble in aqueous buffer at pH 7.0; when contacted with a phospholipid in an aqueous environment, form particles with a diameter of approximately 7.5 nm and/or form stacked bilayers with a bilayer dimension on the order of 3.4 to 4.1 nm with spacing between the bilayers in the stack of approximately 2 nm; have a molecular weight less than about 900 daltons; convert pro-inflammatory HDL to anti-inflammatory HDL or make anti-inflammatory HDL more anti-inflammatory; and do not have the amino acid sequence Lys-Arg-Asp-Ser (SEQ ID NO:801), especially in which Lys-Arg-Asp and Ser are all L amino acids. In certain embodiments, these small peptides protect a phospholipid against oxidation by an oxidizing agent.
• While these small peptides need not be so limited, in certain embodiments, these small peptides can include the small peptides described below.
2) Tripeptides.
• It was discovered that certain tripeptides (3 amino acid peptides) can be synthesized that show desirable properties as described herein (e.g., the ability to convert pro-inflammatory HDL to anti-inflammatory HDL, the ability to decrease LDL-induced monocyte chemotactic activity generated by artery wall cells, the ability to increase pre-beta HDL, etc.). In certain embodiments, the peptides are characterized by formula I, wherein N is zero, shown below as Formula II: X¹-X²-X⁴II where the end amino acids (X¹and X⁴) are hydrophobic either because of a hydrophobic side chain or because the side chain or the C and/or N terminus is blocked with one or more hydrophobic protecting group(s) (e.g., the N-terminus is blocked with Boc-, Fmoc-, nicotinyl-, etc., and the C-terminus blocked with (tBu)-OtBu, etc.). In certain embodiments, the X²amino acid is either acidic (e.g., aspartic acid, glutamic acid, etc.) or basic (e.g., histidine, arginine, lysine, etc.). The peptide can be all L-amino acids or include one or more or all D-amino acids.
• Certain preferred tripeptides of this invention include, but are not limited to the peptides shown in Table 7.

• TABLE 7
  Examples of certain preferred tripeptides
  bearing hydrophobic blocking groups and
  acidic, basic, or histidine central amino acids.

  				SEQ ID
  X1	X2	X3	X4	NO
  Boc-Lys(EBoc)	Arg		Ser(tBu)-OtBu	672
  Boc-Lys(EBoc)	Arg		Thr(tBu)-OtBu	673
  Boc-Trp	Arg		Ile-OtBu	674
  Boc-Trp	Arg		Leu-OtBu	675
  Boc-Phe	Arg		Ile -OtBu	676
  Boc-Phe	Arg		Leu-OtBu	677
  Boc-Lys(EBoc)	Glu		Ser(tBu)-OtBu	678
  Boc-Lys(EBoc)	Glu		Thr(tBu)-OtBu	679
  Boc-Lys(EBoc)	Asp		Ser(tBu)-OtBu	680
  Boc-Lys(EBoc)	Asp		Thr(tBu)-OtBu	681
  Boc-Lys(EBoc)	Arg		Ser(tBu)-OtBu	682
  Boc-Lys(EBoc)	Arg		Thr(tBu)-OtBu	683
  Boc-Leu	Glu		Ser(tBu)-OtBu	684
  Boc-Leu	Glu		Thr(tBu)-OtBu	685
  Fmoc-Trp	Arg		Ser(tBu)-OtBu	686
  Fmoc-Trp	Asp		Ser(tBu)-OtBu	687
  Fmoc -Trp	Glu		Ser(tBu)-OtBu	688
  Fmoc-Trp	Arg		Ser(tBu)-OtBu	689
  Boc-Lys(EBoc)	Glu		Leu-OtBu	690
  Fmoc-Leu	Arg		Ser(tBu)-OtBu	691
  Fmoc-Leu	Asp		Ser(tBu)-OtBu	692
  Fmoc-Leu	Glu		Ser(tBu)-OtBu	693
  Fmoc-Leu	Arg		Ser(tBu)-OtBu	694
  Fmoc-Leu	Arg		Thr(tBu)-OtBu	695
  Boc-Glu	Asp		Tyr(tBu)-OtBu	696
  Fmoc-Lys(eFmoc)	Arg		Ser(tBu)-OtBu	697
  Fmoc-Trp	Arg		Ile-OtBu	698
  Fmoc-Trp	Arg		Leu-OtBu	699
  Fmoc-Phe	Arg		Ile-OtBu	700
  Fmoc-Phe	Arg		Leu-OtBu	701
  Boc-Trp	Arg		Phe-OtBu	702
  Boc-Trp	Arg		Tyr-OtBu	703
  Fmoc-Trp	Arg		Phe-OtBu	704
  Fmoc-Trp	Arg		Tyr-OtBu	705
  Boc-Orn(OBoc)	Arg		Ser(tBu)-OtBu	706
  Nicotinyl	Arg		Ser(tBu)-OtBu	707
  Lys(sBoc)
  Nicotinyl	Arg		Thr(tBu)-OtBu	708
  Lys(EBoc)
  Fmoc-Leu	Asp		Thr(tBu)-OtBu	709
  Fmoc-Leu	Glu		Thr(tBu)-OtBu	710
  Fmoc-Leu	Arg		Thr(tBu)-OtBu	711
  Fmoc-norLeu	Arg		Ser(tBu)-OtBu	712
  Fmoc-norLeu	Asp		Ser(tBu)-OtBu	713
  Fmoc-norLeu	Glu		Ser(tBu)-OtBu	714
  Fmoc-Lys(cBoc)	Arg		Ser(tBu)-OtBu	715
  Fmoc-Lys(EBoc)	Arg		Thr(tBu)-OtBu	716
  Fmoc-Lys(EBoc)	Glu		Ser(tBu)-OtBu	717
  Fmoc-Lys(EBoc)	Glu		Thr(tBu)-OtBu	718
  Fmoc-Lys(cBoc)	Asp		Ser(tBu)-OtBu	719
  Fmoc-Lys(EBoc)	Asp		Thr(tBu)-OtBu	720
  Fmoc-Lys(eBoc)	Glu		Leu-OtBu	721
  Fmoc-Lys(EBoc)	Arg		Leu-OtBu	722
  Fmoc-Lys(cFmoc)	Arg		Thr(tBu)-OtBu	723
  Fmoc- Lys(EFmoc)	Glu		Ser(tBu)-OtBu	724
  Fmoc- Lys(EFmoc)	Glu		Thr(tBu)-OtBu	725
  Fmoc- Lys(cFmoc)	Asp		Ser(tBu)-OtBu	726
  Fmoc- Lys(EFmoc)	Asp		Thr(tBu)-OtBu	727
  Fmoc- Lys(EFmoc)	Arg		Ser(tBu)-OtBu	728
  Fmoc-	Glu		Leu-OtBu	729
  Lys(EFmoc)
  Boc-Lys(EFmoc)	Asp		Ser(tBu)-OtBu	730
  Boc-Lys(EFmoc)	Asp		Thr(tBu)-OtBu	731
  Boc-Lys(EFmoc)	Arg		Thr(tBu)-OtBu	732
  Boc-Lys(EFmoc)	Glu		Leu-OtBu	733
  Boc-Orn(8Fmoc)	Glu		Ser(tBu)-OtBu	734
  Boc-Orn(8Fmoc)	Asp		Ser(tBu)-OtBu	735
  Boc-Orn(6Fmoc)	Asp		Thr(tBu)-OtBu	736
  Boc-Orn(OFmoc)	Arg		Thr(tBu)-OtBu	737
  Boc-Orn(6Fmoc)	Glu		Thr(tBu)-OtBu	738
  Fmoc-Trp	Asp		Ile-OtBu	739
  Fmoc-Trp	Arg		Ile-OtBu	740
  Fmoc-Trp	Glu		Ile-OtBu	741
  Fmoc-Trp	Asp		Leu-OtBu	742
  Fmoc-Trp	Glu		Leu-OtBu	743
  Fmoc-Phe	Asp		Ile-OtBu	744
  Fmoc-Phe	Asp		Leu-OtBu	745
  Fmoc-Phe	Glu		Leu-OtBu	746
  Fmoc-Trp	Arg		Phe-OtBu	747
  Fmoc-Trp	Glu		Phe-OtBu	748
  Fmoc-Trp	Asp		Phe-OtBu	749
  Fmoc-Trp	Asp		Tyr-OtBu	750
  Fmoc-Trp	Arg		Tyr-OtBu	751
  Fmoc-Trp	Glu		Tyr-OtBu	752
  Fmoc-Trp	Arg		Thr(tBu)-OtBu	753
  Fmoc-Trp	Asp		Thr(tBu)-OtBu	754
  Fmoc-Trp	Glu		Thr(tBu)-OtBu	755
  Boc-Phe	Arg		norLeu-OtBu	756
  Boc-Phe	Glu		norLeu-OtBu	757
  Fmoc-Phe	Asp		norLeu-OtBu	758
  Boc-Glu	His		Tyr(tBu)-OtBu	759
  Boc-Leu	His		Ser(tBu)-OtBu	760
  Boc-Leu	His		Thr(tBu)-OtBu	761
  Boc-Lys(EBoc)	His		Ser(tBu)-OtBu	762
  Boc-Lys(EBoc)	His		Thr(tBu)-OtBu	763
  Boc-Lys(EBoc)	His		Leu-OtBu	764
  Boc-Lys(EFmoc)	His		Ser(tBu)-OtBu	765
  Boc-Lys(eFmoc)	His		Thr(tBu)-OtBu	766
  Boc-Lys(EFmoc)	His		Leu-OtBu	767
  Boc-Orn(OBoc)	His		Ser(tBu)-OtBu	768
  Boc-Orn(6Fmoc)	His		Thr(tBu)-OtBu	769
  Boc-Phe	His		De-OtBu	770
  Boc-Phe	His		Leu-OtBu	771
  Boc-Phe	His		norLeu-OtBu	772
  Boc-Phe	Lys		Leu-OtB u	773
  Boc-Trp	His		Ile-OtBu	774
  Boc-Trp	His		Leu-OtBu	775
  Boc-Trp	His		Phe-OtBu	776
  Boc-Trp	His		Tyr-OtBu	777
  Boc-Phe	Lys		Leu-OtBu	778
  Fmoc-Lys(EFmoc)	His		Ser(tBu)-OtBu	779
  Fmoc-Lys(EFmoc)	His		Thr(tBu)-OtBu	780
  Fmoc-Lys(EFmoc)	His		Leu-OtBu	781
  Fmoc-Leu	His		Ser(tBu)-OtBu	782
  Fmoc-Leu	His		Thr(tBu)-OtBu	783
  Fmoc-Lys(EBoc)	His		Ser(tB u)-OtBu	784
  Fmoc-Lys(EBoc)	His		Thr(tBu)-OtBu	785
  Fmoc-Lys(eBoc)	His		Leu-OtBu	786
  Fmoc-Lys(EFmoc)	His		Ser(tBu)-OtBu	787
  Fmoc-Lys(EFmoc)	His		Thr(tBu)-OtBu	788
  Fmoc-norLeu	His		Ser(tBu)-OtBu	789
  Fmoc-Phe	His		Ile-OtBu	790
  Fmoc-Phe	His		Leu-OtBu	791
  Fmoc-Phe	His		norLeu-OtBu	792
  Fmoc-Trp	His		Ser(tBu)-OtBu	793
  Fmoc-Trp	His		Ile-OtBu	794
  Fmoc-Trp	His		Leu-OtBu	795
  Fmoc-Trp	His		Phe-OtBu	796
  Fmoc-Trp	His		Tyr-OtBu	797
  Fmoc-Trp	His		Thr(tBu)-OtBu	798
  Nicotinyl	His		Ser(tBu)-OtBu	799
  Lys(eBoc)
  Nicotinyl	His		Thr(tBu)-OtBu	800
  Lys(EBoc)

• While the peptides of Table 7 are illustrated with particular protecting groups, it is noted that these groups may be substituted with other protecting groups as described herein and/or one or more of the shown protecting group can be eliminated.
• 3) Small Peptides with Central Acidic and Basic Amino Acids.
• In certain embodiments, the peptides of this invention range from four amino acids to about ten amino acids. The terminal amino acids are typically hydrophobic either because of a hydrophobic side chain or because the terminal amino acids bear one or more hydrophobic protecting groups end amino acids (X¹and X⁴) are hydrophobic either because of a hydrophobic side chain or because the side chain or the C and/or N terminus is blocked with one or more hydrophobic protecting group(s) (e.g., the N-terminus is blocked with Boc-, Fmoc-, Nicotinyl-, etc., and the C-terminus blocked with (tBu)-OtBu, etc.). Typically, the central portion of the peptide comprises a basic amino acid and an acidic amino acid (e.g., in a 4 mer) or a basic domain and/or an acidic domain in a longer molecule.
• These four-mers can be represented by Formula I in which X¹and X⁴are hydrophobic and/or bear hydrophobic protecting group(s) as described herein and X²is acidic while X³is basic or X²is basic while X³is acidic. The peptide can be all L-amino acids or include one or more or all D-amino acids.
• Certain preferred peptides of this invention include, but are not limited to the peptides shown in Table 8.

• TABLE 8
  Illustrative examples of small peptides
  with central acidic and basic amino acids.

  				SEQ ID
  X1	X2	X3	X4	NO
  Boc-Lys(EBoc)	Arg	Asp	Ser(tBu)-OtBu	801
  Boc-Lys(EBoc)	Arg	Asp	Thr(tBu)-OtBu	802
  Boc-Trp	Arg	Asp	Ile-OtBu	803
  Boc-Trp	Arg	Asp	Leu-OtBu	804
  Boc-Phe	Arg	Asp	Leu-OtBu	805
  Boc-Phe	Arg	Asp	Ile-OtBu	806
  Boc-Phe	Arg	Asp	norLeu-OtBu	807
  Boc-Phe	Arg	Glu	norLeu-OtBu	808
  Boc-Phe	Arg	Glu	Ile-OtBu	809
  Boc-Phe	Asp	Arg	Ile-OtBu	810
  Boc-Phe	Glu	Arg	Ile-OtBu	811
  Boc-Phe	Asp	Arg	Leu-OtBu	812
  Boc-Phe	Arg	Glu	Leu-OtBu	813
  Boc-Phe	Glu	Arg	Leu-OtBu	814
  Boc-Phe	Asp	Arg	norLeu-OtBu	815
  Boc-Phe	Glu	Arg	norLeu-OtBu	816
  Boc-Lys(EBoc)	Glu	Arg	Ser(tBu)-OtBu	817
  Boc-Lys(EBoc)	Glu	Arg	Thr(tBu)-OtBu	818
  Boc-Lys(EBoc)	Asp	Arg	Ser(tBu)-OtBu	819
  Boc-Lys(EBoc)	Asp	Arg	Thr(tBu)-OtBu	820
  Boc-Lys(eBoc)	Arg	Glu	Ser(tBu)-OtBu	821
  Boc-Lys(eBoc)	Arg	Glu	Thr(tBu)-OtBu	822
  Boc-Leu	Glu	Arg	Ser(tBu)-OtBu	823
  Boc-Leu	Glu	Arg	Thr(tBu)-OtBu	824
  Fmoc-Trp	Arg	Asp	Ser(tBu)-OtBu	825
  Fmoc-Trp	Asp	Arg	Ser(tBu)-OtBu	826
  Fmoc-Trp	Glu	Arg	Ser(tBu)-OtBu	827
  Fmoc-Trp	Arg	Glu	Ser(tBu)-OtBu	828
  Boc-Lys(eBoc)	Glu	Arg	Leu-OtBu	829
  Fmoc-Leu	Arg	Asp	Ser(tBu)-OtBu	830
  Fmoc-Leu	Asp	Arg	Ser(tBu)-OtBu	831
  Fmoc-Leu	Glu	Arg	Ser(tBu)-OtBu	832
  Fmoc-Leu	Arg	Glu	Ser(tBu)-OtBu	833
  Fmoc-Leu	Arg	Asp	Thr(tBu)-OtBu	834
  Boc-Glu	Asp	Arg	Tyr(tBu)-OtBu	835
  Fmoc-Lys(EFmoc)	Arg	Asp	Ser(tBu)-OtBu	836
  Fmoc-Trp	Arg	Asp	Ile-OtBu	837
  Fmoc-Trp	Arg	Asp	Leu-OtBu	838
  Fmoc-Phe	Arg	Asp	Ile-OtB u	839
  Fmoc-Phe	Arg	Asp	Leu-OtBu	840
  Boc-Trp	Arg	Asp	Phe-OtBu	841
  Boc-Trp	Arg	Asp	Tyr-OtBu	842
  Fmoc-Trp	Arg	Asp	Phe-OtBu	843
  Fmoc-Trp	Arg	Asp	Tyr-OtBu	844
  Boc-Orn(8Boc)	Arg	Glu	Ser(tBu)-OtBu	845
  Nicotinyl )	Arg	Asp	Ser(tBu)-OtBu	846
  Lys(eBoc
  Nicotinyl	Arg	Asp	Thr(tBu)-OtBu	847
  Lys(EBoc)
  Fmoc-Leu	Asp	Arg	Thr(tBu)-OtBu	848
  Fmoc-Leu	Glu	Arg	Thr(tBu)-OtBu	849
  Fmoc-Leu	Arg	Glu	Thr(tBu)-OtBu	850
  Fmoc-norLeu	Arg	Asp	Ser(tBu)-OtBu	851
  Fmoc-norLeu	Asp	Arg	Ser(tBu)-OtBu	852
  Fmoc-norLeu	Glu	Arg	Ser(tBu)-OtBu	853
  Fmoc-norLeu	Arg	Glu	Ser(tBu)-OtBu	854
  Fmoc-Lys(EBoc)	Arg	Asp	Ser(tBu)-OtBu	855
  Fmoc-Lys(EBoc)	Arg	Asp	Thr(tBu)-OtBu	856
  Fmoc-Lys(EBoc)	Glu	Arg	Ser(tBu)-OtBu	857
  Fmoc-Lys(EBoc)	Glu	Arg	Thr(tBu)-OtBu	858
  Fmoc-Lys(eBoc)	Asp	Arg	Ser(tBu)-OtBu	859
  Fmoc-Lys(EBoc)	Asp	Arg	Thr(tBu)-OtBu	860
  Fmoc-Lys(EBoc)	Arg	Glu	Ser(tBu)-OtBu	861
  Fmoc-Lys(EBoc)	Arg	Glu	Thr(tBu)-OtBu	862
  Fmoc-Lys(EBoc)	Glu	Arg	Leu-OtBu	863
  Fmoc-Lys(EBoc)	Arg	Glu	Leu-OtBu	864
  Fmoc-Lys(EFmoc)	Arg	Asp	Thr(tBu)-OtBu	865
  Fmoc-Lys(EFmoc)	Glu	Arg	Ser(tBu)-OtBu	866
  Fmoc-Lys(EFmoc)	Glu	Arg	Thr(tBu)-OtBu	867
  Fmoc-Lys(EFmoc)	Asp	Arg	Ser(tBu)-OtBu	868
  Fmoc-Lys(cFmoc)	Asp	Arg	Thr(tBu)-OtBu	869
  Fmoc-Lys(EFmoc)	Arg	Glu	Ser(tBu)-OtBu	870
  Fmoc-Lys(EFmoc)	Arg	Glu	Thr(tBu)-OtBu	871
  Fmoc-Lys(EFmoc))	Glu	Arg	Leu-OtBu	872
  Boc-Lys(eFmoc)	Arg	Asp	Ser(tBu)-OtBu	873
  Boc-Lys(EFmoc)	Arg	Asp	Thr(tBu)-OtBu	874
  Boc-Lys(EFmoc)	Glu	Arg	Ser(tBu)-OtBu	875
  Boc-Lys(eFmoc)	Glu	Arg	Thr(tBu)-OtBu	876
  Boc-Lys(EFmoc)	Asp	Arg	Ser(tBu)-OtBu	877
  Boc-Lys(eFmoc)	Asp	Arg	Thr(tBu)-OtBu	878
  Boc-Lys(EFmoc)	Arg	Glu	Ser(tBu)-OtBu	879
  Boc-Lys(EFmoc)	Arg	Glu	Thr(tBu)-OtBu	880
  Boc-Lys(EFmoc)	Glu	Arg	Leu-OtBu	881
  Boc-Om(OFmoc)	Arg	Glu	Ser(tBu)-OtBu	882
  Boc-Om(8Fmoc)	Glu	Arg	Ser(tBu)-OtBu	883
  Boc-Orn(8Fmoc)	Arg	Asp	Ser(tBu)-OtBu	884
  Boc-Om(8Fmoc)	Asp	Arg	Ser(tBu)-OtBu	885
  Boc-Orn(OFmoc)	Asp	Arg	Thr(tBu)-OtBu	886
  Boc-Om(8Fmoc)	Arg	Asp	Thr(tBu)-OtBu	887
  Boc-Orn(8Fmoc)	Glu	Arg	Thr(tBu)-OtBu	888
  Boc-Orn(OFmoc)	Arg	Glu	Thr(tBu)-OtBu	889
  Fmoc-Trp	Asp	Arg	Ile-OtBu	890
  Fmoc-Trp	Arg	Glu	Ile-OtBu	891
  Fmoc-Trp	Glu	Arg	Ile-OtBu	892
  Fmoc-Trp	Asp	Arg	Leu-OtBu	893
  Fmoc-Trp	Arg	Glu	Leu-OtBu	894
  Fmoc-Trp	Glu	Arg	Leu-OtBu	895
  Fmoc-Phe	Asp	Arg	Ile-OtBu	896
  Fmoc-Phe	Arg	Glu	Ile-OtBu	897
  Fmoc-Phe	Glu	Arg	Ile-OtBu	898
  Fmoc-Phe	Asp	Arg	Leu-OtBu	899
  Fmoc-Phe	Arg	Glu	Leu-OtBu	900
  Fmoc-Phe	Glu	Arg	Leu-OtBu	901
  Fmoc-Trp	Arg	Asp	Phe-OtBu	902
  Fmoc-Trp	Arg	Glu	Phe-OtBu	903
  Fmoc-Trp	Glu	Arg	Phe-OtBu	904
  Fmoc-Trp	Asp	Arg	Tyr-OtBu	905
  Fmoc-Trp	Arg	Glu	Tyr-OtBu	906
  Fmoc-Trp	Glu	Arg	Tyr-OtBu	907
  Fmoc-Trp	Arg	Asp	Thr(tBu)-OtBu	908
  Fmoc-Trp	Asp	Arg	Thr(tBu)-OtBu	909
  Fmoc-Trp	Arg	Glu	Thr(tBu)-OtBu	910
  Fmoc-Trp	Glu	Arg	Thr(tBu)-OtBu	911
  Fmoc-Phe	Arg	Asp	norLeu-OtBu	912
  Fmoc-Phe	Arg	Glu	norLeu-OtBu	913
  Boc-Phe	Lys	Asp	Leu-OtB u	914
  Boc-Phe	Asp	Lys	Leu-OtBu	915
  Boc-Phe	Lys	Glu	Leu-OtBu	916
  Boc-Phe	Glu	Lys	Leu-OtBu	917
  Boc-Phe	Lys	Asp	Ile-OtBu	918
  Boc-Phe	Asp	Lys	Ile-OtBu	919
  Boc-Phe	Lys	Glu	Ile-OtBu	920
  Boc-Phe	Glu	Lys	Ile-OtBu	921
  Boc-Phe	Lys	Asp	norLeu-OtBu	922
  Boc-Phe	Asp	Lys	norLeu-OtBu	923
  Boc-Phe	Lys	Glu	norLeu-OtBu	924
  Boc-Phe	Glu	Lys	norLeu-OtBu	925
  Boc-Phe	His	Asp	Leu-OtBu	926
  Boc-Phe	Asp	His	Leu-OtBu	927
  Boc-Phe	His	Glu	Leu-OtBu	928
  Boc-Phe	Glu	His	Leu-OtBu	929
  Boc-Phe	His	Asp	Ile-OtBu	930
  Boc-Phe	Asp	His	Ile-OtBu	931
  Boc-Phe	His	Glu	Ile-OtBu	932
  Boc-Phe	Glu	His	Ile-OtBu	933
  Boc-Phe	His	Asp	norLeu-OtBu	934
  Boc-Phe	Asp	His	norLeu-OtBu	935
  Boc-Phe	His	Glu	norLeu-OtBu	936
  Boc-Phe	Glu	His	norLeu-OtBu	937
  Boc-Lys(eBoc)	Lys	Asp	Ser(tBu)-OtBu	938
  Boc-Lys(EBoc)	Asp	Lys	Ser(tBu)-OtBu	939
  Boc-Lys(eBoc)	Lys	Glu	Ser(tBu)-OtBu	940
  Boc-Lys(eBoc)	Glu	Lys	Ser(tBu)-OtBu	941
  Boc-Lys(eBoc)	His	Asp	Ser(tBu)-OtBu	942
  Boc-Lys(eBoc)	Asp	His	Ser(tBu)-OtBu	943
  Boc-Lys(eBoc)	His	Glu	Ser(tBu)-OtBu	944
  Boc-Lys(EBoc)	Glu	His	Ser(tBu)-OtBu	945

• While the peptides of Table 8 are illustrated with particular protecting groups, it is noted that these groups may be substituted with other protecting groups as described herein and/or one or more of the shown protecting group can be eliminated.
• 4) Small Peptides Having Either an Acidic or Basic Amino Acid in the Center Together with a Central Aliphatic Amino Acid.
• In certain embodiments, the peptides of this invention range from four amino acids to about ten amino acids. The terminal amino acids are typically hydrophobic either because of a hydrophobic side chain or because the terminal amino acids bear one or more hydrophobic protecting groups. End amino acids (X¹and X⁴) are hydrophobic either because of a hydrophobic side chain or because the side chain or the C and/or N terminus is blocked with one or more hydrophobic protecting group(s) (e.g., the N-terminus is blocked with Boc-, Fmoc-, Nicotinyl-, etc., and the C-terminus blocked with (tBu)-OtBu, etc.). Typically, the central portion of the peptide comprises a basic or acidic amino acid and an aliphatic amino acid (e.g., in a 4 mer) or a basic domain or an acidic domain and an aliphatic domain in a longer molecule.
• These four-mers can be represented by Formula I in which X¹and X⁴are hydrophobic and/or bear hydrophobic protecting group(s) as described herein and X²is acidic or basic while X³is aliphatic or X²is aliphatic while X³is acidic or basic. The peptide can be all L-amino acids or include one, or more, or all D-amino acids.
• Certain preferred peptides of this invention include, but are not limited to the peptides shown in Table 9.

• TABLE 9
  Examples of certain preferred peptides
  havingeither an acidic or basic
  amino acid in the center together
  with a central aliphatic amino acid.

  X1	X2	X3	X4	SEQ ID NO
  Fmoc-Lys(εBoc)	Leu	Arg	Ser(tBu)-OtBu	946
  Fmoc-Lys(εBoc)	Arg	Leu	Ser(tBu)-OtBu	947
  Fmoc-Lys(εBoc)	Leu	Arg	Thr(tBu)-OtBu	948
  Fmoc-Lys(εBoc)	Arg	Leu	Thr(tBu)-OtBu	949
  Fmoc-Lys(εBoc)	Glu	Leu	Ser(tBu)-OtBu	950
  Fmoc-Lys(εBoc)	Leu	Glu	Ser(tBu)-OtBu	951
  Fmoc-Lys(εBoc)	Glu	Leu	Thr(tBu)-OtBu	952
  Fmoc-Lys(εBoc)	Leu	Glu	Thr(tBu)-OtBu	953
  Fmoc-Lys(εFmoc)	Leu	Arg	Ser(tBu)-OtBu	954
  Fmoc-Lys(εFmoc)	Leu	Arg	Thr(tBu)-OtBu	955
  Fmoc-Lys(εFmoc)	Glu	Leu	Ser(tBu)-OtBu	956
  Fmoc-Lys(εFmoc)	Glu	Leu	Thr(tBu)-OtBu	957
  Boc-Lys(εFmoc)	Glu	Ile	Thr(tBu)-OtBu	958
  Boc-Lys(εFmoc)	Leu	Arg	Ser(tBu)-OtBu	959
  Boc-Lys(εFmoc)	Leu	Arg	Thr(tBu)-OtBu	960
  Boc-Lys(εFmoc)	Glu	Leu	Ser(tBu)-OtBu	961
  Boc-Lys(εFmoc)	Glu	Leu	Thr(tBu)-OtBu	962
  Boc-Lys(εBoc)	Leu	Arg	Ser(tBu)-OtBu	963
  Boc-Lys(εBoc)	Arg	Phe	Thr(tBu)-OtBu	964
  Boc-Lys(εBoc)	Leu	Arg	Thr(tBu)-OtBu	965
  Boc-Lys(εBoc)	Glu	Ile	Thr(tBu)	966
  Boc-Lys(εBoc)	Glu	Val	Thr(tBu)	967
  Boc-Lys(εBoc)	Glu	Ala	Thr(tBu)	968
  Boc-Lys(εBoc)	Glu	Gly	Thr(tBu)	969
  Boc-Lys(εBoc)	Glu	Leu	Ser(tBu)-OtBu	970
  Boc-Lys(εBoc)	Glu	Leu	Thr(tBu)-OtBu	971

• While the peptides of Table 9 are illustrated with particular protecting groups, it is noted that these groups may be substituted with other protecting groups as described herein and/or one or more of the shown protecting group can be eliminated.
• 5) Small Peptides Having Either an Acidic or Basic Amino Acid in the Center Together with a Central Aromatic Amino Acid.
• In certain embodiments, the “small” peptides of this invention range from four amino acids to about ten amino acids. The terminal amino acids are typically hydrophobic either because of a hydrophobic side chain or because the terminal amino acids bear one or more hydrophobic protecting groups end amino acids (X¹and X⁴) are hydrophobic either because of a hydrophobic side chain or because the side chain or the C and/or N terminus is blocked with one or more hydrophobic protecting group(s) (e.g., the N-terminus is blocked with Boc-, Fmoc-, Nicotinyl-, etc., and the C-terminus blocked with (tBu)-OtBu, etc.). Typically, the central portion of the peptide comprises a basic or acidic amino acid and an aromatic amino acid (e.g., in a 4 mer) or a basic domain or an acidic domain and an aromatic domain in a longer molecule.
• These four-mers can be represented by Formula I in which X¹and X⁴are hydrophobic and/or bear hydrophobic protecting group(s) as described herein and X²is acidic or basic while X³is aromatic or X²is aromatic while X³is acidic or basic. The peptide can be all L-amino acids or include one, or more, or all D-amino acids. Five-mers can be represented by a minor modification of Formula I in which X⁵is inserted as shown in Table 10 and in which X⁵is typically an aromatic amino acid.
• Certain preferred peptides of this invention include, but are not limited to the peptides shown in Table 10.

• TABLE 10
  Examples of certain preferred peptides having
  either an acidic or basic amino acid in the center
  together with a central aromatic amino acid.

  					SEQ ID
  X1	X2	X3	X5	X4	NO
  Fmoc-Lys(εBoc)	Arg	Trp		Tyr(tBu)-OtBu	972
  Fmoc-Lys(εBoc)	Trp	Arg		Tyr(tBu)-OtBu	973
  Fmoc-Lys(εBoc)	Arg	Tyr		Trp-OtBu	974
  Fmoc-Lys(εBoc)	Tyr	Arg		Trp-OtBu	975
  Fmoc-Lys(εBoc)	Arg	Tyr	Trp	Thr(tBu)-OtBu	976
  Fmoc-Lys(εBoc)	Arg	Tyr		Thr(tBu)-OtBu	977
  Fmoc-Lys(εBoc)	Arg	Trp		Thr(tBu)-OtBu	978
  Fmoc-Lys(εFmoc)	Arg	Trp		Tyr(tBu)-OtBu	979
  Fmoc-Lys(εFmoc)	Arg	Tyr		Trp-OtBu	980
  Fmoc-Lys(εFmoc)	Arg	Tyr	Trp	Thr(tBu)-OtBu	981
  Fmoc-Lys(εFmoc)	Arg	Tyr		Thr(tBu)-OtBu	982
  Fmoc-Lys(εFmoc)	Arg	Trp		Thr(tBu)-OtBu	983
  Boc-Lys(εFmoc)	Arg	Trp		Tyr(tBu)-OtBu	984
  Boc-Lys(εFmoc)	Arg	Tyr		Trp-OtBu	985
  Boc-Lys(εFmoc)	Arg	Tyr	Trp	Thr(tBu)-OtBu	986
  Boc-Lys(εFmoc)	Arg	Tyr		Thr(tBu)-OtBu	987
  Boc-Lys(εFmoc)	Arg	Tip		Thr(tBu)-OtBu	988
  Boc-Glu	Lys(εFmoc)	Arg		Tyr(tBu)-OtBu	989
  Boc-Lys(εBoc)	Arg	Trp		Tyr(tBu)-OtBu	990
  Boc-Lys(εBoc)	Arg	Tyr		Trp-OtBu	991
  Boc-Lys(εBoc)	Arg	Tyr	Trp	Thr(tBu)-OtBu	992
  Boc-Lys(εBoc)	Arg	Tyr		Thr(tBu)-OtBu	993
  Boc-Lys(εBoc)	Arg	Phe		Thr(tBu)-OtBu	994
  Boc-Lys(εBoc)	Arg	Trp		Thr(tBu)-OtBu	995

• While the peptides of Table 10 are illustrated with particular protecting groups, it is noted that these groups may be substituted with other protecting groups as described herein and/or one or more of the shown protecting group can be eliminated.
6) Small Peptides Having Aromatic Amino Acids or Aromatic Amino Acids Separated by Histidine(s) at the Center.
• In certain embodiments, the peptides of this invention are characterized by n electrons that are exposed in the center of the molecule which allow hydration of the particle and that allow the peptide particles to trap pro-inflammatory oxidized lipids such as fatty acid hydroperoxides and phospholipids that contain an oxidation product of arachidonic acid at the sn-2 position.
• In certain embodiments, these peptides consist of a minimum of 4 amino acids and a maximum of about 10 amino acids, preferentially (but not necessarily) with one or more of the amino acids being the D-sterioisomer of the amino acid, with the end amino acids being hydrophobic either because of a hydrophobic side chain or because the terminal amino acid(s) bear one or more hydrophobic blocking group(s), (e.g., an N-terminus blocked with Boc-, Fmoc-, Nicotinyl-, and the like, and a C-terminus blocked with (tBu)-OtBu groups and the like). Instead of having an acidic or basic amino acid in the center, these peptides generally have an aromatic amino acid at the center or have aromatic amino acids separated by histidine in the center of the peptide.
• Certain preferred peptides of this invention include, but are not limited to the peptides shown in Table 11.

• TABLE 11
  Examples of peptides having aromatic amino
  acids in the center or aromatic amino
  acids or aromatic domains separated by one
  or more histidines.

  					SEQ
  					ID
  X1	X2	X3	X4	X5	NO

  Boc-Lys(εBoc)	Phe	Trp	Phe	Ser(tBu)-OtBu	996
  Boc-Lys(εBoc)	Phe	Trp	Phe	Thr(tBu)-OtBu	997
  Boc-Lys(εBoc)	Phe	Tyr	Phe	Ser(tBu)-OtBu	998
  Boc-Lys(εBoc)	Phe	Tyr	Phe	Thr(tBu)-OtBu	999
  Boc-Lys(εBoc)	Phe	His	Phe	Ser(tBu)-OtBu	1000
  Boc-Lys(εBoc)	Phe	His	Phe	Thr(tBu)-OtBu	1001
  Boc-Lys(εBoc)	Val	Phe	Phe-Tyr	Ser(tBu)-OtBu	1002
  Nicotinyl-Lys	Phe	Trp	Phe	Ser(tBu)-OtBu	1003
  (εBoc)
  Nicotinyl-Lys	Phe	Trp	Phe	Thr(tBu)-OtBu	1004
  (εBoc)
  Nicotinyl-Lys	Phe	Tyr	Phe	Ser(tBu)-OtBu	1005
  (εBoc)
  Nicotinyl-Lys	Phe	Tyr	Phe	Thr(tBu)-OtBu	1006
  (εBoc)
  Nicotinyl-Lys	Phe	His	Phe	Ser(tBu)-OtBu	1007
  (εBoc)
  Nicotinyl-Lys	Phe	His	Phe	Thr(tBu)-OtBu	1008
  (εBoc)
  Boc-Leu	Phe	Trp	Phe	Thr(tBu)-OtBu	1009
  Boc-Leu	Phe	Trp	Phe	Ser(tBu)-OtBu	1010

• While the peptides of Table 11 are illustrated with particular protecting groups, it is noted that these groups may be substituted with other protecting groups as described herein and/or one or more of the shown protecting group can be eliminated.
7) Summary of Tripeptides and Tetrapeptides.
• For the sake of clarity, a number of tripeptides and tetrapeptides of this invention are generally summarized below in Table 12.

• TABLE 12
  General structure of certain peptides of this invention.

  X1	X2	X3	X4
  hydrophobic side	Acidic or	—	hydrophobic side
  chain or hydrophobic	Basic		chain or hydrophobic
  			protecting group(s)
  hydrophobic side	Basic	Acidic	hydrophobic side
  chain or hydrophobic			chain or hydrophobic
  protecting group(s)			protecting group(s)
  hydrophobic side	Acidic	Basic	hydrophobic side
  chain or hydrophobic			chain or hydrophobic
  protecting group(s)			protecting group(s)
  hydrophobic side	Acidic or	Aliphatic	hydrophobic side
  chain or hydrophobic	Basic		chain or hydrophobic
  protecting group(s)			protecting group(s)
  hydrophobic side	Aliphatic	Acidic or	hydrophobic side
  chain or hydrophobic		Basic	chain or hydrophobic
  protecting group(s)			protecting group(s)
  hydrophobic side	Acidic or	Aromatic	hydrophobic side
  chain or hydrophobic	Basic		chain or hydrophobic
  protecting group(s)			protecting group(s)
  hydrophobic side	Aromatic	Acidic or	hydrophobic side
  chain or hydrophobic		Basic	chain or hydrophobic
  protecting group(s)			protecting group(s)
  hydrophobic side	Aromatic	His	hydrophobic side
  chain or hydrophobic		Aromatic	chain or hydrophobic
  protecting group(s)			protecting group(s)

• Where longer peptides are desired, X²and X³can represent domains (e.g., regions of two or more amino acids of the specified type) rather than individual amino acids. Table 12 is intended to be illustrative and not limiting. Using the teaching provided herein, other suitable peptides can readily be identified.
8) Paired Amino Acids and Dipeptides.
• In certain embodiments, this invention pertains to the discovery that certain pairs of amino acids, administered in conjunction with each other or linked to form a dipeptide have one or more of the properties described herein. Thus, without being bound to a particular theory, it is believed that when the pairs of amino acids are administered in conjunction with each other, as described herein, they are capable participating in or inducing the formation of micelles in vivo.
• Similar to the other small peptides described herein, it is believed that the pairs of peptides will associate in vivo, and demonstrate physical properties including high solubility in ethyl acetate (e.g., greater than about 4 mg/mL), solubility in aqueous buffer at pH 7.0. Upon contacting phospholipids such as 1,2-Dimyristoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DMPC), in an aqueous environment, it is believed the pairs of amino acids induce or participate in the formation of particles with a diameter of approximately 7.5 nm (.+−.0.1 nm), and/or induce or participate in the formation of stacked bilayers with a bilayer dimension on the order of 3.4 to 4.1 nm with spacing between the bilayers in the stack of approximately 2 nm, and/or also induce or participate in the formation of vesicular structures of approximately 38 nm).
• Moreover, it is further believed that the pairs of amino acids can display one or more of the following physiologically relevant properties:
• • 1. They convert pro-inflammatory HDL to anti-inflammatory HDL or make anti-inflammatory HDL more anti-inflammatory;
  • 2. They decrease LDL-induced monocyte chemotactic activity generated by artery wall cells;
  • 3. They stimulate the formation and cycling of pre-β HDL;
  • 4. They raise HDL cholesterol; and/or
  • 5. They increase HDL paraoxonase activity.
• The pairs of amino acids can be administered as separate amino acids (administered sequentially or simultaneously, e.g. in a combined formulation) or they can be covalently coupled directly or through a linker (e.g. a PEG linker, a carbon linker, a branched linker, a straight chain linker, a heterocyclic linker, a linker formed of derivatized lipid, etc.). In certain embodiments, the pairs of amino acids are covalently linked through a peptide bond to form a dipeptide. In various embodiments while the dipeptides will typically comprise two amino acids each bearing an attached protecting group, this invention also contemplates dipeptides wherein only one of the amino acids bears one or more protecting groups.
• The pairs of amino acids typically comprise amino acids where each amino acid is attached to at least one protecting group (e.g., a hydrophobic protecting group as described herein). The amino acids can be in the D or the L form. In certain embodiments, where the amino acids comprising the pairs are not attached to each other, each amino acid bears two protecting groups (e.g., such asmolecules 1 and 2 in Table 13).

• TABLE 13
  Illustrative amino acid pairs of this invention.

  	Amino Acid Pair/dipeptide
  1.	Boc-Arg-OtBu*
  2.	Boc-Glu-OtBu*
  3.	Boc-Phe-Arg-OtBu**
  4.	Boc-Glu-Leu-OtBu**
  5.	Boc-Arg-Glu-OtBu***
  *This would typically be administered in conjunction
  with a second aminoacid.
  **In certain embodiments, these dipeptides would be
  administered in conjunction with each other.
  ***In certain embodiments, this peptide would be
  administered either alone or in combination with one
  of the other peptides described herein.

• Suitable pairs of amino acids can readily be identified by providing the pair of protected amino acids and/or a dipeptide and then screening the pair of amino acids/dipeptide for one or more of the physical and/or physiological properties described above. In certain embodiments, this invention excludes pairs of amino acids and/or dipeptides comprising aspartic acid and phenylalanine. In certain embodiments, this invention excludes pairs of amino acids and/or dipeptides in which one amino acid is (−)-N-[(trans-4-isopropylcyclohexane)carbonyl]-D-phenylalanine (nateglinide).
• In certain embodiments, the amino acids comprising the pair are independently selected from the group consisting of an acidic amino acid (e.g., aspartic acid, glutamic acid, etc.), a basic amino acid (e.g., lysine, arginine, histidine, etc.), and a non-polar amino acid (e.g., alanine, valine, leucine, isoleucine, proline, phenylalanine, tryptophan, methionine, etc.). In certain embodiments, where the first amino acid is acidic or basic, the second amino acid is non-polar and where the second amino acid is acidic or basic, the first amino acid is non-polar. In certain embodiments, where the first amino acid is acidic, the second amino acid is basic, and vice versa. (see, e.g., Table 14).
• Similar combinations can be obtained by administering pairs of dipeptides. Thus, for example in certain embodiments,molecules 3 and 4 in Table 13 would be administered in conjunction with each other.

• TABLE 14
  Certain generalized amino acid pairs/dipeptides.

  	First Amino acid	Second Amino acid

  1.	Acidic	Basic
  2.	Basic	Acidic
  3.	Acidic	Non-polar
  4.	Non-polar	Acidic
  5.	Basic	Non-polar
  6.	Non-polar	Basic

• It is noted that these amino acid pairs/dipeptides are intended to be illustrative and not limiting. Using the teaching provided herein other suitable amino acid pairs/dipeptides can readily be determined.
E) Apo-J (G* Peptides).
• It was a discovery of this invention that peptides that mimicking the amphipathic helical domains of apo J are capable of mitigating one or more symptoms of atherosclerosis and/or other pathologies described herein. Apolipoprotein J possesses a wide nonpolar face termed globular protein-like, or G* amphipathic helical domains. The class G amphipathic helix is found in globular proteins, and thus, the name class G. This class of amphipathic helix is characterized by a random distribution of positively charged and negatively charged residues on the polar face with a narrow nonpolar face. Because of the narrow nonpolar face this class does not readily associate with phospholipids. The G* of amphipathic helix possesses similar, but not identical, characteristics to the G amphipathic helix. Similar to the class G amphipathic helix, the G* class peptides possesses a random distribution of positively and negatively charged residues on the polar face. However, in contrast to the class G amphipathic helix which has a narrow nonpolar face, this class has a wide nonpolar face that allows this class to readily bind phospholipid and the class is termed G* to differentiate it from the G class of amphipathic helix.
• A number of suitable G* amphipathic peptides are described in copending applications U.S. Ser. No. 10/120,508, filed Apr. 5, 2002, U.S. Ser. No. 10/520,207, filed Apr. 1, 2003, and PCT Application PCT/US03/09988, filed Apr. 1, 2003. In addition, a variety of suitable peptides of this invention that are related to G* amphipathic helical domains of apo J are illustrated in Table 15.

• TABLE 15
  Certain illustrative peptides for use in
  this invention related to G* amphipathic
  helical domains of apo J.

  	Amino Acid Sequence	SEQ ID NO
  	LLEQLNEQFNWVSRLANLTQGE	1011
  	LLEQLNEQFNWVSRLANL	1012
  	NELQEMSNQGSKYVNKEIQNAVNGV	1013
  	IQNAVNGVKQIKTLIEKTNEE	1014
  	RKTLLSNLEEAKKKKEDALNETRESETKLKEL	1015
  	PGVCNETMMALWEECK	1016
  	PCLKQTCMKFYARVCR	1017
  	ECKPCLKQTCMKFYARVCR	1018
  	LVGRQLEEFL	1019
  	MNGDRIDSLLEN	1020
  	QQTHMLDVMQD	1021
  	FSRASSIIDELFQD	1022
  	PFLEMIHEAQQAMDI	1023
  	PTEFIREGDDD	1024
  	RMKDQCDKCREILSV	1025
  	PSQAKLRRELDESLQVAERLTRKYNELLKSYQ	1026
  	LLEQLNEQFNWVSRLANLTEGE	1027
  	DQYYLRVTTVA	1028
  	PSGVTEVVVKLFDS	1029
  	PKFMETVAEKALQEYRKKHRE	1030

• The peptides of this invention, however, are not limited to G* variants of apo J. Generally speaking G* domains from essentially any other protein preferably apo proteins are also suitable. The particular suitability of such proteins can readily be determined using assays for protective activity (e.g., protecting LDL from oxidation, and the like), e.g. as illustrated herein in the Examples. Some particularly preferred proteins include G* amphipathic helical domains or variants thereof (e.g., conservative substitutions, and the like) of proteins including, but not limited to apo AI, apo AIV, apo E, apo CII, apo CIII, and the like.
• Certain preferred peptides for related to G* amphipathic helical domains related to apoproteins other than apo J are illustrated in Table 16.

• TABLE 16
  Peptides for use in this invention related to
  G* amphipathic helical domains related to
  apoproteins other than apo J.

  	SEQ ID
  Amino Acid Sequence	NO
  WDRVKDLATVYVDVLKDSGRDYVSQF	1031
  (Related to the 8 to 33 region of apo AI)
  VATVMWDYFSQLSNNAKEAVEHLQK	1032
  (Related to the 7 to 31 region of apo AIV)
  RWELALGRFWDYLRWVQTLSEQVQEEL	1033
  (Related to the 25 to 51 region of apo E)
  LSSQVTQELRALMDETMKELKELKAYKSELEEQLT	1034
  (Related to the 52 to 83 region of apo E)
  ARLSKELQAAQARLGADMEDVCGRLV	1035
  (Related to the 91 to 116 region of apo E)
  VRLASHLRKLRKRLLRDADDLQKRLA	1036
  (Related to the135 to 160 region of apo E)
  PLVEDMQRQWAGLVEKVQA	1037
  (267 to 285 of apo E.27)
  MSTYTGIFTDQVLSVLK	1038
  (Related to the 60 to 76 region of apo CII)
  LLSFMQGYMKHATKTAKDALSS	1039
  (Related to the 8 to 29 region of apo CIII)

• Additional illustrative G* peptides are shown in Table 17.

• TABLE 17
  Additional illustrative G* peptides.

  	SEQ ID
  Peptide	NO
  Ac-Lys-Trp-Ile-Tyr-His-Leu-Thr-Glu-Gly-	1040
  Ser-Thr- Asp-Leu-Arg-Thr-Glu-Gly-NH2
  Ac-Lys-Trp-Phe-Tyr-His-Leu-Thr-Glu-Gly-	1041
  Ser-Thr- Asp-Leu-Arg-Thr-Glu-Gly-NH2
  Ac-Lys-Trp-Leu-Tyr-His-Leu-Thr-Glu-Gly-	1042
  Ser-Thr- Asp-Leu-Arg-Thr-Glu-Gly-NH2
  Ac-Lys-Trp-Val-Tyr-His-Leu-Thr-Glu-Gly-	1043
  Ser-Thr- Asp-Leu-Arg-Thr-Glu-Gly-NH2
  Ac-Lys-Tyr-Ile-Trp-His-Leu-Thr-Glu-Gly-	1044
  Ser-Thr- Asp-Leu-Arg-Thr-Glu-Gly-NH2
  Ac-Lys-Trp-Ile-Tyr-His-Phe-Thr-Glu-Gly-	1045
  Ser-Thr- Asp-Leu-Arg-Thr-Glu-Gly-NH2
  Ac-Lys-Trp-Phe-Tyr-His-Ile-Thr-Glu-Gly-	1046
  Ser-Thr- Asp-Leu-Arg-Thr-Glu-Gly-NH2
  Ac-Lys-Trp-Leu-Tyr-His-Val-Thr-Glu-Gly-	1047
  Ser-Thr- Asp-Leu-Arg-Thr-Glu-Gly-NH2
  Ac-Lys-Trp-Val-Tyr-His-Tyr-Thr-Glu-Gly-	1048
  Ser-Thr- Asp-Leu-Arg-Thr-Glu-Gly-NH2
  Ac-Lys-Tyr-Ile-Trp-His-Phe-Thr-Glu-Gly-	1049
  Ser-Thr- Asp-Leu-Arg-Thr-Glu-Gly-NH2
  Ac-Lys-Tyr-Ile-Trp-His-Ile-Thr-Glu-Gly-	1050
  Ser-Thr- Asp-Leu-Arg-Thr-Glu-Gly-NH2
  Ac-Lys-Tyr-Ile-Trp-His-Val-Thr-Glu-Gly-	1051
  Ser-Thr- Asp-Leu-Arg-Thr-Glu-Gly-NH2
  Ac-Lys-Tyr-Ile-Trp-His-Tyr-Thr-Glu-Gly-	1052
  Ser-Thr- Asp-Leu-Arg-Thr-Glu-Gly-NH2
  Ac-Lys-Phe-Ile-Trp-His-Leu-Thr-Glu-Gly-	1053
  Ser-Thr- Asp-Leu-Arg-Thr-Glu-Gly-NH2
  Ac-Lys-Leu-Ile-Trp-His-Leu-Thr-Glu-Gly-	1054
  Ser-Thr- Asp-Leu-Arg-Thr-Glu-Gly-NH2
  Ac-Lys-Ile-Ile-Trp-His-Leu-Thr-Glu-Gly-	1055
  Ser-Thr- Asp-Leu-Arg-Thr-Glu-Gly-NH2
  Ac-Lys-Tyr-Ile-Trp-Phe-Leu-Thr-Glu-Gly-	1056
  Ser-Thr- Asp-Leu-Arg-Thr-Glu-Gly-NH2
  Ac-Lys-Trp-Ile-Tyr-Phe-Leu-Thr-Glu-Gly-	1057
  Ser-Thr- Asp-Leu-Arg-Thr-Glu-Gly-NH2
  Ac-Lys-Trp-Ile-Tyr-Leu-Leu-Thr-Glu-Gly-	1058
  Ser-Thr- Asp-Leu-Arg-Thr-Glu-Gly-NH2
  Ac-Lys-Trp-Ile-Tyr-His-Phe-Thr-Glu-Gly-	1059
  Ser-Thr- Asp-Leu-Arg-Thr-Glu-Gly-NH2
  Ac-Lys-Trp-Ile-Tyr-His-Tyr-Thr-Glu-Gly-	1060
  ASer-Thr- Asp-Leu-rg-Thr-Glu-Gly-NH2
  Ac-Lys-Trp-Ile-Tyr-His-Ile-Thr-Glu-Gly-	1061
  Ser-Thr- Asp-Leu-Arg-Thr-Glu-Gly-NH2
  Ac-Lys-Trp-Ile-Tyr-His-Leu-Ser-Glu-Gly-	1062
  Ser-Thr- Asp-Leu-Arg-Thr-Glu-Gly-NH2
  Ac-Lys-Trp-Ile-Tyr-His-Leu-Thr-Asp-Gly-	1063
  Ser-Thr- Asp-Leu-Arg-Thr-Glu-Gly-NH2
  Ac-Lys-Trp-Ile-Tyr-His-Leu-Thr-Glu-Gly-	1064
  Thr- Ser-Asp-Leu-Arg-Thr-Glu-Gly-NH2
  Ac-Lys-Trp-Ile-Tyr-His-Leu-Thr-Glu-Gly-	1065
  Ser- Thr-Glu-Leu-Arg-Thr-Glu-Gly-NH2
  Ac-Lys-Trp-Ile-Tyr-His-Leu-Thr-Glu-Gly-	1066
  Ser-Thr- Asp-Phe-Arg-Thr-Glu-Gly-NH2
  Ac-Lys-Trp-Ile-Tyr-His-Leu-Thr-Glu-Gly-	1067
  Ser-Thr- Asp-Tyr-Arg-Thr-Glu-Gly-NH2
  Ac-Lys-Trp-Ile-Tyr-His-Leu-Thr-Glu-Gly-	1068
  Ser-Thr- Asp-Ile-Arg-Thr-Glu-Gly-NH2
  Ac-Lys-Trp-Ile-Tyr-His-Leu-Thr-Glu-Gly-	1069
  Ser-Thr- Asp-Val-Arg-Thr-Glu-Gly-NH2
  Ac-Lys-Trp-Ile-Tyr-His-Leu-Thr-Glu-Gly-	1070
  Ser-Thr- Asp-Leu-Lys-Thr-Glu-Gly-NH2
  Ac-Lys-Trp-Ile-Tyr-His-Leu-Thr-Glu-Gly-	1071
  Ser-Thr- Asp-Leu-Arg-Ser-Glu-Gly-NH2
  Ac-Lys-Trp-Ile-Tyr-His-Leu-Thr-Glu-Gly-	1072
  Ser-Thr- Asp-Leu-Arg-Thr-Asp-Gly-NH2
  Ac-Lys-Trp-Ile-Tyr-His-Leu-Thr-Glu-Gly-	1073
  Ser-Thr- Asp-Ile-Lys-Thr-Glu-Gly-NH2
  Ac-Lys-Trp-Ile-Tyr-His-Leu-Thr-Glu-Gly-	1074
  Ser-Thr- Asp-Ile-Arg-Ser-Glu-Gly-NH2
  Ac-Lys-Trp-Ile-Tyr-His-Leu-Thr-Glu-Gly-	1075
  Ser-Thr- Asp-Ile-Lys-Ser-Glu-Gly-NH2
  Ac-Lys-Trp-Ile-Tyr-His-Leu-Thr-Glu-Gly-	1076
  Ser-Thr- Asp-Ile-Lys-Ser-Asp-Gly-NH2
  Ac-Arg-Trp-Ile-Tyr-His-Leu-Thr-Glu-Gly-	1077
  Ser-Thr- Asp-Leu-Arg-Thr-Glu-Gly-NH2
  Ac-Arg-Tyr-Ile-Trp-His-Leu-Thr-Glu-Gly-	1078
  Ser-Thr- Asp-Ile-Arg-Thr-Glu-Gly-NH2
  Ac-Arg-Trp-Ile-Tyr-His-Leu-Thr-Glu-Gly-	1079
  Ser-Thr- Asp-Ile-Arg-Thr-Asp-Gly-NH2
  Ac-Arg-Trp-Ile-Phe-His-Leu-Thr-Glu-Gly-	1080
  Ser-Thr- Asp-Ile-Arg-Thr-Glu-Gly-NH2
  Ac-Arg-Trp-Ile-Tyr-His-Leu-Thr-Glu-Gly-	1081
  Ser-Thr- Asp-Leu-Lys-Thr-Glu-Gly-NH2
  Ac-Arg-Trp-Ile-Tyr-His-Leu-Thr-Asp-Gly-	1082
  Ser-Thr- Asp-Ile-Arg-Thr-Glu-Gly-NH2
  Ac-Arg-Trp-Ile-Tyr-His-Leu-Thr-Asp-Gly-	1083
  Ser-Thr- Asp-Leu-Arg-Thr-Glu-Gly-NH2
  Ac-Arg-Trp-Ile-Tyr-Phe-Leu-Thr-Glu-Gly-	1084
  Ser-Thr- Asp-Ile-Arg-Thr-Glu-Gly-NH2
  Ac-Arg-Trp-Ile-Tyr-Phe-Leu-Thr-Glu-Gly-	1085
  Ser-Thr- Asp-Leu-Arg-Thr-Glu-Gly-NH2
  Ac-Lys-Trp-Phe-Tyr-His-Leu-Thr-Glu-Gly-	1086
  Ser-Thr- Asp-Phe-Arg-Thr-Glu-Gly-NH2
  Ac-Arg-Trp-Phe-Tyr-His-Leu-Thr-Glu-Gly-	1087
  Ser-Thr- Asp-Leu-Arg-Thr-Glu-Gly-NH2
  Ac-Lys-Trp-Ile-Phe-His-Leu-Thr-Glu-Gly-	1088
  Ser-Thr- Asp-Ile-Arg-Thr-Asp-Gly-NH2
  Ac-Arg-Trp-Ile-Tyr-His-Leu-Thr-Glu-Gly-	1089
  Ser-Thr- Asp-Ile-Arg-Thr-Asp-Gly-NH2
  Ac-Arg-Trp-Ile-Tyr-His-Leu-Thr-Glu-Gly-	1090
  Ser-Thr- Asp-Leu-Arg-Thr-Asp-Gly-NH2
  Ac-Lys-Trp-Ile-Tyr-His-Leu-Thr-Glu-Gly-	1091
  Ser-Thr- Asp-Ile-Lys-Thr-Glu-Gly-NH2
  Ac-Lys-Trp-Ile-Tyr-His-Leu-Thr-Glu-Gly-	1092
  Ser-Thr- Asp-Ile-Lys-Thr-Asp-Gly-NH2
  Ac-Lys-Trp-Ile-Tyr-His-Leu-Thr-Glu-Gly-	1093
  Ser-Thr- Asp-Phe-Lys-Thr-Glu-Gly-NH2
  Ac-Lys-Trp-Ile-Tyr-His-Leu-Thr-Glu-Gly-	1094
  Ser-Thr- Asp-Tyr-Lys-Thr-Glu-Gly-NH2
  Ac-Lys-Trp-Ile-Tyr-His-Leu-Thr-Glu-Gly-	1095
  Ser-Thr- Asp-Ile-Arg-Thr-Glu-Gly-NH2
  Ac-Lys-Trp-Phe-Tyr-His-Phe-Thr-Glu-Gly-	1096
  Ser-Thr- Asp-Leu-Arg-Thr-Glu-Gly-NH2
  Ac-Arg-Trp-Phe-Tyr-His-Phe-Thr-Glu-Gly-	1097
  Ser-Thr- Asp-Leu-Arg-Thr-Glu-Gly-NH2
  Ac-Lys-Trp-Phe-Tyr-His-Phe-Thr-Glu-Gly-	1098
  Ser-Thr- Asp-Phe-Arg-Thr-Glu-Gly-NH2
  Ac-Lys-Trp-Phe-Tyr-His-Phe-Thr-Asp-Gly-	1099
  Ser-Thr- Asp-Ile-Arg-Thr-Glu-Gly-NH2
  Ac-Arg-Trp-Phe-Tyr-His-Phe-Thr-Glu-Gly-	1100
  Ser-Thr- Asp-Leu-Arg-Thr-Glu-Gly-NH2
  Ac-Arg-Trp-Phe-Tyr-His-Phe-Thr-Glu-Gly-	1101
  Ser-Thr- Asp-Phe-Arg-Thr-Glu-Gly-NH2
  Ac-Arg-Trp-Phe-Tyr-His-Phe-Thr-Glu-Gly-	1102
  Ser-Thr- Asp-Phe-Arg-Thr-Asp-Gly-NH2
  Ac-Glu-Lys-Cys-Val-Glu-Glu-Phe-Lys-Ser-	1103
  Leu-Thr- Ser-Cys-Leu-Asp-Ser-Lys-Ala-
  Phe-NH2
  Ac-Asp-Lys-Cys-Val-Glu-Glu-Phe-Lys-Ser-	1104
  Leu-Thr- Ser-Cys-Leu-Asp-Ser-Lys-Ala-
  Phe-NH2
  Ac-Glu-Lys-Cys-Val-Asp-Glu-Phe-Lys-Ser-	1105
  Leu-Thr- Ser-Cys-Leu-Asp-Ser-Lys-Ala-
  Phe-NH2
  Ac-Glu-Lys-Cys-Val-Glu-Asp-Phe-Lys-Ser-	1106
  Leu-Thr- Ser-Cys-Leu-Asp-Ser-Lys-Ala-
  Phe-NH2
  Ac-Glu-Arg-Cys-Val-Glu-Glu-Phe-Lys-Ser-	1107
  Leu-Thr- Ser-Cys-Leu-Asp-Ser-Lys-Ala-
  Phe-NH2
  Ac-Asp-Lys-Cys-Val-Asp-Asp-Phe-Lys-Ser-	1108
  Leu-Thr- Ser-Cys-Leu-Asp-Ser-Lys-Ala-
  Phe-NH2
  Ac-Asp-Arg-Cys-Val-Glu-Glu-Phe-Lys-Ser-	1109
  Leu-Thr- Ser-Cys-Leu-Asp-Ser-Lys-Ala-
  Phe-NH2
  Ac-Glu-Arg-Cys-Val-Asp-Asp-Phe-Lys-Ser-	1110
  Leu-Thr- Ser-Cys-Leu-Asp-Ser-Lys-Ala-
  Phe-NH2
  Ac-Glu-Lys-Cys-Val-Glu-Glu-Phe-Lys-Ser-	1111
  Phe-Thr- Ser-Cys-Leu-Asp-Ser-Lys-Ala-
  Phe-NH2
  Ac-Glu-Lys-Cys-Val-Glu-Glu-Phe-Lys-Ser-	1112
  Ile-Thr- Ser-Cys-Leu-Asp-Ser-Lys-Ala-
  Phe-NH2
  Ac-Glu-Lys-Cys-Val-Glu-Glu-Phe-Lys-Ser-	1113
  Val-Thr- Ser-Cys-Leu-Asp-Ser-Lys-Ala-
  Phe-NH2
  Ac-Glu-Arg-Cys-Val-Glu-Glu-Phe-Lys-Ser-	1114
  Tyr-Thr- Ser-Cys-Leu-Asp-Ser-Lys-Ala-
  Phe-NH2
  Ac-Glu-Arg-Cys-Val-Glu-Glu-Phe-Lys-Ser-	1115
  Phe-Thr- Ser-Cys-Leu-Asp-Ser-Lys-Ala-
  Phe-NH2
  Ac-Glu-Arg-Cys-Val-Glu-Glu-Phe-Lys-Ser-	1116
  Ile-Thr- Ser-Cys-Leu-Asp-Ser-Lys-Ala-
  Phe-NH2
  Ac-Glu-Arg-Cys-Val-Glu-Glu-Phe-Lys-Ser-	1117
  Val-Thr- Ser-Cys-Leu-Asp-Ser-Lys-Ala-
  Phe-NH2
  Ac-Glu-Arg-Cys-Val-Glu-Glu-Phe-Lys-Ser-	1118
  Tyr-Thr- Ser-Cys-Leu-Asp-Ser-Lys-Ala-
  Phe-NH2
  Ac-Glu-Lys-Cys-Val-Glu-Glu-Phe-Lys-Ser-	1119
  Phe-Thr -Thr-Cys-Leu-Asp-Ser-Lys-Ala-
  Phe-NH2
  Ac-Glu-Lys-Cys-Val-Glu-Glu-Phe-Lys-Ser-	1120
  Ile-Ser- Ser-Cys-Leu-Asp-Ser-Lys-Ala-
  Phe-NH2
  Ac-Glu-Lys-Cys-Val-Glu-Glu-Phe-Lys-Ser-	1121
  Val-Ser- Thr-Cys-Leu-Asp-Ser-Lys-Ala-
  Phe-NH2
  Ac-Glu-Lys-Cys-Val-Glu-Glu-Phe-Lys-Ser-	1122
  Tyr-Thr- Ser-Cys-Leu-Asp-Ser-Lys-Ala-
  Phe-NH2
  Ac-Glu-Lys-Cys-Val-Glu-Glu-Phe-Lys-Ser-	1123
  Phe-Thr-Thr-Cys-Leu-Asp-Ser-Lys-Ala-
  Phe-NH2
  Ac-Glu-Lys-Cys-Val-Glu-Glu-Phe-Lys-Ser-	1124
  Phe-Ser-Ser-Cys-Leu-Asp-Ser-Lys-Ala-
  Phe-NH2
  Ac-Glu-Lys-Cys-Val-Glu-Glu-Phe-Lys-Ser-	1125
  Phe-Thr- Ser-Cys-Leu-Asp-Ser-Lys-Ala-
  Phe-NH2
  Ac-Glu-Lys-Cys-Val-Glu-Glu-Phe-Lys-Ser-	1126
  Phe-Thr- Ser-Cys-Leu-Asp-Ser-Lys-Ala-
  Phe-NH2
  Ac-Glu-Lys-Cys-Val-Glu-Glu-Phe-Lys-Ser-	1127
  Phe-Thr- Ser-Cys-Leu-Asp-Ser-Lys-Ala-
  Phe-NH2
  Ac-Glu-Lys-Cys-Val-Glu-Glu-Phe-Lys-Ser-	1128
  Phe-Thr- Ser-Cys-Phe-Asp-Ser-Lys-Ala-
  Phe-NH2
  Ac-Glu-Lys-Cys-Val-Glu-Glu-Phe-Lys-Ser-	1129
  Phe-Thr- Ser-Cys-Phe-Glu-Ser-Lys-Ala-
  Phe-NH2
  Ac-Glu-Lys-Cys-Val-Glu-Glu-Phe-Lys-Ser-	1130
  Phe-Thr- Ser-Cys-Leu-Glu-Ser-Lys-Ala-
  Phe-NH2
  Ac-Glu-Lys-Cys-Val-Glu-Glu-Phe-Lys-Ser-	1131
  Phe-Thr- Ser-Cys-Ile-Asp-Ser-Lys-Ala-
  Phe-NH2
  Ac-Glu-Lys-Cys-Val-Glu-Glu-Leu-Lys-Ser-	1132
  Phe-Thr- Ser-Cys-Phe-Asp-Ser-Lys-Ala-
  Phe-NH2
  Ac-Asp-Lys-Cys-Val-Glu-Glu-Phe-Lys-Ser-	1133
  Phe-Thr- Ser-Cys-Phe-Asp-Ser-Lys-Ala-
  Phe-NH2
  Ac-Asp-Lys-Cys-Val-Glu-Glu-Phe-Lys-Ser-	1134
  Phe-Thr- Ser-Cys-Phe-Glu-Ser-Lys-Ala-
  Phe-NH2
  Ac-Glu-Arg-Cys-Val-Glu-Glu-Phe-Lys-Ser-	1135
  Phe-Thr- Ser-Cys-Phe-Asp-Ser-Lys-Ala-
  Phe-NH2
  Ac-Glu-Lys-Cys-Phe-Glu-Glu-Phe-Lys-Ser-	1136
  Phe-Thr- Ser-Cys-Phe-Asp-Ser-Lys-Ala-
  Phe-NH2
  Ac-Glu-Lys-Cys-Phe-Glu-Glu-Phe-Lys-Ser-	1137
  Phe-Thr- Ser-Cys-Phe-Glu-Ser-Lys-Ala-
  Phe-NH2
  Ac-Glu-Lys-Cys-Val-Glu-Glu-Phe-Lys-Ser-	1138
  Phe-Ser- Ser-Cys-Phe-Glu-Ser-Lys-Ala-
  Phe-NH2
  Ac-Glu-Lys-Cys-Val-Glu-Glu-Phe-Lys-Ser-	1139
  Phe-Gln- Ser-Cys-Phe-Asp-Ser-Lys-Ala-
  Phe-NH2
  Ac-Glu-Lys-Cys-Phe-Glu-Glu-Phe-Lys-Ser-	1140
  Phe-Gln- Ser-Cys-Phe-Asp-Ser-Lys-Ala-
  Phe-NH2
  Ac-Glu-Lys-Cys-Val-Glu-Glu-Phe-Lys-Gln-	1141
  Phe-Thr- Ser-Cys-Phe-Asp-Ser-Lys-Ala-
  Phe-NH2
  Ac-Glu-Lys-Cys-Val-Glu-Glu-Phe-Lys-Gln-	1142
  Leu-Thr- Ser-Cys-Leu-Asp-Ser-Lys-Ala-
  Phe-NH2
  Ac-Glu-Lys-Cys-Phe-Glu-Glu-Phe-Lys-Ser-	1143
  Phe-Gln- Ser-Cys-Leu-Asp-Ser-Lys-Ala-
  Phe-NH2
  Ac-Glu-Lys-Cys-Val-Glu-Glu-Phe-Lys-Gln-	1144
  Phe-Thr- Ser-Cys-Phe-Asp-Ser-Lys-Ala-
  Phe-NH2
  Ac-Glu-Lys-Cys-Val-Glu-Glu-Phe-Lys-Ser-	1145
  Phe-Thr- Ser-Cys-Phe-Glu-Ser-Lys-Ala-
  Phe-NH2
  Ac-Glu-Arg-Cys-Phe-Glu-Glu-Phe-Lys-Ser-	1146
  Phe-Thr- Ser-Cys-Phe-Asp-Ser-Lys-Ala-
  Phe-NH2
  Ac-Asp-Lys-Cys-Phe-Glu-Glu-Phe-Lys-Ser-	1147
  Phe-Thr- Ser-Cys-Phe-Asp-Ser-Lys-Ala-
  Phe-NH2
  Ac-Glu-Arg-Cys-Val-Glu-Glu-Phe-Lys-Ser-	1148
  Leu-Thr- Ser-Cys-Leu-Glu-Ser-Lys-Ala-
  Phe-NH2
  Ac-Glu-Lys-Cys-Val-Glu-Glu-Phe-Lys-Ser-	1149
  Leu-Thr- Ser-Cys-Leu-Asp-Ser-Lys-Phe-
  Phe-NH2
  Ac-Glu-Lys-Cys-Phe-Glu-Glu-Phe-Lys-Ser-	1150
  Phe-Thr- Ser-Cys-Phe-Asp-Ser-Lys-Phe-
  Phe-NH2
  Ac-Asp-Lys-Cys-Phe-Glu-Glu-Phe-Lys-Ser-	1151
  Phe-Thr- Ser-Cys-Leu-Asp-Ser-Lys-Phe-
  Phe-NH2
  Ac-Asp-Lys-Cys-Phe-Glu-Glu-Phe-Lys-Ser-	1152
  Phe-Thr- Ser-Cys-Leu-Glu-Ser-Lys-Phe-
  Phe-NH2
  Ac-Asp-Lys-Cys-Phe-Glu-Glu-Leu-Lys-Ser-	1153
  Phe-Thr- Ser-Cys-Leu-Asp-Ser-Lys-Phe-
  Phe-NH2
  Ac-Glu-Arg-Cys-Phe-Glu-Glu-Phe-Lys-Ser-	1154
  Phe-Thr- Ser-Cys-Leu-Asp-Ser-Lys-Phe-
  Phe-NH2
  Ac-Glu-Lys-Ala-Val-Glu-Glu-Phe-Lys-Ser-	1155
  Phe-Thr- Ser-Cys-Leu-Asp-Ser-Lys-Ala-
  Phe-NH2
  Ac-Asp-Lys-Ala-Val-Glu-Glu-Phe-Lys-Ser-	1156
  Phe-Thr- Ser-Cys-Leu-Asp-Ser-Lys-Phe-
  Phe-NH2
  Ac-Glu-Lys-Ala-Val-Glu-Glu-Phe-Lys-Ser-	1157
  Phe-Thr- Ser-Ala-Leu-Asp-Ser-Lys-Ala-
  Phe-NH2
  Ac-Asp-Lys-Ala-Val-Glu-Glu-Phe-Lys-Ser-	1158
  Phe-Thr- Ser-Ala-Leu-Asp-Ser-Lys-Ala-
  Phe-NH2
  Ac-Asp-Arg-Ala-Phe-Glu-Glu-Phe-Lys-Ser-	1159
  Phe-Thr- Ser-Cys-Leu-Asp-Ser-Lys-Phe-
  Phe-NH2
  Ac-Asp-Arg-Ala-Phe-Glu-Glu-Phe-Lys-Ser-	1160
  Phe-Thr- Ser-Ala-Leu-Asp-Ser-Lys-Phe-
  Phe-NH2
  Ac-Asp-Lys-Cys-Phe-Glu-Glu-Phe-Lys-Ser-	1161
  Phe-Thr- Ser-Cys-Phe-Glu-Ser-Lys-Phe-
  Phe-NH2
  Ac-Glu-Lys-Cys-Tyr-Glu-Glu-Phe-Lys-Ser-	1162
  Phe-Thr- Ser-Cys-Leu-Asp-Ser-Lys-Phe-
  Phe-NH2
  Ac-Asp-Lys-Cys-Trp-Glu-Glu-Phe-Lys-Ser-	1163
  Phe-Thr- Ser-Cys-Leu-Asp-Ser-Lys-Phe-
  Phe-NH2
  Ac-Glu-Lys-Cys-Phe-Glu-Glu-Phe-Lys-Ser-	1164
  Tyr-Thr- Ser-Cys-Leu-Asp-Ser-Lys-Phe-
  Phe-NH2
  Ac-Glu-Lys-Cys-Phe-Glu-Glu-Phe-Lys-Ser-	1165
  Trp-Thr- Ser-Cys-Leu-Asp-Ser-Lys-Phe-
  Phe-NH2
  Ac-Glu-Lys-Cys-Val-Glu-Glu-Phe-Lys-Ser-	1166
  Trp-Thr- Ser-Cys-Leu-Asp-Ser-Lys-Ala-
  Phe-NH2
  Ac-Asp-Lys-Cys-Phe-Glu-Glu-Phe-Lys-Ser-	1167
  Trp-Thr- Ser-Cys-Leu-Asp-Ser-Lys-Ala-
  Phe-NH2

• Other suitable peptides include, but are not limited to the peptides of Table 18.

• TABLE 18
  Illustrative peptides having
  an improved hydrophobic phase.

  		SEQ ID
  Name	Sequence	NO
  V2W3A5F1017-D-4F	Ac-Asp-Val-Trp-Lys-Ala-Ala-	1168
  	Tyr-Asp-Lys-Phe-Ala-Glu-Lys-
  	Phe-Lys-Glu-Phe-Phe-NH2
  V2W3F10-D-4F	Ac-Asp-Val-Trp-Lys-Ala-Phe-	1169
  	Tyr-Asp-Lys-Phe-Ala-Glu-Lys-
  	Phe-Lys-Glu-Ala-Phe-NH2
  W3-D-4F	Ac-Asp-Phe-Trp-Lys-Ala-Phe-	1170
  	Tyr-Asp-Lys-Val-Ala-Glu-Lys-
  	Phe-Lys-Glu-Ala-Phe-NH2

• The peptides described here (V2W3A5F10,17-D-4F; V2W3F10-D-4F; W3-D-4F) may be more potent than the original D-4F.
• Still other suitable peptides include, but are not limited to: P¹-Dimethyltyrosine-D-Arg-Phe-Lys-P²(SEQ ID NO: 1171) and P¹-Dimethyltyrosine-Arg-Glu-Leu-P²(SEQ ID NO: 1206) where P1 and P2 are protecting groups as described herein. In certain embodiments, these peptides include, but are not limited to BocDimethyltyrosine-D-Arg-Phe-Lys(OtBu) (SEQ ID NO: 1207) and BocDimethyltyrosine-Arg-Glu-Leu(OtBu) (SEQ ID NO: 1208).
• In certain embodiments, the peptides of this invention include peptides comprising or consisting of the amino acid sequence LAEYHAK (SEQ ID NO:1172) comprising at least one D amino acid and/or at least one or two terminal protecting groups. In certain embodiments, this invention includes a peptide that ameliorates one or more symptoms of an inflammatory condition, wherein the peptide: ranges in length from about 3 to about 10 amino acids; comprises an amino acid sequence where the sequence comprises acidic or basic amino acids alternating with aromatic or hydrophobic amino acids; comprises hydrophobic terminal amino acids or terminal amino acids bearing a hydrophobic protecting group; is not the sequence LAEYHAK (SEQ ID NO:1173) comprising all L amino acids; where the peptide converts pro-inflammatory HDL to anti-inflammatory HDL and/or makes anti-inflammatory HDL more anti-inflammatory.
• It is also noted that the peptides listed in the Tables herein are not fully inclusive. Using the teaching provided herein, other suitable peptides can routinely be produced (e.g. by conservative or semi-conservative substitutions (e.g. D replaced by E), extensions, deletions, and the like). Thus, for example, one embodiment utilizes truncations of any one or more of peptides identified by SEQ ID Nos:1011-1039.
• Longer peptides are also suitable. Such longer peptides may entirely form a class G or G* amphipathic helix, or the G amphipathic helix (helices) can form one or more domains of the peptide. In addition, this invention contemplates multimeric versions of the peptides. Thus, for example, the peptides illustrated in the tables herein can be coupled together (directly or through a linker (e.g. a carbon linker, or one or more amino acids) with one or more intervening amino acids). Suitable linkers include, but are not limited to Proline (-Pro-), Gly₄Ser₃(SEQ ID NO:1174), and the like. Thus, one illustrative multimeric peptide according to this invention is (D-J336)-P-(D-J336) (i.e. Ac-L-L-E-Q-L-N-E-Q-F-N-W-V-S-R-L-A-N-L-T-Q-G-E-P-L-L-E-Q-L-N-E-Q-F-N-W-V-S-R-L-A-N-L-T-Q-G-E-NH₂, SEQ ID NO:1175).
• This invention also contemplates the use of “hybrid” peptides comprising a one or more G or G* amphipathic helical domains and one or more class A amphipathic helices. Suitable class A amphipathic helical peptides are described in PCT publication WO 02/15923. Thus, by way of illustration, one such “hybrid” peptide is (D-J336)-Pro-4F) (i.e. Ac-L-L-E-Q-L-N-E-Q-F-N-W-V-S-R-L-A-N-L-T-Q-G-E-P-D-W-F-K-A-F-Y-D-K-V-A-E-K-F-K-E-A-F-NH₂, SEQ ID NO: 1176), and the like.
• Using the teaching provided herein, one of skill can routinely modify the illustrated amphipathic helical peptides to produce other suitable apo J variants and/or amphipathic G and/or A helical peptides of this invention. For example, routine conservative or semi-conservative substitutions (e.g., E for D) can be made of the existing amino acids. The effect of various substitutions on lipid affinity of the resulting peptide can be predicted using the computational method described by Palgunachari et al. (1996) Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis, & Vascular Biology 16: 328-338. The peptides can be lengthened or shortened as long as the class helix structure(s) are preserved. In addition, substitutions can be made to render the resulting peptide more similar to peptide(s) endogenously produced by the subject species.
• While, in preferred embodiments, the peptides of this invention utilize naturally-occurring amino acids or D forms of naturally occurring amino acids, substitutions with non-naturally occurring amino acids (e.g., methionine sulfoxide, methionine methylsulfonium, norleucine, episilon-aminocaproic acid, 4-aminobutanoic acid, tetrahydroisoquinoline-3-carboxylic acid, 8-aminocaprylic acid, 4-aminobutyric acid, Lys(N(epsilon)-trifluoroacetyl), α-aminoisobutyric acid, and the like) are also contemplated.
• New peptides can be designed and/or evaluated using computational methods. Computer programs to identify and classify amphipathic helical domains are well known to those of skill in the art and many have been described by Jones et al. (1992) J. Lipid Res. 33: 287-296). Such programs include, but are not limited to the helical wheel program (WHEEL or WHEEL/SNORKEL), helical net program (HELNET, HELNET/SNORKEL, HELNET/Angle), program for addition of helical wheels (COMBO or COMBO/SNORKEL), program for addition of helical nets (COMNET, COMNET/SNORKEL, COMBO/SELECT, COMBO/NET), consensus wheel program (CONSENSUS, CONSENSUS/SNORKEL), and the like.
F) Blocking Groups and D Residues.
• While the various peptides and/or amino acid pairs described herein may be shown with no protecting groups, in certain embodiments (e.g. particularly for oral administration), they can bear one, two, three, four, or more protecting groups. The protecting groups can be coupled to the C- and/or N-terminus of the peptide(s) and/or to one or more internal residues comprising the peptide(s) (e.g., one or more R-groups on the constituent amino acids can be blocked). Thus, for example, in certain embodiments, any of the peptides described herein can bear, e.g. an acetyl group protecting the amino terminus and/or an amide group protecting the carboxyl terminus. One example of such a “dual protected peptide is Ac-L-L-E-Q-L-N-E-Q-F-N-W-V-S-R-L-A-N-L-T-Q-G-E-NH₂(SEQ ID NO:1011 with blocking groups), either or both of these protecting groups can be eliminated and/or substituted with another protecting group as described herein.
• Without being bound by a particular theory, it was a discovery of this invention that blockage, particularly of the amino and/or carboxyl termini of the subject peptides of this invention greatly improves oral delivery and significantly increases serum half-life.
• A wide number of protecting groups are suitable for this purpose. Such groups include, but are not limited to acetyl, amide, and alkyl groups with acetyl and alkyl groups being particularly preferred for N-terminal protection and amide groups being preferred for carboxyl terminal protection. In certain particularly preferred embodiments, the protecting groups include, but are not limited to alkyl chains as in fatty acids, propeonyl, formyl, and others. Particularly preferred carboxyl protecting groups include amides, esters, and ether-forming protecting groups. In one preferred embodiment, an acetyl group is used to protect the amino terminus and an amide group is used to protect the carboxyl terminus. These blocking groups enhance the helix-forming tendencies of the peptides. Certain particularly preferred blocking groups include alkyl groups of various lengths, e.g. groups having the formula: CH₃—(CH₂)_n—OO— where n ranges from about 1 to about 20, preferably from about 1 to about 16 or 18, more preferably from about 3 to about 13, and most preferably from about 3 to about 10.
• In certain particularly preferred embodiments, the protecting groups include, but are not limited to alkyl chains as in fatty acids, propeonyl, formyl, and others. Particularly preferred carboxyl protecting groups include amides, esters, and ether-forming protecting groups. In one preferred embodiment, an acetyl group is used to protect the amino terminus and an amide group is used to protect the carboxyl terminus. These blocking groups enhance the helix-forming tendencies of the peptides. Certain particularly preferred blocking groups include alkyl groups of various lengths, e.g. groups having the formula: CH₃—(CH₂)_n—OO— where n ranges from about 3 to about 20, preferably from about 3 to about 16, more preferably from about 3 to about 13, and most preferably from about 3 to about 10.
• Other protecting groups include, but are not limited to Fmoc, t-butoxycarbonyl (t-BOC), 9-fluoreneacetyl group, 1-fluorenecarboxylic group, 9-florenecarboxylic group, 9-fluorenone-1-carboxylic group, benzyloxycarbonyl, Xanthyl (Xan), Trityl (Trt), 4-methyltrityl (Mtt), 4-methoxytrityl (Mmt), 4-methoxy-2,3,6-trimethyl-benzenesulphonyl (Mtr), Mesitylene-2-sulphonyl (Mts), 4,4-dimethoxybenzhydryl (Mbh), Tosyl (Tos), 2,2,5,7,8-pentamethyl chroman-6-sulphonyl (Pmc), 4-methylbenzyl (MeBzl), 4-methoxybenzyl (MeOBzl), Benzyloxy (BzlO), Benzyl (Bzl), Benzoyl (Bz), 3-nitro-2-pyridinesulphenyl (Npys), 1-(4,4-dimentyl-2,6-diaxocyclohexylidene)ethyl (Dde), 2,6-dichlorobenzyl (2,6-DiCl-Bzl), 2-chlorobenzyloxycarbonyl (2—Cl-Z), 2-bromobenzyloxycarbonyl (2—Br-Z), Benzyloxymethyl (Born), cyclohexyloxy (cHxO),t-butoxymethyl (Bum), t-butoxy (tBuO), t-Butyl (tBu), Acetyl (Ac), and Trifluoroacetyl (TFA).
• Protecting/blocking groups are well known to those of skill as are methods of coupling such groups to the appropriate residue(s) comprising the peptides of this invention (see, e.g., Greene et al., (1991) Protective Groups in Organic Synthesis, 2nd ed., John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Somerset, N.J.). In one preferred embodiment, for example, acetylation is accomplished during the synthesis when the peptide is on the resin using acetic anhydride. Amide protection can be achieved by the selection of a proper resin for the synthesis. During the synthesis of the peptides described herein in the examples, rink amide resin was used. After the completion of the synthesis, the semipermanent protecting groups on acidic bifunctional amino acids such as Asp and Glu and basic amino acid Lys, hydroxyl of Tyr are all simultaneously removed. The peptides released from such a resin using acidic treatment comes out with the n-terminal protected as acetyl and the carboxyl protected as NH₂and with the simultaneous removal of all of the other protecting groups.
• In certain particularly preferred embodiments, the peptides comprise one or more D-form (dextro rather than levo) amino acids as described herein. In certain embodiments at least two enantiomeric amino acids, more preferably at least 4 enantiomeric amino acids and most preferably at least 8 or 10 enantiomeric amino acids are “D” form amino acids. In certain embodiments every other, or even every amino acid (e.g. every enantiomeric amino acid) of the peptides described herein is a D-form amino acid.
• In certain embodiments at least 50% of the enantiomeric amino acids are “D” form, more preferably at least 80% of the enantiomeric amino acids are “D” form, and most preferably at least 90% or even all of the enantiomeric amino acids are “D” form amino acids.
G) Peptide Mimetics.
• In addition to the peptides described herein, peptidomimetics are also contemplated. Peptide analogs are commonly used in the pharmaceutical industry as non-peptide drugs with properties analogous to those of the template peptide. These types of non-peptide compound are termed “peptide mimetics” or “peptidomimetics” (Fauchere (1986) Adv. Drug Res. 15: 29; Veber and Freidinger (1985) TINS p. 392; and Evans et al. (1987) J. Med. Chem. 30: 1229) and are usually developed with the aid of computerized molecular modeling. Peptide mimetics that are structurally similar to therapeutically useful peptides may be used to produce an equivalent therapeutic or prophylactic effect.
• Generally, peptidomimetics are structurally similar to a paradigm polypeptide (e.g. SEQ ID NO:5 shown in Table 1), but have one or more peptide linkages optionally replaced by a linkage selected from the group consisting of: —CH₂NH—, —CH₂—CH₂—, —CH═CH—(cis and trans), —COCH₂—, —CH(OH)CH₂—, —CH₂SO—, etc. by methods known in the art and further described in the following references: Spatola (1983) p. 267 in Chemistry and Biochemistry of Amino Acids, Peptides, and Proteins, B. Weinstein, eds., Marcel Dekker, New York; Spatola (1983) Vega Data 1(3) Peptide Backbone Modifications. (general review); Morley (1980) Trends Pharm Sci pp. 463-468 (general review); Hudson et al. (1979) Int J Pept Prot Res 14:177-185 (—CH₂NH—, CH₂CH₂—); Spatola et al. (1986) Life Sci 38:1243-1249 (—CH₂—S); Harm, (1982) J Chem Soc Perkin Trans I 307-314 (—CH—CH—, cis and trans); Almquist et al. (1980) J. Med. Chem. 23:1392-1398 (—COCH₂—); Jennings-White et al. (1982) Tetrahedron Lett. 23:2533 (—COCH₂—); Szelke et al., European Appln. EP 45665 (1982) CA: 97:39405 (1982) (—CH(OH)CH₂—); Holladay et al. (1983) Tetrahedron Lett 24:4401-4404 (—C(OH)CH₂—); and Hruby (1982) Life Sci., 31:189-199 (—CH₂—S—)).
• One particularly preferred non-peptide linkage is —CH₂NH—. Such peptide mimetics may have significant advantages over polypeptide embodiments, including, for example: more economical production, greater chemical stability, enhanced pharmacological properties (half-life, absorption, potency, efficacy, etc.), reduced antigenicity, and others.
• In addition, circularly permutations of the peptides described herein or constrained peptides (including cyclized peptides) comprising a consensus sequence or a substantially identical consensus sequence variation may be generated by methods known in the art (Rizo and Gierasch (1992) Ann. Rev. Biochem. 61: 387); for example, by adding internal cysteine residues capable of forming intramolecular disulfide bridges which cyclize the peptide.
H) Small Organic Molecules.
• In certain embodiments, the active agents of this invention include small organic molecules, e.g. as described in copending application U.S. Ser. No. 60/600,925, filed Aug. 11, 2004. In various embodiments the small organic molecules are similar to, and in certain cases, mimetics of the tetra- and penta-peptides described in copending application U.S. Ser. No. 10/649,378, filed on Aug. 26, 2003 and U.S. Ser. No. 60/494,449, filed on August 11.
• The small organic molecules of this invention typically have molecular weights less than about 900 Daltons. Typically the molecules are highly soluble in ethyl acetate (e.g., at concentrations equal to or greater than 4 mg/mL), and also are soluble in aqueous buffer at pH 7.0.
• Contacting phospholipids such as 1,2-dimyristoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DMPC), with the small organic molecules of this invention in an aqueous environment typically results in the formation of particles with a diameter of approximately 7.5 nm (.+-.0.1 nm). In addition, stacked bilayers are often foamed with a bilayer dimension on the order of 3.4 to 4.1 nm with spacing between the bilayers in the stack of approximately 2 nm. Vesicular structures of approximately 38 nm are also often formed. Moreover, when the molecules of this invention are administered to a mammal they render HDL more anti-inflammatory and mitigate one or more symptoms of atherosclerosis and/or other conditions characterized by an inflammatory response.
• Thus, in certain embodiments, the small organic molecule is one that ameliorates one or more symptoms of a pathology characterized by an inflammatory response in a mammal (e.g. atherosclerosis), where the small molecule is soluble in ethyl acetate at a concentration greater than 4 mg/mL, is soluble in aqueous buffer at pH 7.0, and, when contacted with a phospholipid in an aqueous environment, forms particles with a diameter of approximately 7.5 nm and forms stacked bilayers with a bilayer dimension on the order of 3.4 to 4.1 nm with spacing between the bilayers in the stack of approximately 2 nm, and has a molecular weight less than 900 daltons.
• In certain embodiment, the molecule has the formula:
• 
• where P¹, P², P³, and P⁴are independently selected hydrophobic protecting groups; R¹and R⁴are independently selected amino acid R groups; n, i, x, y, and z are independently zero or 1 such that when n and x are both zero, R¹is a hydrophobic group and when y and i are both zero, R⁴is a hydrophobic group; R²and R³are acidic or basic groups at pH 7.0 such that when R²is acidic, R³is basic and when R²is basic, R³is acidic; and R⁵, when present is selected from the group consisting of an aromatic group, an aliphatic group, a positively charged group, or a negatively charged group. In certain embodiments, R²or R³is —(CH₂)_j—COOH where j=1, 2, 3, or 4 and/or —(CH₂)_j—NH₂where j=1, 2, 3, 4, or 5, or —(CH₂)_j—NH—C(═NH)—NH₂where n=1, 2, 3 or 4. In certain embodiments, R², R³, and R⁵, when present, are amino acid R groups. Thus, for example, In various embodiments R²and R³are independently an aspartic acid R group, a glutamic acid R group, a lysine R group, a histidine R group, or an arginine R group (e.g., as illustrated in Table 1).
• In certain embodiments, R¹is selected from the group consisting of a Lys R group, a Trp R group, a Phe R group, a Leu R group, an Orn R group, pr a norLeu R group. In certain embodiments, R⁴is selected from the group consisting of a Ser R group, a Thr R group, an Ile R group, a Leu R group, a norLeu R group, a Phe R group, or a Tyr R group.
• In various embodiments x is 1, and R⁵is an aromatic group (e.g., a Trp R group). In various embodiments at least one of n, x, y, and i is 1 and P¹, P², P³, and P⁴when present, are independently selected from the group consisting of polyethylene glycol (PEG), an acetyl, amide, a 3 to 20 carbon alkyl group, fmoc, 9-fluoreneacetyl group, 1-fluorenecarboxylic group, 9-fluorenecarboxylic, 9-fluorenone-1-carboxylic group, benzyloxycarbonyl, xanthyl (Xan), Trityl (Trt), 4-methyltrityl (Mtt), 4-methoxytrityl (Mmt), 4-methoxy-2,3,6-trimethyl-benzenesulphonyl (Mtr), Mesitylene-2-sulphonyl (Mts), 4,4-dimethoxybenzhydryl (Mbh), Tosyl (Tos), 2,2,5,7,8-pentamethyl chroman-6-sulphonyl (Pmc), 4-methylbenzyl (MeBzl), 4-methoxybenzyl (MeOBzl), benzyloxy (BzlO), benzyl (Bzl), benzoyl (Bz), 3-nitro-2-pyridinesulphenyl (Npys), 1-(4,4-dimethyl-2,6-dioxocyclohexylidene)ethyl (Dde), 2,6-dichlorobenzyl (2,6-DiCl-Bzl), 2-chlorobenzyloxycarbonyl (2—Cl-Z), 2-bromobenzyloxycarbonyl (2—Br-Z), benzyloxymethyl (Born), t-butoxycarbonyl (Boc), cyclohexyloxy (cHxO), t-butoxymethyl (Bum), t-butoxy (tBuO), t-Butyl (tBu), a propyl group, a butyl group, a pentyl group, a hexyl group, and trifluoroacetyl (TFA). In certain embodiments, P¹when present and/or P²when present are independently selected from the group consisting of Boc-, Fmoc-, and Nicotinyl- and/or P³when present and/or P⁴when present are independently selected from the group consisting of tBu, and OtBu.
• While a number of protecting groups (P¹, P², P³, P⁴) are illustrated above, this list is intended to be illustrative and not limiting. In view of the teachings provided herein, a number of other protecting/blocking groups will also be known to one of skill in the art. Such blocking groups can be selected to minimize digestion (e.g., for oral pharmaceutical delivery), and/or to increase uptake/bioavailability (e.g., through mucosal surfaces in nasal delivery, inhalation therapy, rectal administration), and/or to increase serum/plasma half-life. In certain embodiments, the protecting groups can be provided as an excipient or as a component of an excipient.
• In certain embodiments, z is zero and the molecule has the formula:
• 
• where P¹, P², P³, P⁴, R¹, R², R³, R⁴, n, x, y, and i are as described above.
• In certain embodiments, z is zero and the molecule has the formula:
• 
• where R¹, R², R³, and R⁴are as described above.
• In one embodiment, the molecule has the formula:
• 
• In certain embodiments, this invention contemplates small molecules having one or more of the physical and/or functional properties described herein and having the formula:
• 
• where P¹, P², P³, and P⁴are independently selected hydrophobic protecting groups as described above, n, x, and y are independently zero or 1; j, k, and 1 are independently zero, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5; and R²and R³are acidic or basic groups at pH 7.0 such that when R²is acidic, R³is basic and when R²is basic, R³is acidic. In certain preferred embodiments, the small molecule is soluble in water; and the small molecule has a molecular weight less than about 900 Daltons. In certain embodiments, n, x, y, j, and l are 1; and k is 4.
• In certain embodiments, P¹and/or P²are aromatic protecting groups. In certain embodiments, R²and R³are amino acid R groups, e.g., as described above. In various embodiments least one of n, x, and y, is 1 and P¹, P², P³and P⁴when present, are independently protecting groups, e.g. as described above. In certain embodiments the protecting groups, when present, are independently selected from the group consisting of polyethylene glycol (PEG), an acetyl, amide, 3 to 20 carbon alkyl groups, Fmoc, 9-fluoreneacetyl group, 1-fluorenecarboxylic group, 9-fluorenecarboxylic, 9-fluorenone-1-carboxylic group, benzyloxycarbonyl, Xanthyl (Xan), Trityl (Trt), 4-methyltrityl (Mtt), 4-methoxytrityl (Mmt), 4-methoxy-2,3,6-trimethyl-benzenesulphonyl (Mtr), Mesitylene-2-sulphonyl (Mts), 4,4-dimethoxybenzhydryl (Mbh), Tosyl (Tos), 2,2,5,7,8-penta.
III. Functional Assays of Active Agents
• Certain active agents for use in the methods of this invention are described herein by various formulas (e.g., Formula I, above) and/or by particular sequences. In certain embodiments, preferred active agents of this invention are characterized by one or more of the following functional properties:
• 1. They convert pro-inflammatory HDL to anti-inflammatory HDL or make anti-inflammatory HDL more anti-inflammatory;
• 2. They decrease LDL-induced monocyte chemotactic activity generated by artery wall cells;
• 3. They stimulate the formation and cycling of pre-β HDL;
• 4. They raise HDL cholesterol; and/or
• 5. They increase HDL paraoxonase activity.
• The specific agents disclosed herein, and/or agents corresponding to the various formulas described herein can readily be tested for one or more of these activities as desired.
• Methods of screening for each of these functional properties are well known to those of skill in the art. In particular, it is noted that assays for monocyte chemotactic activity, HDL cholesterol, and HDL paraoxonase activity are illustrated in PCT/US01/26497 (WO 2002/15923).
IV. Peptide Preparation
• The peptides used in this invention can be chemically synthesized using standard chemical peptide synthesis techniques or, particularly where the peptide does not comprise “D” amino acid residues, can be recombinantly expressed. In certain embodiments, even peptides comprising “D” amino acid residues are recombinantly expressed. Where the polypeptides are recombinantly expressed, a host organism (e.g. bacteria, plant, fungal cells, etc.) in cultured in an environment where one or more of the amino acids is provided to the organism exclusively in a D form. Recombinantly expressed peptides in such a system then incorporate those D amino acids.
• In preferred embodiments the peptides are chemically synthesized by any of a number of fluid or solid phase peptide synthesis techniques known to those of skill in the art. Solid phase synthesis in which the C-terminal amino acid of the sequence is attached to an insoluble support followed by sequential addition of the remaining amino acids in the sequence is a preferred method for the chemical synthesis of the polypeptides of this invention. Techniques for solid phase synthesis are well known to those of skill in the art and are described, for example, by Barany and Merrifield (1963) Solid-Phase Peptide Synthesis; pp. 3-284 in The Peptides: Analysis, Synthesis, Biology. Vol. 2: Special Methods in Peptide Synthesis, Part A.; Merrifield et al. (1963) J. Am. Chem. Soc., 85: 2149-2156, and Stewart et al. (1984) Solid Phase Peptide Synthesis, 2nd ed. Pierce Chem. Co., Rockford, Ill.
• In certain embodiments, the peptides are synthesized by the solid phase peptide synthesis procedure using a benzhyderylamine resin (Beckman Bioproducts, 0.59 mmol of NH₂/g of resin) as the solid support. The COOH terminal amino acid (e.g., t-butylcarbonyl-Phe) is attached to the solid support through a 4-(oxymethyl)phenacetyl group. This is a more stable linkage than the conventional benzyl ester linkage, yet the finished peptide can still be cleaved by hydrogenation. Transfer hydrogenation using formic acid as the hydrogen donor is used for this purpose. Detailed protocols used for peptide synthesis and analysis of synthesized peptides are described in a miniprint supplement accompanying Anantharamaiah et al. (1985) J. Biol. Chem., 260(16): 10248-10255.
• It is noted that in the chemical synthesis of peptides, particularly peptides comprising D amino acids, the synthesis usually produces a number of truncated peptides in addition to the desired full-length product. The purification process (e.g. HPLC) typically results in the loss of a significant amount of the full-length product.
• It was a discovery of this invention that, in the synthesis of a D peptide (e.g. D-4), in order to prevent loss in purifying the longest form one can dialyze and use the mixture and thereby eliminate the last HPLC purification. Such a mixture loses about 50% of the potency of the highly purified product (e.g. per wt of protein product), but the mixture contains about 6 times more peptide and thus greater total activity.
V. Pharmaceutical Formulations and DevicesA) Pharmaceutical Formulations
• In order to carry out the methods of the invention, one or more active agents of this invention are administered, e.g. to an individual diagnosed as having one or more symptoms of atherosclerosis, or as being at risk for atherosclerosis and or the various other pathologies described herein. The active agent(s) can be administered in the “native” form or, if desired, in the form of salts, esters, amides, prodrugs, derivatives, and the like, provided the salt, ester, amide, prodrug or derivative is suitable pharmacologically, i.e., effective in the present method. Salts, esters, amides, prodrugs and other derivatives of the active agents can be prepared using standard procedures known to those skilled in the art of synthetic organic chemistry and described, for example, by March (1992) Advanced Organic Chemistry; Reactions, Mechanisms and Structure, 4th Ed. N.Y. Wiley-Interscience.
• For example, acid addition salts are prepared from the free base using conventional methodology, that typically involves reaction with a suitable acid. Generally, the base form of the drug is dissolved in a polar organic solvent such as methanol or ethanol and the acid is added thereto. The resulting salt either precipitates or can be brought out of solution by addition of a less polar solvent. Suitable acids for preparing acid addition salts include both organic acids, e.g., acetic acid, propionic acid, glycolic acid, pyruvic acid, oxalic acid, malic acid, malonic acid, succinic acid, maleic acid, fumaric acid, tartaric acid, citric acid, benzoic acid, cinnamic acid, mandelic acid, methanesulfonic acid, ethanesulfonic acid, p-toluenesulfonic acid, salicylic acid, and the like, as well as inorganic acids, e.g., hydrochloric acid, hydrobromic acid, sulfuric acid, nitric acid, phosphoric acid, and the like. An acid addition salt may be reconverted to the free base by treatment with a suitable base. Particularly preferred acid addition salts of the active agents herein are halide salts, such as may be prepared using hydrochloric or hydrobromic acids. Conversely, preparation of basic salts of the active agents of this invention are prepared in a similar manner using a pharmaceutically acceptable base such as sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, ammonium hydroxide, calcium hydroxide, trimethylamine, or the like. Particularly preferred basic salts include alkali metal salts, e.g., the sodium salt, and copper salts.
• Preparation of Esters Typically Involves Functionalization of Hydroxyl and/or carboxyl groups which may be present within the molecular structure of the drug. The esters are typically acyl-substituted derivatives of free alcohol groups, i.e., moieties that are derived from carboxylic acids of the formula RCOOH where R is alky, and preferably is lower alkyl. Esters can be reconverted to the free acids, if desired, by using conventional hydrogenolysis or hydrolysis procedures.
• Amides and prodrugs can also be prepared using techniques known to those skilled in the art or described in the pertinent literature. For example, amides may be prepared from esters, using suitable amine reactants, or they may be prepared from an anhydride or an acid chloride by reaction with ammonia or a lower alkyl amine. Prodrugs are typically prepared by covalent attachment of a moiety that results in a compound that is therapeutically inactive until modified by an individual's metabolic system.
• The active agents identified herein are useful for parenteral, topical, oral, nasal (or otherwise inhaled), rectal, or local administration, such as by aerosol or transdermally, for prophylactic and/or therapeutic treatment of one or more of the pathologies/indications described herein (e.g., atherosclerosis and/or eye disease and/or symptoms thereof). The pharmaceutical compositions can be administered in a variety of unit dosage forms depending upon the method of administration. Suitable unit dosage forms, include, but are not limited to powders, tablets, pills, capsules, lozenges, suppositories, patches, nasal sprays, injectibles, implantable sustained-release formulations, lipid complexes, etc.
• The active agents of this invention are typically combined with a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier (excipient) to form a pharmacological composition. Pharmaceutically acceptable carriers can contain one or more physiologically acceptable compound(s) that act, for example, to stabilize the composition or to increase or decrease the absorption of the active agent(s). Physiologically acceptable compounds can include, for example, carbohydrates, such as glucose, sucrose, or dextrans, antioxidants, such as ascorbic acid or glutathione, chelating agents, low molecular weight proteins, protection and uptake enhancers such as lipids, compositions that reduce the clearance or hydrolysis of the active agents, or excipients or other stabilizers and/or buffers.
• Other physiologically acceptable compounds include wetting agents, emulsifying agents, dispersing agents or preservatives that are particularly useful for preventing the growth or action of microorganisms. Various preservatives are well known and include, for example, phenol and ascorbic acid. One skilled in the art would appreciate that the choice of pharmaceutically acceptable carrier(s), including a physiologically acceptable compound depends, for example, on the route of administration of the active agent(s) and on the particular physio-chemical characteristics of the active agent(s).
• The excipients are preferably sterile and generally free of undesirable matter. These compositions may be sterilized by conventional, well-known sterilization techniques.
• In therapeutic applications, the compositions of this invention are administered to a patient suffering from one or more symptoms of the one or more pathologies described herein, or at risk for one or more of the pathologies described herein in an amount sufficient to prevent and/or cure and/or or at least partially prevent or arrest the disease and/or its complications. An amount adequate to accomplish this is defined as a “therapeutically effective dose.” Amounts effective for this use will depend upon the severity of the disease and the general state of the patient's health. Single or multiple administrations of the compositions may be administered depending on the dosage and frequency as required and tolerated by the patient. In any event, the composition should provide a sufficient quantity of the active agents of the formulations of this invention to effectively treat (ameliorate one or more symptoms) the patient.
• The concentration of active agent(s) can vary widely, and will be selected primarily based on fluid volumes, viscosities, body weight and the like in accordance with the particular mode of administration selected and the patient's needs. Concentrations, however, will typically be selected to provide dosages ranging from about 0.1 or 1 mg/kg/day to about 50 mg/kg/day and sometimes higher. Typical dosages range from about 3 mg/kg/day to about 3.5 mg/kg/day, preferably from about 3.5 mg/kg/day to about 7.2 mg/kg/day, more preferably from about 7.2 mg/kg/day to about 11.0 mg/kg/day, and most preferably from about 11.0 mg/kg/day to about 15.0 mg/kg/day. In certain preferred embodiments, dosages range from about 10 mg/kg/day to about 50 mg/kg/day. In certain embodiments, dosages range from about 20 mg to about 50 mg given orally twice daily. It will be appreciated that such dosages may be varied to optimize a therapeutic regimen in a particular subject or group of subjects. For example, the concentration for treating an eye disease can be selected to provide dosages ranging from 200 ug/ml to 800 ug/ml of fluid.
• In certain preferred embodiments, the active agents of this invention are administered orally (e.g. via a tablet) or as an injectable in accordance with standard methods well known to those of skill in the art. In other preferred embodiments, the peptides, may also be delivered through the skin using conventional transdermal drug delivery systems, i.e., transdermal “patches” wherein the active agent(s) are typically contained within a laminated structure that serves as a drug delivery device to be affixed to the skin. In such a structure, the drug composition is typically contained in a layer, or “reservoir,” underlying an upper backing layer. It will be appreciated that the term “reservoir” in this context refers to a quantity of “active ingredient(s)” that is ultimately available for delivery to the surface of the skin. Thus, for example, the “reservoir” may include the active ingredient(s) in an adhesive on a backing layer of the patch, or in any of a variety of different matrix formulations known to those of skill in the art. The patch may contain a single reservoir, or it may contain multiple reservoirs.
• In one embodiment, the reservoir comprises a polymeric matrix of a pharmaceutically acceptable contact adhesive material that serves to affix the system to the skin during drug delivery. Examples of suitable skin contact adhesive materials include, but are not limited to, polyethylenes, polysiloxanes, polyisobutylenes, polyacrylates, polyurethanes, and the like. Alternatively, the drug-containing reservoir and skin contact adhesive are present as separate and distinct layers, with the adhesive underlying the reservoir which, in this case, may be either a polymeric matrix as described above, or it may be a liquid or hydrogel reservoir, or may take some other form. The backing layer in these laminates, which serves as the upper surface of the device, preferably functions as a primary structural element of the “patch” and provides the device with much of its flexibility. The material selected for the backing layer is preferably substantially impermeable to the active agent(s) and any other materials that are present.
• Other preferred formulations for topical drug delivery include, but are not limited to, ointments and creams. Ointments are semisolid preparations which are typically based on petrolatum or other petroleum derivatives. Creams containing the selected active agent, are typically viscous liquid or semisolid emulsions, often either oil-in-water or water-in-oil. Cream bases are typically water-washable, and contain an oil phase, an emulsifier and an aqueous phase. The oil phase, also sometimes called the “internal” phase, is generally comprised of petrolatum and a fatty alcohol such as cetyl or stearyl alcohol; the aqueous phase usually, although not necessarily, exceeds the oil phase in volume, and generally contains a humectant. The emulsifier in a cream formulation is generally a nonionic, anionic, cationic or amphoteric surfactant. The specific ointment or cream base to be used, as will be appreciated by those skilled in the art, is one that will provide for optimum drug delivery. As with other carriers or vehicles, an ointment base should be inert, stable, nonirritating and nonsensitizing.
• In addition, the active agents of this invention can be administered via intraocular injection (e.g. intravitreal injection) in accordance with standard methods well known to those of skill in the art.
• Unlike typical peptide formulations, the peptides of this invention comprising D-form amino acids can be administered, even orally, without protection against proteolysis by stomach acid, etc. Nevertheless, in certain embodiments, peptide delivery can be enhanced by the use of protective excipients. This is typically accomplished either by complexing the polypeptide with a composition to render it resistant to acidic and enzymatic hydrolysis or by packaging the polypeptide in an appropriately resistant carrier such as a liposome. Means of protecting polypeptides for oral delivery are well known in the art (see, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 5,391,377 describing lipid compositions for oral delivery of therapeutic agents).
• Elevated serum half-life can be maintained by the use of sustained-release protein “packaging” systems. Such sustained release systems are well known to those of skill in the art. In one preferred embodiment, the ProLease biodegradable microsphere delivery system for proteins and peptides (Tracy (1998) Biotechnol. Prog., 14: 108; Johnson et al. (1996) Nature Med. 2: 795; Herbert et al. (1998), Pharmaceut. Res. 15, 357) a dry powder composed of biodegradable polymeric microspheres containing the active agent in a polymer matrix that can be compounded as a dry formulation with or without other agents.
• The ProLease microsphere fabrication process was specifically designed to achieve a high encapsulation efficiency while maintaining integrity of the active agent. The process consists of (i) preparation of freeze-dried drug particles from bulk by spray freeze-drying the drug solution with stabilizing excipients, (ii) preparation of a drug-polymer suspension followed by sonication or homogenization to reduce the drug particle size, (iii) production of frozen drug-polymer microspheres by atomization into liquid nitrogen, (iv) extraction of the polymer solvent with ethanol, and (v) filtration and vacuum drying to produce the final dry-powder product. The resulting powder contains the solid form of the active agents, which is homogeneously and rigidly dispersed within porous polymer particles. The polymer most commonly used in the process, poly(lactide-co-glycolide) (PLG), is both biocompatible and biodegradable.
• Encapsulation can be achieved at low temperatures (e.g., −40° C.). During encapsulation, the protein is maintained in the solid state in the absence of water, thus minimizing water-induced conformational mobility of the protein, preventing protein degradation reactions that include water as a reactant, and avoiding organic-aqueous interfaces where proteins may undergo denaturation. A preferred process uses solvents in which most proteins are insoluble, thus yielding high encapsulation efficiencies (e.g., greater than 95%).
• In another embodiment, one or more components of the solution can be provided as a “concentrate”, e.g., in a storage container (e.g., in a premeasured volume) ready for dilution, or in a soluble capsule ready for addition to a volume of water.
• The foregoing formulations and administration methods are intended to be illustrative and not limiting. It will be appreciated that, using the teaching provided herein, other suitable formulations and modes of administration can be readily devised.
B) Lipid-Based Formulations
• In certain embodiments, the active agents of this invention are administered in conjunction with one or more lipids. The lipids can be formulated as an excipient to protect and/or enhance transport/uptake of the active agents or they can be administered separately.
• Without being bound by a particular theory, it was discovered of this invention that administration (e.g. oral administration) of certain phospholipids can significantly increase HDL/LDL ratios. In addition, it is believed that certain medium-length phospholipids are transported by a process different than that involved in general lipid transport. Thus, co-administration of certain medium-length phospholipids with the active agents of this invention confer a number of advantages: They protect the active agents from digestion or hydrolysis, they improve uptake, and they improve HDL/LDL ratios.
• The lipids can be formed into liposomes that encapsulate the active agents of this invention and/or they can be complexed/admixed with the active agents and/or they can be covalently coupled to the active agents. Methods of making liposomes and encapsulating reagents are well known to those of skill in the art (see, e.g., Martin and Papahadjopoulos (1982) J. Biol. Chem., 257: 286-288; Papahadjopoulos et al. (1991) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 88: 11460-11464; Huang et al. (1992) Cancer Res., 52:6774-6781; Lasic et al. (1992) FEBS Lett., 312: 255-258., and the like).
• Preferred phospholipids for use in these methods have fatty acids ranging from about 4 carbons to about 24 carbons in the sn-1 and sn-2 positions. In certain preferred embodiments, the fatty acids are saturated. In other preferred embodiments, the fatty acids can be unsaturated. Various preferred fatty acids are illustrated in Table 19.

• TABLE 19
  Suitable fatty acids in the sn-1 and/or sn-2 position of the preferred
  phospholipids for administration of active agents described herein.

  Carbon No.	Common Name	IUPAC Name
  3:0	Propionoyl	Trianoic
  4:0	Butanoyl	Tetranoic
  5:0	Pentanoyl	Pentanoic
  6:0	Caproyl	Hexanoic
  7:0	Heptanoyl	Heptanoic
  8:0	Capryloyl	Octanoic
  9:0	Nonanoyl	Nonanoic
  10:0	Capryl	Decanoic
  11:0	Undcanoyl	Undecanoic
  12:0	Lauroyl	Dodecanoic
  13:0	Tridecanoyl	Tridecanoic
  14:0	Myristoyl	Tetradecanoic
  15:0	Pentadecanoyl	Pentadecanoic
  16:0	Palmitoyl	Hexadecanoic
  17:0	Heptadecanoyl	Heptadecanoic
  18:0	Stearoyl	Octadecanoic
  19:0	Nonadecanoyl	Nonadecanoic
  20:0	Arachidoyl	Eicosanoic
  21:0	Heniecosanoyl	Heniecosanoic
  22:0	Behenoyl	Docosanoic
  23:0	Trucisanoyl	Trocosanoic
  24:0	Lignoceroyl	Tetracosanoic
  14:1	Myristoleoyl (9-cis)
  14:1	Myristelaidoyl (9-trans)
  16:1	Palmitoleoyl (9-cis)
  16:1	Palmitelaidoyl (9-trans)

• The fatty acids in these positions can be the same or different. Particularly preferred phospholipids have phosphorylcholine at the sn-3 position.
C) Specialized Delivery/Devices1. Drug-Eluting Stents
• Restenosis, the reclosure of a previously stenosed and subsequently dilated peripheral or coronary vessel occurs at a significant rate (e.g., 20-50% for these procedures) and is dependent on a number of clinical and morphological variables. Restenosis may begin shortly following an angioplasty procedure, but usually ceases at the end of approximately six (6) months.
• A recent technology that has been developed to address the problem of restenosis in intravascular stents. Stents are typically devices that are permanently implanted (expanded) in coronary and peripheral vessels. The goal of these stents is to provide a long-term “scaffolding” or support for the diseased (stenosed) vessels. The theory being, if the vessel is supported from the inside, it will not close down or restenose.
• Known stent designs include, but are not limited to monofilament wire coil stents (see, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 4,969,458 which is incorporated herein by reference); welded metal cages (see, e.g., U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,733,665 and 4,776,337 which are incorporated herein by reference), thin-walled metal cylinders with axial slots formed around the circumference (see, e.g., U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,733,665, 4,739,762, 4,776,337 which are incorporated herein by reference). Known construction materials for use in stents include, but are not limited to polymers, organic fabrics and biocompatible metals, such as, stainless steel, gold, silver, tantalum, titanium, and shape memory alloys such as Nitinol.
• To further prevent restenosis, stents can be covered and/or impregnated with one or more pharmaceutical, e.g., in controlled release formulations to inhibit cell proliferation associated with restenosis. Most commonly such “drug-eluting” stents are designed to deliver various cancer drugs (cytotoxins).
• However, because of their activity in mitigating inflammatory responses, reducing and/or eliminated oxidized lipids and/or other oxidized species, inhibiting macrophage chemotactic activity and the like, the active agents described herein are well suited to prevent restenosis. Thus, in certain embodiments, this invention contemplates stents having one or more of the active agents described herein coated on the surface and/or retained within cavities or microcavities in the surface of the stent.
• In certain embodiments the active agents are contained within biocompatible matrices (e.g. biocompatible polymers such as urethane, silicone, and the like). Suitable biocompatible materials are described, for example, in U.S. Patent Publications 2005/0084515, 2005/00791991, 2005/0070996, and the like which are incorporated herein by reference. In various embodiments the polymers include, but are not limited to silicone-urethane copolymer, a polyurethane, a phenoxy, ethylene vinyl acetate, polycaprolactone, poly(lactide-co-glycolide), polylactide, polysulfone, elastin, fibrin, collagen, chondroitin sulfate, a biocompatible polymer, a biostable polymer, a biodegradable polymer
• Thus, in certain embodiments this invention provides a stent for delivering drugs to a vessel in a body. The stent typically comprises stent framework including a plurality of reservoirs formed therein. The reservoirs typically include an active agent and/or active agent-containing polymer positioned in the reservoir and/or coated on the surface of the stent. In various embodiments the stent is a metallic base or a polymeric base. Certain preferred stent materials include, but are not limited to stainless steel, nitinol, tantalum, MP35N alloy, platinum, titanium, a suitable biocompatible alloy, a suitable biocompatible polymer, and/or a combination thereof.
• In various embodiments where the stent comprises pores (e.g. reservoirs), the pores can include micropores (e.g., having a diameter that ranges from about 10 to about 50 μm, preferably about 20 μm or less). In various embodiments the micropores have a depth in the range of about 10 μm to about 50 μm. In various embodiments the micropores extend through the stent framework having an opening on an interior surface of the stent and an opening on an exterior surface of the stent. In certain embodiments the stent can, optionally comprise a cap layer disposed on the interior surface of the stent framework, the cap layer covering at least a portion of the through-holes and providing a barrier characteristic to control an elution rate of the active agent(s) in the polymer from the interior surface of the stent framework. In various embodiments the reservoirs comprise channels along an exterior surface of the stent framework. The stent can optionally have multiple layers of polymer where different layers of polymer carry different active agent(s) and/or other drugs.
• In certain embodiments the stent comprises: an adhesion layer positioned between the stent framework and the polymer. Suitable adhesion layers include, but are not limited to a polyurethane, a phenoxy, poly(lactide-co-glycolide)-, polylactide, polysulfone, polycaprolactone, an adhesion promoter, and/or a combination thereof.
• In addition to stents, the active agents can be coated on or contained within essentially any implantable medical device configured for implantation in a extravascular and/or intravascular location.
• Also provided are methods of manufacturing a drug-polymer stent, comprising. The methods involve providing a stent framework; cutting a plurality of reservoirs in the stent framework, e.g., using a high power laser; applying one or more of the active agents and/or a drug polymer to at least one reservoir; drying the drug polymer; applying a polymer layer to the dried drug polymer; and drying the polymer layer. The active agent(s) and/or polymer(s) can be applied by any convenient method including but not limited to spraying, dipping, painting, brushing and dispensing.
• Also provided are methods of treating a vascular condition and/or a condition characterized by an inflammatory response and/or a condition characterized by the formation of oxidized reactive species. The methods typically involve positioning a stent or other implantable device as described above within the body (e.g. within a vessel of a body) and eluting at least active agent from at least one surface of the implant.
2. Impregnated Grafts and Transplants
• Vascular grafts can be classified as either biological or synthetic. There are two commonly used types of biological grafts. An autograft is one taken from another site in the patient. In peripheral vascular surgery by far the most commonly used such graft is the long saphenous vein. This can be used in situ with the valves surgically destroyed with an intraluminal cutting valvutome.
• Alternatively, the vein can be removed and reversed but this typically produces a discrepancy between the anastomotic size of the artery and vein. In thoracic surgery the use of internal mammary artery for coronary artery bypass surgery is another example of an autograft. An allograft is one taken from another animal of the same species. Externally supported umbilical vein is rarely used but is an example of such a graft.
• Synthetic grafts are most commonly made from Dacron or polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE). Dacron grafts are frequently used in aortic and aorto-iliac surgery. Below the inguinal ligament the results of all synthetic grafts are inferior to those obtained with the use of vein grafts. Suitable vein is not always available and in this situation PTFE is typically used. It can be used in conjunction with vein as a composite graft. Neointimal hyperplasia at the distal anastomosis can be reduced by the incorporation of a segment of vein as either a Millar Cuff or Taylor Patch to improve the long-term patency of the grafts.
• The commonest complications associated with the use of vascular grafts include Graft occlusion, Graft infection, true and false aneurysms at the site of anastomosis, distal embolization, and erosion in to adjacent structures—e.g. Aorto-enteric fistulae. Many of these conditions are associated with an inflammatory response, macrophage migration into the site, and/or the formation of reactive oxygen species (e.g., oxidized lipids). To reduce such complications, the graft (synthetic or biological can be soaked, or otherwise coated, with one or more of the active agents described herein.
• In addition, it is contemplated that other implantable tissues or materials can similarly be impregnated or coated with one or more active agents of this invention. Thus, for example, in certain embodiments this invention contemplates the use of impregnated sutures to minimize inflammation and/or infection and/or tissue rejection.
3. Subcutaneous Matrices
• In certain embodiments, one or more active agents described herein are administered alone or in combination with other therapeutics as described herein in implantable (e.g., subcutaneous) matrices.
• A major problem with standard drug dosing is that typical delivery of drugs results in a quick burst of medication at the time of dosing, followed by a rapid loss of the drug from the body. Most of the side effects of a drug occur during the burst phase of its release into the bloodstream. Secondly, the time the drug is in the bloodstream at therapeutic levels is very short, most is used and cleared during the short burst.
• Drugs (e.g., the active agents described herein) imbedded in various matrix materials for sustained release provides some solution to these problems. Drugs embedded, for example, in polymer beads or in polymer wafers have several advantages. First, most systems allow slow release of the drug, thus creating a continuous dosing of the body with small levels of drug. This typically prevents side effects associated with high burst levels of normal injected or pill based drugs. Secondly, since these polymers can be made to release over hours to months, the therapeutic span of the drug is markedly increased. Often, by mixing different ratios of the same polymer components, polymers of different degradation rates can be made, allowing remarkable flexibility depending on the agent being used. A long rate of drug release is beneficial for people who might have trouble staying on regular dosage, such as the elderly, but is also an ease of use improvement that everyone can appreciate. Most polymers can be made to degrade and be cleared by the body over time, so they will not remain in the body after the therapeutic interval.
• Another advantage of polymer based drug delivery is that the polymers often can stabilize or solubilize proteins, peptides, and other large molecules that would otherwise be unusable as medications. Finally, many drug/polymer mixes can be placed directly in the disease area, allowing specific targeting of the medication where it is needed without losing drug to the “first pass” effect. This is certainly effective for treating the brain, which is often deprived of medicines that can't penetrate the blood/brain barrier.
• A number of implantable matrix (sustained release) systems are know to those of skill and can readily be adapted for use with one or more of the active agents described herein. Suitable sustained release systems include, but are not limited to Re-Gel®, SQ2Gel®, and Oligosphere® by MacroMed, ProLease® and Medisorb® by Alkermes, Paclimer® and Gliadel® Wafer by Guilford pharmaceuticals, the Duros implant by Alza, acoustic bioSpheres by Point Biomedical, the Intelsite capsule by Scintipharma, Inc., and the like.
4. Other “Specialty Delivery Systems”
• Other “specialty” delivery systems include, but are not limited to lipid based oral mist that allows absorption of drugs across the oral mucosa, developed by Generex Biotechnology, the oral transmucosal system (OTS™) by Anesta Corp., the inhalable dry powder and PulmoSpheres technology by Inhale Therapeutics, the AERx® Pulmonary Drug Delivery System by Aradigm, the AIR mechanism by Alkermes, and the like.
• Another approach to delivery developed by Alkermes is a system targeted for elderly and pediatric use, two populations for which taking pills is often difficult is known as Drug Sipping Technology (DST). The medication is placed in a drinking straw device, prevented from falling out by filters on either end of it. The patient merely has to drink clear liquid (water, juice, soda) through the straw. The drug dissolves in the liquid as it is pulled through and is ingested by the patient. The filter rises to the top of the straw when all of the medication is taken. This method has the advantage in that it is easy to use, the liquid often masks the medication's taste, and the drug is pre-dissolved for more efficient absorption.
• It is noted that these uses and delivery systems are intended to be illustrative and not limiting. Using the teachings provided herein, other uses and delivery systems will be known to those of skill in the art.
VI. Additional Pharmacologically Active AgentsCombined Active Agents
• In various embodiments, the use of combinations of two or more active agents described is contemplated in the treatment of the various pathologies/indications described herein. The use of combinations of active agents can alter pharmacological activity, bioavailability, and the like.
• By way of illustration, it is noted that D-4F rapidly associates with pre-beta HDL and HDL and then is rapidly cleared from the circulation (it is essentially non-detectable 6 hours after an oral dose), while D-[113-122]apoJ slowly associates with pre-beta HDL and to a lesser extent with HDL but remains associated with these HDL fractions for at least 36 hours. FREL associates with HDL and only HDL but remains detectable in HDL for much longer than D-4F (i.e., it is detectable inHDL 48 hours after a single oral dose in mice). In certain embodiments this invention thus contemplates combinations of, for example, these three peptides to reduce the amount to reduce production expense, and/or to optimize dosage regimen, therapeutic profile, and the like. In certain embodiments combinations of the active agents described herein can be simply coadministered and/or added together to form a single pharmaceutical formulation. In certain embodiments the various active agent(s) can be complexed together (e.g. via hydrogen bonding) to form active agent complexes that are more effective than the parent agents.
• Use with Additional Pharmacologically Active Materials.
• Additional pharmacologically active materials (i.e., drugs) can be delivered in conjunction with one or more of the active agents described herein. In certain embodiments, such agents include, but are not limited to agents that reduce the risk of atherosclerotic events and/or complications thereof. Such agents include, but are not limited to beta blockers, beta blockers and thiazide diuretic combinations, statins, aspirin, ace inhibitors, ace receptor inhibitors (ARBs), and the like.
• It was discovered that, adding a low dosage active agent (e.g., of D-4F) (1 μg/ml) to the drinking water of apoE null mice for 24 hours did not significantly improve HDL function (see, e.g., related application U.S. Ser. No. 10/423,830, filed on Apr. 25, 2003, which is incorporated herein by reference). In addition, adding 0.05 mg/ml of atorvastatin or pravastatin alone to the drinking water of the apoE null mice for 24 hours did not improve HDL function. However, when D-4F 1 μg/ml was added to the drinking water together with 0.05 mg/ml of atorvastatin or pravastatin there was a significant improvement in HDL function). Indeed the pro-inflammatory apoE null HDL became as anti-inflammatory as 350 μg/ml of normal human HDL (h, HDL see, e.g., related application U.S. Ser. No. 10/423,830).
• Thus, doses of D-4F alone, or statins alone, which by themselves had no effect on HDL function when given together acted synergistically. When D-4F and a statin were given together to apo E null mice, their pro-inflammatory HDL at 50 μg/ml of HDL-cholesterol became as effective as normal human HDL at 350 μg/ml of HDL-cholesterol in preventing the inflammatory response induced by the action of HPODE oxidizing PAPC in cocultures of human artery wall cells.
• Thus, in certain embodiments this invention provides methods for enhancing the activity of statins. The methods generally involve administering one or more of the active agents described herein, as described herein in conjunction with one or more statins. The active agents achieve synergistic action between the statin and the agent(s) to ameliorate one or more symptoms of atherosclerosis. In this context statins can be administered at significantly lower dosages thereby avoiding various harmful side effects (e.g., muscle wasting) associated with high dosage statin use and/or the anti-inflammatory properties of statins at any given dose are significantly enhanced.
• Suitable statins include, but are not limited to pravastatin (Pravachol/Bristol-Myers Squibb), simvastatin (Zocor/Merck), lovastatin (Mevacor/Merck), and the like.
• In various embodiments the active agent(s) described herein are administered in conjunction with one or more beta blockers. Suitable beta blockers include, but are not limited to cardioselective (selective beta 1 blockers), e.g., acebutolol (Sectral™), atenolol (Tenormin™), betaxolol (Kerlone™), bisoprolol (Zebeta™), metoprolol (Lopressor™), and the like. Suitable non-selective blockers (blockbeta 1 andbeta 2 equally) include, but are not limited to carteolol (Cartrol™), nadolol (Corgard™), penbutolol (Levatol™), pindolol (Visken™), propranolol (Inderal™), timolol (Blockadren™), labetalol (Normodyne™, Trandate™), and the like.
• Suitable beta blocker thiazide diuretic combinations include, but are not limited to Lopressor HCT, ZIAC, Tenoretic, Corzide, Timolide, Inderal LA 40/25, Inderide, Normozide, and the like.
• Suitable ace inhibitors include, but are not limited to captopril (e.g. Capoten™ by Squibb), benazepril (e.g., Lotensin™ by Novartis), enalapril (e.g., Vasotec™ by Merck), fosinopril (e.g., Monopril™ by Bristol-Myers), lisinopril (e.g. Prinivil™ by Merck or Zestril™ by Astra-Zeneca), quinapril (e.g. Accupril™ by Parke-Davis), ramipril (e.g., Altace™ by Hoechst Marion Roussel, King Pharmaceuticals), imidapril, perindopril erbumine (e.g., Aceon™ by Rhone-Polenc Rorer), trandolapril (e.g., Mavik™ by Knoll Pharmaceutical), and the like. Suitable ARBS (Ace Receptor Blockers) include but are not limited to losartan (e.g. Cozaar™ by Merck), irbesartan (e.g., Avapro™ by Sanofi), candesartan (e.g., Atacand™ by Astra Merck), valsartan (e.g., Diovan™ by Novartis), and the like.
• In various embodiments, one or more agents described herein are administered with one or more of the drugs identified below.
• Thus, in certain embodiments one or more active agents are administered in conjunction with cholesteryl ester transfer protein (CETP) inhibitors (e.g., torcetrapib, JTT-705. CP-529414) and/or acyl-CoA:cholesterol O-acyltransferase (ACAT) inhibitors (e.g., Avasimibe (CI-1011), CP 113818, F-1394, and the like), and/or immunomodulators (e.g., FTY720 (sphingosine-1-phosphate receptor agonist), Thalomid (thalidomide), Imuran (azathioprine), Copaxone (glatiramer acetate), Certican® (everolimus), Neoral® (cyclosporine), and the like), and/or dipeptidyl-peptidase-4 (DPP4) inhibitors (e.g., 2-Pyrrolidinecarbonitrile, 1-[[[2-[(5-cyano-2-pyridinyl)amino]ethyl]amino]acetyl], see also U.S. Patent Publication 2005-0070530), and/or calcium channel blockers (e.g., Adalat, Adalat CC, Calan, Calan SR, Cardene, Cardizem, Cardizem CD, Cardizem SR, Dilacor-XR, DynaCirc, Isoptin, Isoptin SR, Nimotop, Norvasc, Plendil, Procardia, Procardia XL, Vascor, Verelan), and/or peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) agonists for, e.g., α, γ, receptors (e.g., Azelaoyl PAF, 2-Bromohekadecanoic acid, Ciglitizone, Clofibrate, 15-Deoxy-δ¹2,14-prostaglandin J₂, Fenofibrate, Fmoc-Leu-OH, GW1929, GW7647, 8(S)-Hydroxy-(5Z,9E,11Z,14Z)-eicosatetraenoic acid (8(S)-HETE), Leukotriene B₄, LY-171,883 (Tomelukast), Prostaglandin A₂, Prostaglandin J₂, Tetradecylthioacetic acid (TTA), Troglitazone (CS-045), WY-14643 (Pirinixic acid)), and the like.
• In certain embodiments one or more of the active agents are administered in conjunction with fibrates (e.g., clofibrate (atromid), gemfibrozil (lopid), fenofibrate (tricor), etc.), bile acid sequestrants (e.g., cholestyramine, colestipol, etc.), cholesterol absorption blockers (e.g., ezetimibe (Zetia), etc.), Vytorin ((ezetimibe/simvastatin combination), and/or steroids, warfarin, and/or aspirin, and/or Bcr-Abl inhibitors/antagonists (e.g., Gleevec (Imatinib Mesylate), AMN₁O₇, STI571 (CGP57148B), ON 012380, PLX225, and the like), and/or renin angiotensin pathway blockers (e.g., Losartan (Cozaar®), Valsartan (Diovan®), Irbesartan (Avapro®), Candesartan (Atacand®), and the like), and/or angiotensin II receptor antagonists (e.g., losartan (Cozaar), valsartan (Diovan), irbesartan (Avapro), candesartan (Atacand) and telmisartan (Micardis), etc.), and/or PKC inhibitors (e.g., Calphostin C, Chelerythrine chloride, Chelerythrine.chloride, Copper bis-3,5-diisopropylsalicylate, Ebselen, EGF Receptor (human) (651-658) (N-Myristoylated), Go 6976, H-7.dihydrochloride, 1-O-Hexadecyl-2-O-methyl-rac-glycerol, Hexadecyl-phosphocholine (C_16:0); Miltefosine, Hypericin, Melittin (natural), Melittin (synthetic), ML-7.hydrochloride, ML-9.hydrochloride, Palmitoyl-DL-carnitine.hydrochloride, Protein Kinase C (19-31), Protein Kinase C (19-36), Quercetin.dihydrate, Quercetin.dihydrate, D-erythro-Sphingosine (isolated), D-erythro-Sphingosine (synthetic), Sphingosine, N,N-dimethyl, D-erythro-Sphingosine, Dihydro-, D-erythro-Sphingosine, N,N-Dimethyl-, D-erythro-Sphingosine chloride, N,N,N-Trimethyl-, Staurosporine, Bisindolylmaleimide I, G-6203, and the like).
• In certain embodiments, one or more of the active agents are administered in conjunction with ApoAI, Apo A-I derivatives and/or agonists (e.g., ApoAI milano, see, e.g., U.S. Patent Publications 20050004082, 20040224011, 20040198662, 20040181034, 20040122091, 20040082548, 20040029807, 20030149094, 20030125559, 20030109442, 20030065195, 20030008827, and 20020071862, and U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,831,105, 6,790,953, 6,773,719, 6,713,507, 6,703,422, 6,699,910, 6,680,203, 6,673,780, 6,646,170, 6,617,134, 6,559,284, 6,506,879, 6,506,799, 6,459,003, 6,423,830, 6,410,802, 6,376,464, 6,367,479, 6,329,341, 6,287,590, 6,090,921, 5,990,081, and the like), renin inhibitors (e.g., SPP630 and SPP635, SPP100, Aliskiren, and the like), and/or MR antagonist (e.g., spironolactone, aldosterone glucuronide, and the like), and/or aldosterone synthase inhibitors, and/or alpha-adrenergic antagonists (e.g., Aldomet® (Methyldopa), Cardura® (Doxazocin), Catapres®; Catapres-TTS®; Duraclon™ (Clonidine), Dibenzyline® (Phenoxybenzamine), Hylorel® (Guanadrel), Hytrin® (Terazosin), Minipress® (Prazosin), Tenex® (Guanfacine), Guanabenz, Phentolamine, Reserpine, and the like), and/or liver X receptor (LXR) agonists (e.g., T0901317, GW3965, ATI-829, acetyl-podocarpic dimer (APD), and the like), and/or farnesoid X receptor (FXR) agonists (e.g., GW4064, 6alpha-ethyl-chenodeoxycholic acid (6-ECDCA), T0901317, and the like), and/or plasminogen activator-1 (PAI-1) inhibitors (see, e.g., oxime-based PAI-1 inhibitors, see also U.S. Pat. No. 5,639,726, and the like), and/or low molecular weight heparin, and/or AGE inhibitors/breakers (e.g., Benfotiamine, aminoguanidine, pyridoxamine, Tenilsetam, Pimagedine, and the like) and/or ADP receptor blockers (e.g., Clopidigrel, AZD6140, and the like), and/or ABCA1 agonists, and/or scavenger receptor B1 agonists, and/or Adiponectic receptor agonist or adiponectin inducers, and/or stearoyl-CoA Desaturase I (SCD1) inhibitors, and/or Cholesterol synthesis inhibitors (non-statins), and/or Diacylglycerol Acyltransferase I (DGAT1) inhibitors, and/orAcetyl CoA Carboxylase 2 inhibitors, and/or LP-PLA2 inhibitors, and/or GLP-1, and/or glucokinase activator, and/or CB-1 agonists, and/or anti-thrombotic/coagulants, and/or Factor Xa inhibitors, and/or GPIIb/IIIa inhibitors, and/or Factor VIIa inhibitors, and/or Tissue factor inhibitors, and/or anti-inflammatory drugs, and/or Probucol and derivatives (e.g. AGI-1067, etc.), and/or CCR2 antagonists, and/or CX3CR1 antagonists, and/or IL-1 antagonists, and/or nitrates and NO donors, and/or phosphodiesterase inhibitors, and the like.
• In addition, other pharmacologically active materials that can be delivered in conjunction with one or more of the active agents described herein include, but are not limited to, agents that reduce the risk of eye disease events and/or complications thereof. Such agents include, but are not limited to anti-angiogenics or anti-VEGF (anti-Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor) agents. For example, the active agents described herein can be used in conjunction and/or combination with anti-angiogenic therapies for choroidal neovascularization. The net effect of the combination can result in limiting the expression of pro-angiogenic factors due to remodeled Bruch's membrane and thus result in a better metabolic situation for the retinal pigment epithelium and retina, which can limit the duration/circles of anti-angiogenic retreatments.
• Angiogenesis is an important cellular event in which vascular endothelial cells proliferate, prune and reorganize to form new vessels from preexisting vascular network. There are compelling evidences that the development of a vascular supply is essential for normal and pathological proliferative processes (Folkman and Klagsbrun (1987) Science 235:442-447). Delivery of oxygen and nutrients, as well as the removal of catabolic products, represent rate-limiting steps in the majority of growth processes occurring in multicellular organisms. Thus, it has been generally assumed that the vascular compartment is necessary, not only for organ development and differentiation during embryogenesis, but also for wound healing and reproductive functions in the adult.
• Angiogenesis is also implicated in the pathogenesis of a variety of disorders, including but not limited to, tumors, proliferative retinopathies, age-related macular degeneration, rheumatoid arthritis (RA), and psoriasis. Angiogenesis is essential for the growth of most primary tumors and their subsequent metastasis. Tumors can absorb sufficient nutrients and oxygen by simple diffusion up to a size of 1-2 mm, at which point their further growth requires the elaboration of vascular supply. This process is thought to involve recruitment of the neighboring host mature vasculature to begin sprouting new blood vessel capillaries, which grow towards, and subsequently infiltrate, the tumor mass. In addition, tumor angiogenesis involve the recruitment of circulating endothelial precursor cells from the bone marrow to promote neovascularization. Kerbel (2000) Carcinogenesis 21:505-515; Lynden et al. (2001) Nat. Med. 7:1194-1201.
• In view of the remarkable physiological and pathological importance of angiogenesis, much work has been dedicated to the elucidation of the factors capable of regulating this process. It is suggested that the angiogenesis process is regulated by a balance between pro- and anti-angiogenic molecules, and is derailed in various diseases, especially cancer. Carmeliet and Jain (2000) Nature 407:249-257.
• Vascular endothelial cell growth factor (VEGF), which is also termed VEGF-A or vascular permeability factor (VPF), has been reported as a pivotal regulator of both normal and abnormal angiogenesis. Ferrara and Davis-Smyth (1997) Endocrine Rev. 18:4-25; Ferrara (1999) J. Mol. Med. 77:527-543. Compared to other growth factors that contribute to the processes of vascular formation, VEGF is unique in its high specificity for endothelial cells within the vascular system. VEGF is essential for embryonic vasculogenesis and angiogenesis. (Carmeliet et al. (1996) Nature 380:435-439; Ferrara et al. (1996) Nature 380:439-442).
• In addition to being an angiogenic factor in angiogenesis and vasculogenesis, VEGF, as a pleiotropic growth factor, exhibits multiple biological effects in other physiological processes, such as endothelial cell survival, vessel permeability and vasodilation, monocyte chemotaxis and calcium influx. Ferrara and Davis-Smyth (1997), supra. Moreover, recent studies have reported mitogenic effects of VEGF on a few non-endothelial cell types, such as retinal pigment epithelial cells, pancreatic duct cells and Schwann cells. Guerrin et al. (1995) J. Cell Physiol. 164:385-394; Oberg-Welsh et al. (1997) Mol. Cell. Endocrinol. 126:125-132; Sondell et al. (1999) J. Neurosci. 19:5731-5740.
• Substantial evidence also implicates VEGF's critical role in the development of conditions or diseases that involve pathological angiogenesis. The VEGF mRNA is overexpressed by the majority of human tumors examined (Berkman et al. J Clin Invest 91:153-159 (1993); Brown et al. Human Pathol. 26:86-91 (1995); Brown et al. Cancer Res. 53:4727-4735 (1993); Mattern et al. Brit. J. Cancer. 73:931-934 (1996); and Dvorak et al. Am J. Pathol. 146:1029-1039 (1995)). Also, the concentration of VEGF in eye fluids are highly correlated to the presence of active proliferation of blood vessels in patients with diabetic and other ischemia-related retinopathies (Aiello et al. N. Engl. J. Med. 331:1480-1487 (1994)). Furthermore, recent studies have demonstrated the localization of VEGF in choroidal neovascular membranes in patients affected by AMD (Lopez et al. Invest. Ophtalmo. Vis. Sci. 37:855-868 (1996)).
• Given its central role in promoting tumor growth, VEGF provides an attractive target for therapeutic intervention. Indeed, a variety of therapeutic strategies aimed at blocking VEGF or its receptor signaling system are currently being developed for the treatment of neoplastic diseases. Rosen (2000) Oncologist 5:20-27; Ellis et al. (2000) Oncologist 5:11-15; Kerbel (2001) J. Clin. Oncol. 19:45 S-51S. So far, VEGF/VEGF receptor blockade by monoclonal antibodies and inhibition of receptor signaling by tyrosine kinase inhibitors are the best studied approaches. VEGFR-1 ribozymes, VEGF toxin conjugates, and soluble VEGF receptors are also being investigated.
• Suitable antiangiogenics therefore include, but are not limited to pegaptanib (Macugen™ by Pfizer), ranibizumab (Lucentis™ by Genentech) bevacizumab (Avastin™ by Genentech), carboxyamidotriazole, TNP-470, CM101, IFN-α, IL-12,platelet factor 4, suramin, SU5416, thrombospondin, VEGFR antagonists, angiostatic steroids+heparin, cartilage-derived angiogenesis inhibitory factor, matrix metallopreteinase inhibitors, angiostatin, endostatin, 2-methoxyestradiol, tecogalan, prolactin, α_vβ₃inhibitors, and linomide, VEGF-Trap (by Regeneron Pharmaceuticals), Aminosterols (Evizion® by Genera Corp.), Cortisen (Retaane® by Alcon), tyrosine kinase inhibitors, anti-angiogenic siRNA, inhibitors of the complement system, and gentherapeutic therapies (e.g. AdPEDF.11 by Genvec).
• Other suitable antiangiogenics suitable for the methods described herein are described, for example, in U.S. Patent Publications 2006/0134111, 2007/0031413, 2007/0160608, and the like which are incorporated herein by reference.
• One or more of the active agents can also be administered in conjunction or combination with compounds that support remodeling of Bruch's membrane and the adjacent structures (e.g. chelators for iron, calcium, zinc; metalloproteinase inhibitors etc.). As described above, the National Eye Institute and others have shown that administration of vitamin supplements with high doses of antioxidants, lutein and zeaxanthin can slow the progression of dry macular degeneration and in some patients, improve visual acuity. As such, one or more of the active agents can also be administered in conjunction or combination with vitamin supplements with high doses of antioxidants, lutein and zeaxanthin.
• One or more of the active agents can also be administered in conjunction, combination, or in a preparation for cell transplants (e.g. stem cells, engineered, autologous, etc.) and biotechnical implants where cell survival and outcome of the procedure is improved by remodeled Bruch's membrane and reduced inflammation response.
IX. Kits for the Treatment of One or More Indications
• In another embodiment this invention provides kits for amelioration of one or more symptoms of atherosclerosis or for the prophylactic treatment of a subject (human or animal) at risk for atherosclerosis and/or the treatment or prophylaxis of one or more of the conditions described herein. For example, also disclosed herein are kits for amelioration of one or more symptoms of atherosclerosis or for the prophylactic treatment of a subject (human or animal) at risk for eye disease.
• The kits preferably comprise a container containing one or more of the active agents described herein. The active agent(s) can be provided in a unit dosage formulation (e.g. suppository, tablet, caplet, patch, etc.) and/or may be optionally combined with one or more pharmaceutically acceptable excipients.
• The kit can, optionally, further comprise one or more other agents used in the treatment of the condition/pathology of interest. Such agents include, but are not limited to, beta blockers, vasodilators, aspirin, statins, ace inhibitors or ace receptor inhibitors (ARBs) and the like, e.g. as described above.
• In addition, the kits optionally include labeling and/or instructional materials providing directions (i.e., protocols) for the practice of the methods or use of the “therapeutics” or “prophylactics” of this invention. Preferred instructional materials describe the use of one or more active agent(s) of this invention to mitigate one or more symptoms of atherosclerosis (or other pathologies described herein) and/or to prevent the onset or increase of one or more of such symptoms in an individual at risk for atherosclerosis (or other pathologies described herein). The instructional materials may also, optionally, teach preferred dosages/therapeutic regiment, counter indications and the like.
• While the instructional materials typically comprise written or printed materials they are not limited to such. Any medium capable of storing such instructions and communicating them to an end user is contemplated by this invention. Such media include, but are not limited to electronic storage media (e.g., magnetic discs, tapes, cartridges, chips), optical media (e.g., CD ROM), and the like. Such media may include addresses to internet sites that provide such instructional materials.
EXAMPLES
• The following examples are offered to illustrate, but not to limit the claimed invention.
Example 1Use of ApoJ-Related Peptides to Mediate Symptoms of AtherosclerosisPrevention of LDL-Induced Monocyte Chemotactic Activity
• FIG. 1 illustrates a comparison of the effect of D-4F (Anantharamaiah et al. (2002) Circulation, 105: 290-292) with the effect of an apoJ peptide made from D amino acids (D-J336, Ac-L-L-E-Q-L-N-E-Q-F-N-W-V-S-R-L-A-N-L-T-Q-G-E-NH₂, SEQ ID NO:1177)) on the prevention of LDL-induced monocyte chemotactic activity in vitro in a co-incubation. Human aortic endothelial cells were incubated with medium alone (no addition), with control human LDL (200 μg protein/ml) or control human LDL+ control human HDL (350 μg HDL protein/ml). D-J336 or D-4F was added to other wells in a concentration range as indicated plus control human LDL (200 μg protein/ml). Following overnight incubation, the supernatants were assayed for monocyte chemotactic activity. As shown inFIG. 1, the in vitro concentration of the apoJ variant peptide that prevents LDL-induced monocyte chemotactic activity by human artery wall cells is 10 to 25 times less than the concentration required for the D-4F peptide.
• Prevention of LDL-Induced Monocyte Chemotactic Activity by Pre-Treatment of Artery Wall Cells with D-J336
• FIG. 2 illustrates a comparison of the effect of D-4F with the effect of D-J336 on the prevention of LDL induced monocyte chemotactic activity in a pre-incubation. Human aortic endothelial cells were pre-incubated with D-J336 or D-4F at 4, 2, and 1.mu.g/ml for DJ336 or 100, 50, 25, and 12.5 μg/ml for D-4F for 6 hrs. The cultures were then washed and were incubated with medium alone (no addition), or with control human LDL (200 μg protein/ml), or with control human LDL+ control human HDL (350 μg HDL protein/ml) as assay controls. The wells that were pre-treated with peptides received the control human LDL at 200 μg protein/ml. Following overnight incubation, the supernatants were assayed for monocyte chemotactic activity.
• As illustrated inFIG. 2, the ApoJ variant peptide was 10-25 times more potent in preventing LDL oxidation by artery wall cells in vitro.
The Effect of Apo J Peptide Mimetics on HDL Protective Capacity in LDL Receptor Null Mice.
• D-4F designated as F, or the apoJ peptide made from D amino acids (D-J336, designated as J) was added to the drinking water of LDL receptor null mice (4 per group) at 0.25 or 0.5 mg per ml of drinking water. After 24- or 48-hrs blood was collected from the mice and their HDL was isolated and tested for its ability to protect against LDL-induced monocyte chemotactic activity. Assay controls included culture wells that received no lipoproteins (no addition), or control human LDL alone (designated as LDL, 200.mu.g cholesterol/ml), or control LDL+ control human HDL (designated as +HDL, 350.mu.g HDL cholesterol). For testing the mouse HDL, the control LDL was added together with mouse HDL (+F HDL or +J HDL) to artery wall cell cultures. The mouse HDL was added at 100 μg cholesterol/ml respectively. After treatment with either D-4F or D-J336 the mouse HDL at 100 μg/ml was as active as 350 μg/ml of control human HDL in preventing the control LDL from inducing the artery wall cells to produce monocyte chemotactic activity. The reason for the discrepancy between the relative doses required for the D-J336 peptide relative to D-4F in vitro and in vivo may be related to the solubility of the peptides in water and we believe that when measures are taken to achieve equal solubility the D-J peptides will be much more active in vivo as they are in vitro.
• Protection Against LDL-Induced Monocyte Chemotactic Activity by HDL from Apo E Null Mice Given Oral Peptides.
• FIG. 4 illustrates the effect of oral apoA-1 peptide mimetic and apoJ peptide on HDL protective capacity. ApoE null mice (4 per group) were provided with D-4F (designated as F) at 50, 30, 20, 10, 5.mu.g per ml of drinking water or apoJ peptide (designated as J) at 50, 30 or 20.mu.g per ml of drinking water. After 24 hrs blood was collected, plasma fractionated by FPLC and fractions containing LDL (designated as mLDL for murine LDL) and fractions containing HDL (designated as mHDL) were separately pooled and HDL protective capacity against LDL oxidation as determined by LDL-induced monocyte chemotactic activity was determined. For the assay controls the culture wells received no lipoproteins (no additions), mLDL alone (at 200 μg cholesterol/ml), or mLDL+ standard normal human HDL (designated as Cont. h HDL, at 350 μg HDL cholesterol/ml).
• For testing the murine HDL, mLDL together with murine HDL (+F mHDL or +J mHDL) were added to artery wall cell cultures. The HDL from the mice that did not receive any peptide in their drinking water is designated as no peptide mHDL. The murine HDL was used at 100.mu.g cholesterol/ml. After receiving D-4F or D-J336 the murine HDL at 100 μg/ml was as active as 350.mu.g/ml of normal human HDL. As shown inFIG. 4, when added to the drinking water the D-J peptide was as potent as D-4F in enhancing HDL protective capacity in apo E null mice.
• Ability of LDL Obtained from ApoE Null Mice Given Oral Peptides to Induce Monocyte Chemotactic Activity.
• FIG. 5 illustrates the effect of oral apo A-1 peptide mimetic and apoJ peptide on LDL susceptibility to oxidation. ApoE null mice (4 per group) were provided, in their drinking water, with D-4F (designated as F) at 50, 30, 20, 10, 5.mu.g per ml of drinking water or the apoJ peptide (D-J336 made from D amino acids and designated as J) at 50, 30 or 20 μg per ml of drinking water. After 24 hrs blood was collected from the mice shown inFIG. 4, plasma fractionated by FPLC and fractions containing LDL (designated as mLDL for murine LDL) were pooled and LDL susceptibility to oxidation as determined by induction of monocyte chemotactic activity was determined. For the assay controls the culture wells received no lipoproteins (no additions), mLDL alone (at 200 μg cholesterol/ml), or mLDL+ standard normal human HDL (designated as Cont. h HDL, 350 μg HDL cholesterol).
• Murine LDL, mLDL, from mice that received the D-4F (F mLDL) or those that received the apoJ peptide (J mLDL) were added to artery wall cell cultures. LDL from mice that did not receive any peptide in their drinking water is designated as No peptide LDL.
• As shown inFIG. 5, when added to the drinking water, D-J336 was slightly more potent than D-4F in rendering the LDL from apo E null mice resistant to oxidation by human artery wall cells as determined by the induction of monocyte chemotactic activity.
• Protection Against Phospholipid Oxidation and Induction of Monocyte Chemotactic Activity by HDL Obtained from Apo E Null Mice Given Oral Peptides.
• FIG. 6 illustrates the effect of oral apoA-1 peptide mimetic and apoJ peptide on HDL protective capacity. ApoE null mice (4 per group) were provided with D-4F (designated as F) at 50, 30, 20, 10, 5.mu.g per ml of drinking water or apoJ peptide (D-J336 made from D amino acids and designated as J) at 50, 30 or 20.mu.g per ml of drinking water. After 24 hrs blood was collected, plasma fractionated by FPLC and fractions containing HDL (designated as mHDL) were pooled and HDL protective capacity against PAPC oxidation as determined by the induction of monocyte chemotactic activity was determined. For the assay controls the culture wells received no lipoproteins (no additions), the phospholipid PAPC at 20.mu.g/ml+HPODE, at 1.0 μg/ml, or PAPC+HPODE plus standard normal human HDL (at 350 μg HDL cholesterol/ml and designated as +Cont. h HDL).
• For testing the murine HDL, PAPC+HPODE together with murine HDL (+F mHDL or +J mHDL) were added to artery wall cell cultures. The HDL from mice that did not receive any peptide in their drinking water is designated as “no peptide mHDL”. The murine HDL was used at 100 μg cholesterol/ml.
• The data shown inFIG. 6 indicates that, when added to the drinking water, D-J336 was as potent as D-4F in causing HDL to inhibit the oxidation of a phospholipid PAPC by the oxidant HPODE in a human artery wall co-culture as measured by the generation of monocyte chemotactic activity.
Effect of Oral ApoA-1 Peptide Mimetic and ApoJ Peptide on Plasma Paraoxonase Activity in Mice.
• FIG. 7 shows the effect of oral apoA-1 peptide mimetic and apoJ peptide on plasma paraoxonase activity in mice. ApoE null mice (4 per group) were provided with D-4F designated as F at 50, 10, 5 or 0 μg per ml of drinking water or apoJ peptide (D-J336 made from D amino acids and designated as J) at 50, 10 or 5 μg per ml of drinking water. After 24 hrs blood was collected and plasma was assayed for PON1 activity. These data demonstrate that, when added to the drinking water, D-J336 was at least as potent as D-4F in increasing the paraoxonase activity of apo E null mice.
Example 2Oral G* Peptides Increase HDL Protective Capacity in Apo E Deficient Mice
• Female, 4 month old apoE deficient mice (n=4 per group) were treated with G* peptides having the following amino acid sequences. Peptide 113-122=Ac-LVGRQLEEFL-NH₂(SEQ ID NO. 9), Peptide 336-357=Ac-LLEQLNEQFNWVSRLANLTQGE-NH₂(SEQ ID NO. 17), and Peptide 377-390=Ac-PSGVTEVVVKLFDS-NH₂(SEQ ID NO. 19).
• Each mouse received 200.mu.g of the peptide by stomach tube. Four hours later blood was obtained, plasma separated, lipoproteins fractionated and HDL (at 25 μg per ml) was assayed for protective capacity against the oxidation of LDL (at 100 μg per ml) in cultures of human artery wall cells. The data are shown inFIG. 8. The peptide afforded significant HDL-protective capacity in the mice.
• In another experiment, female, 4 month old apoE deficient mice (n=4 per group) were treated with the 11 amino acid G* peptide 146-156 with the sequence: Ac-QQTHMLDVMQD-NH₂. (SEQ ID NO:11). The mice received the peptide in their drinking water at the indicated concentrations (seeFIG. 9). Following eighteen hrs, blood was obtained, plasma separated, lipoproteins fractionated and HDL (at 50.mu.g cholesterol per ml) was assayed for protective capacity against the oxidation of PAPC (at 25 μg per ml)+HPODE (at 1.0 μg per ml) in cultures of human artery wall cells. Assay controls included No additions, PAPC+HPODE and PAPC+HPODE plus Control HDL (designated as +HDL). The data are mean+/−SD of the number of migrated monocytes in nine high power fields in triplicate cultures. Asterisks indicate significance at the level of p<0.05 vs. the water control (0 μg/ml).
Example 3Solution Phase Chemistry for Peptide Synthesis
• In certain embodiments, a solution-phase synthesis chemistry provides a more economical means of synthesizing peptides of this invention.
• Prior to this invention synthesis was typically performed using an all-solid phase synthesis chemistry. The solid phase synthesis of peptides of less than 9 amino acids is much more economical than the solid phase synthesis of peptides of more than 9 amino acids. Synthesis of peptides of more than 9 amino acids results in a significant loss of material due to the physical dissociation of the elongating amino acid chain from the resin. The solid phase synthesis of peptides containing less than 9 amino acids is much more economical because the there is relatively little loss of the elongating chain from the resin.
• In certain embodiments, the solution phase synthesis functions by converting the synthesis of the 18 amino acid apoA-I mimetic peptide, 4F (and other related peptides) from an all solid phase synthesis to either an all solution phase synthesis or to a combination of solid phase synthesis of three chains each containing, e.g., 6 amino acids followed by the assembly of the three chains in solution. This provides a much more economical overall synthesis. This procedure is readily modified where the peptides are not 18 amino acids in length. Thus, for example, a 15 mer can be synthesized by solid phase synthesis of three 5 mers followed by assembly of the three chains in solution. A 14 mer can be synthesized by the solid phase synthesis of two 5 mers and one 4 mer followed by assembly of these chains in solution, and so forth.
A) Summary of Synthesis Protocol.
• A scheme for the synthesis of the peptide D4F (Ac-D-W-F-K-A-F-Y-D-K-V-A-E-K-F-K-E-A-F-NH₂, (SEQ ID NO:5) is illustrated in Table 20. (The scheme and yields for the synthesis are shown in Table 20.

• TABLE 20
  Illustrative solution phase synthesis scheme.
  Methods Used for D4F Synthesis

  					Wt. of
  				Final Wt.	Crude
  		Fmoc		of	Peptide	Wt. of Pure
  		Amino	Coupling	Resin	(gms)	Peptide (mg)
  Synthesis	Resin	Acid	Reagent	(gms)	Yield (%)	Yield (%)

  Stepwise	Rink Amide	6 Equiv	HBTU/	4	2.0	500
  Solid Phase	(1 mmole)		HOBT		86	25
  	1.8 gms
  Stepwise	Rink Amide	2 Equiv	DIC/HOBT	3.9	2.0	450
  Solid Phase	(1 mmole)			86	22.5
  	1.8 gms
  Fragment	Rink Amide		HBTU/	3.3	1.0	100
  coupling	(1 mmole)		HOBT		43	10
  (6 + 6 + 6)	1.8 gms*

  Synthesis of D4F Fragments Fragments Fragment 1

  (2HN-KFKEAF (SEQ ID NO: 1178) on rink amide resin

  (K and E are properly protected)

  Fragment 2	Cl-TrT-Resin	6 Equiv	HBTU/	11	2.2 crude
  6 residues	(5 mmol)		HOBT		protected
  stepwise	6.5 gms				32
  Solid Phase

  Fmoc-Y(But)-D(But)-K(Boc)-V-A-E(But)-COOH (SEQ ID NO: 1179)

  Fragment 2	Cl-TrT-Resin	6 Equiv	HBTU/	10	1.8 crude
  6 residues	(5 mmol)		HOBT		protected
  stepwise	6.5 gms				32
  Solid Phase

  Ac-D(But)-W-F-K(Boc)-A-F-COOH (SEQ ID NO: 1180)

  Synthesis by solution phase using fragments produced by the solid phase method.

  Fragment Wang resin. C-terminal hexapeptide (subjected to ammonolysis). Yield quantitative.

  1. NH-K(Boc)-F-K(Boc)-E(But)-A-F-Wang resin (SEQ ID NO: 1181)

  NH-K(Boc)-F-K(Boc)-E(But)-A-F-CO-NH (SEQ ID NO: 1182)?

  Fragment 2 from above was coupled tofragment 1 in DMF using DIC/HOBT.

  Fmoc-Y(But)-D(But)-K(Bpc)-V-A-E(But)-K(Boc)-F-K(Boc)-E(But)-F-Co-NH2 (SEQ ID NO: 1183)

  12 residue peptide was characterized as free peptide after

  removing protecting groups. Yield was 50%

  | |

  Fmoc from the above-12 rtesidue was removed by piperidine in DMF

  (20%. After drying the peptide was copied toFragment 3 using DCI/HOBT in DMF.

  Ac-D(But)-W-F-K(Boc)-A-F-Y(But)-D(but)-K(Boc)-V-A-E(But)-K(Boc)-F-

  K(Boc)-E(But)-A-FCO-NH (SEQ ID NO: 1184)

  Protected peptide yield was quantitative.

  Protecting groups removed using mixture of TFA (80%), phenol (5%), thioanisole

  (5%). water)5%), triisopropylsilane (TIS, 5%), stirred for 90 min. Precipitated by

  ether and purified by C-4 HPLC column.Yield 25%

B) Details of Synthesis Protocol.1. Fragment Condensation Procedure to Synthesize D-4F
• Fragments synthesized for fragment condensation on solid phase are:

• Fragment 1:

  (SEQ ID NO: 1185)

  Ac-D(OBut)-W-F-K(εBoc)-A-F-COOH;

  Fragment 2:

  (SEQ ID NO: 1186)

  Fmoc-Y(0But)-D(OBut)-K(εBoc)-V-A-E(OBut)-COOH;

  and

  Fragment 3

  (SEQ ID NO: 1187)

  Fmoc-K(εBoc)F-K(εBoc)-E(OBut)-A-F-Rink amide resin.

• Fragment 1 was left on the resin to obtain final peptide amide after TFA treatment.
• To synthesize fragment 1: Fmoc-Phe (1.2 equivalents) was added to chlorotrityl resin (Nova Biochem, 1.3 mMol/g substitution, 5 mMol or 6.5 g was used) in presence of six equivalents of DIEA in DMF:dichloromethane (1:1)) and stirred for 4 h. Excess of functionality on the resin was capped with methanol in presence of dichloromethane and DTEA. After the removal of Fmoc-Fmoc amino acid derivatives (2 equivalents) were added using HOBut/HBTU reagents as described above. Final Fmoc-D(OBut)-W-F-K(EBoc)-A-F Chlorotrityl resin was treated with Fmoc deblocking agent and acetylated with 6 equivalents of acetic anhydride in presence of diisoprolylethyl amine. The resulting Ac-D(OBut)-W-F-K(εBoc)-A-F-resin was treated with a mixture of trifluoroethanol-acetic acid-dichloromethane (2:2:6, 10 ml/g of resin) for 4 h at room temperature. After removal of the resin by filtration, the solvent was removed by aziotropic distillation with n-hexane under vacuum. The residue (1.8 g) was determined by mass spectral analysis to be Ac-D(OBut)-W-F-K(εBoc)-A-F-COOH (SEQ ID NO:1188).
• Fragment 2, Fmoc-Y(OBut)-D(OBut)-K(εBoc)-V-A-E(OBut)-COOH (SEQ ID NO:1189), was obtained using the procedure described forFragment 1. Final yield was 2.2 g.
• Fragment 3. 0.9 g (0.5 mmol) of Rink amide resin (Nova Biochem) was used to obtain fragment Rink amide resin was treated with 20% pipetidine in dichloromethane for 5 min once and 15 min the second time (Fmoc deblocking reagents). 1.2 equivalents of Fmoc-Phe was condensed using condensing agents HOBt/HBTU (2 equivalents in presence of few drops of diisopropylethyl amine) (amino acid condensation). Deblocking and condensation of the rest of the amino acids were continued to obtain the of Fmoc-K(EBoc)F-K(εBoc)-E(OBut)-A-F-rink amide resin (SEQ ID NO:1190). Fmoc was cleaved and the peptide resin K(EBoc)F-K(EBoc)-E(OBut)-A-F-rink amide resin (SEQ ID NO:1190) was used for fragment condensation as described below.
• Fragment 2 in DMF was added to Fragment 3 (1.2 equivalents) using HOBt-HBTU procedure in presence of DIEA overnight. After washing the resin with DMF and deblocking Fmoc-Fragment 1 (1.2 equivalents) was added to the dodecapeptide resin using HOBt-HBTU procedure overnight.
• The final peptide resin (3.3 g) was treated with a mixture of TFA-Phenol-triisopropylsilane-thioanisole-water (80:5:5:5) for 1.5 h (10 ml of the reagent/g of the resin). The resin was filtered off and the solution was diluted with 10 volumes of ether. Precipitated peptide was isolated by centrifugation and washed twice with ether. 1 g of the crude peptide was subjected to HPLC purification to obtain 100 mg of the peptide.
2. Characterization of Peptide.
• The peptide was identified by mass spectral and analytical HPLC methods.
• As shown inFIG. 14 the product of the solution phase synthesis scheme is very biologically active in producing HDL and pre-beta HDL that inhibit LDL-induced monocyte chemotaxis in apo E null mice. ApoE null mice were fed 5 micrograms of the D-4F synthesized as described above (Frgmnt) or the mice were given the same amount of mouse chow without D-4F (Chow). Twelve hours after the feeding was started, the mice were bled and their plasma was fractionated on FPLC. LDL (100 micrograms LDL-cholesterol) was added to cocultures of human artery wall cells alone (LDL) or with a control human HDL (Control HDL) or with HDL (50 micrograms HDL-cholesterol) or post-HDL (pHDL; prebeta HDL) from mice that did (Frgmnt) or did not (Chow) receive the D-4F and the monocyte chemotactic activity produced was determined.
Example 4Comparison of D-4F and Reverse (Retro-) D-4F Activity
• As shown inFIG. 16, the biological activities of D-4F and reverse RD-4F are not significantly different. Female apoE null mice were administered bystomach tube 0, 3, 6, 12, or 25 micrograms of D-4F or Reverse D-4F in 100 microliters of water. Blood was obtained 7 hours later and the plasma was fractionated by FPLC. A standard control human LDL was added to human artery wall cells at a concentration of 100 micrograms of LDL-cholesterol/mL (LDL). The resulting monocyte chemotactic activity was normalized to 1.0. The same LDL at the same concentration was added to the human artery wall cells together with HDL at 50 micrograms HDL-cholesterol/mL from a normal human (hHDL) or from the apoE null mice that received the dose of D-4F or Reverse D-4F shown on the X-axis. The resulting monocyte chemotactic activity was normalized to that of the LDL added without HDL. The resulting value is the HDL Inflammatory Index. The results shown are the Mean±S.D. for the data from three separate experiments.
Example 5Effects of L-4F on the Bruch's Membrane of Aged C57Bl/6J-apoE Null Mice
• Aged C57Bl/6J-apoE null mice are a classic atherosclerosis model with significantly elevated plasma cholesterol levels even under standard diets. Previous studies demonstrated lipid accumulation in Bruch's membrane mimicking early stages of AMD in these animals (Dithmar et al. (2000) Invest Opthalmol Vis Sci 41:2035-42). An effective clearance of this lipid debris via an ApoA-I mimetic peptide (L-4F) could prevent early AMD-like degeneration.
Study Design
• L-4F was injected directly into the vitreous cavity of right eyes of 10 eight month old C57Bl/6J-apoE null mice. A single dose of 3 μl was injected with a L-4F concentration of 400 μg/ml. All left eyes were untreated throughout the study and thus be served as controls. The animals were then sacrificed 21 days after the injection and the eyes were immediately enucleated and fixed. Eyes then were processed for electron microscopy (EM).
Results
• EM of 2 mice was reviewed. The treated eyes (L-4F) showed in both cases a significant improvement in Bruch's membrane and RPE morphology as well as lipid content compared to the untreated eyes (control).
Example 6Animal Model
• Aged C57Bl/6J-apoE null mice are a classic atherosclerosis model with significantly elevated plasma cholesterol levels even under standard diets. Previous studies demonstrated lipid accumulation in Bruch's membrane mimicking early stages of AMD (Dithmar et al. (2000) Invest Opthalmol Vis Sci 41:2035-42). An effective clearance of this lipid debris via an ApoA-I/ApoE mimetic peptide will remodel Bruch's membrane structure to a state of wild type animal and restore Bruch's membrane function with improved hydraulic conductivity and increased metabolic exchange rate. In this study the ApoA-I mimetic peptides L-4F and D-4F will be analyzed.
Animals
• Female C57Bl/6J-apoE null mice were purchased from Jackson Laboratories (Bar Harbor, Me.). The use of animals was conducted according to the Association for Research in Vision and Opthalmology (ARVO) Guidelines for the Care and Use of Animals. Animals can be kept in plastic cages with regular light-dark cycle and will be provided continuous free access to water and food. All animals will receive a regular rodent chow diet. At 9 months animals will be divided into 8 groups with 7 animals each.
• Single intravitreal injection of 3 μl can be performed in the right eyes of all Study I animals. All left eyes will be kept uninjected and served as intra-individual negative controls.Group 1 received a concentration of 200 μg/ml L-4F,group 2 received 400 μg/ml L-4F,group 3 received 800 μg/ml L-4F andgroup 4 served as inter-individual negative control with sham injections (no L-4F).
• In addition, single intravitreal injection of 3 μl can be performed in the right eyes of all Study II animals. All left eyes will be kept uninjected and served as intra-individual negative controls.Group 1 received a concentration of 200 μg/ml D-4F,group 2 received 400 μg/ml D-4F,group 3 received 800 μg/ml D-4F andgroup 4 served as inter-individual negative control with sham injections (no D-4F).
Procedure
• Inhalation anesthesia was induced with 5% isofluorane. Additional topical 0.5% paracaine anesthesia eye drop were administered as well as tropicamide eye drops for pupil dilation. With continuous 3% isofluorane inhalation anesthesia mice were positioned under a surgery microscope. Eyelids were gently retracted, eyeballs manually protruded and gently fixed. A sterile 30½-gauge needle (BectonDickinson, Franklin Lakes, N.J.) were used for sclera penetration and the intraocular position of the needle tip was checked under the microscope. A volume of 3 μl of L-4F or D-4F diluted in saline solution was injected with sterilized 10 μl glass micro-syringes (Hamilton, Reno, Nev.) directly into the vitreous cavity. The concentration varied between the 3 groups.Groups 1 received 200 μg/ml L-4F (Study I) or D-4F (Study II),group 2 received 400 μg/ml L-4F or D-4F andgroup 3 received saline without L-4F or D-4F. The needle was held in place for 1 min to allow the drug to diffuse into the vitreous cavity and to prevent retrograde efflux. After the injection is finished both eyes were treated once with antibiotic 0.3% gentamicin sulphate eye ointment (Gentak®, Akorn Inc., Buffalo Grove, Ill.). After treatment mice were daily observed for adverse events, especially relating to the eye.
• After 21 days all animals were sacrificed after deep ketamine/xylazine intraperitoneal anesthesia by thoracotomy/exsanguinations followed by a whole body perfusion with 1.2% paraformaldehyde/0.8% glutaraldehyde in 0.1M phosphate buffer. Immediately all right and left eyes were enucleated and stored in the above mentioned fixative.
Transmission Electron Microscopy
• The fixed eyes were bisected under a dissecting scope (SMZ-U, Nikon Instruments Inc., Melville N.Y.) for further processing for TEM. The halves used for TEM were postfixed in 2% buffered osmium tetroxide, dehydrated in a graded ethanol series, and embedded in epoxy resin according to standard protocols. One-gm thick semithin sections were stained with toluidine blue; ultrathin sections will be stained with uranyl acetate and lead citrate and examined with an electron microscope (1200 EXII; JEOL USA, Peabody, Mass.) equipped with a digital camera (Optronics, Goleta, Calif.).
• From each specimen, sections including the central retina including Bruch's membrane will be investigated. Images were acquired according to a random sampling procedure using the bars of the supporting grid as points of reference, by which 5 consecutive areas adjacent to the right side of a grid bar will be imaged at a magnification of 5,000× and 20,000× and later analyzed.
Image Analysis
• The investigator performing electron microscopic image evaluations and measurements will be masked regarding the origin of the specimens. With ImageJ (a public domain, Java-based image processing program developed at the National Institutes of Health) a standard grid was placed above each image. For standardization Bruch's membrane will be evaluated with point counting stereology only above capillary lumens and not in intercapillary pillar areas.
Statistical Analysis
• For statistical analysis of the morphological parameters from TEM imaging, the mean±SD of the individual 30 measurements will be calculated for each eye. The mean values will be compared between groups using the non-parametric Mann-Whitney test; differences will be considered significant at p<0.05. The SPSS for Windows statistics program (Version 6.0.1, SPSS Inc.) will be used.
Example 7
• To study the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of ApoA-I mimetic peptides in the eye both eyes of 15 ApoE null mice can be injected with 400 μg/ml of biotinylated but functional L-4F or D-4F. Animals can then be sacrificed at different time points after injection, 3 mice for each time point (1 day, 2 days, 4 days, 7 days, and 12 days after injection).
• One eye of each animal can then be cryo-preserved for fluorescent labeling of the biotinylated compound and light microscopy, the second eye can then be paraformaldehyde/glutaraldehyde-fixed for electron microscopy for evaluation of structural effects as described above.
• It is understood that the examples and embodiments described herein are for illustrative purposes only and that various modifications or changes in light thereof will be suggested to persons skilled in the art and are to be included within the spirit and purview of this application and scope of the appended claims. All publications, patents, and patent applications cited herein are hereby incorporated by reference in their entirety for all purposes.

Claims (22)

1. A method for treating a subject with eye disease, the method comprising administering to the subject in need thereof an effective amount of one or more of the active agents described in Tables 2-18, and/or a small organic molecule as described herein in an amount sufficient to ameliorate one or more symptoms of said condition, wherein said active agent is administered in combination with a antiangiogenic agents.

2. The method ofclaim 1, wherein said active agent is a polypeptide comprising the amino acid sequence of 4F (SEQ ID NO:5).

3. The method ofclaim 1, wherein said administration is by a route selected from the group consisting of oral administration, nasal administration, rectal administration, intraperitoneal injection, and intravascular injection, intraocular injection, intravitreal injection, subconjuctival injection, peri-/retrobulbar injection, subcutaneous injection, eye drops, eye gel, eye ointment, spray, emulsion, suspension, transcutaneous administration, and intramuscular injection, via any drug carriers as sponges, contact lenses, polymers, microspheres, implants, pellets, and genetically engineered cells.

4. The method ofclaim 1, wherein the eye disease is selected from the group comprising macular degeneration, age related maculopathy (ARM), age related macular degeneration (AMD) including both the dry and wet forms of age related macular degeneration, glaucoma, ocular hypertension, macular edema, retinal pigment epithelium detachments, coats disease, uveitis, sicca syndrome, hereditary diseases associated with increased extra-/intracellular lipid storage/accumulation, and juvenile macular degeneration.

5. A method of ameliorating a symptom of eye disease, the method comprising administering to the subject to the subject in need thereof an effective amount of one or more of the active agents described in Tables 2-18, and/or a small organic molecule as described herein in an amount sufficient to ameliorate one or more symptoms of said condition, wherein said active agent is administered in combination with a antiangiogenic agents.

6. The method ofclaim 5 wherein the symptom is selected from the group comprising accumulation of extracellular lipids in Bruch's membranes, accumulation of lipid rich debris, vision loss, formation of choriocapillaris, thickening of the Bruch's membrane, accumulation of neutral lipids in the Bruch's membrane, formation of a diffusion barrier between the retinal pigment epithelium and choriocapillaris, deposition of debris (basal linear deposits and drusen) between the basal membrane of the RPE, and the inner collagenous layer, accumulation of lipofuscin in the RPE cells, RPE atrophy, photoreceptor degeneration, choroidal neovascularization, as well as leakage, bleeding, scarring of the eye.

7. The method ofclaim 5, wherein the eye disease is selected from the group comprising macular degeneration, age related maculopathy (ARM), age related macular degeneration (AMD) including both the dry and wet forms of age related macular degeneration, glaucoma, ocular hypertension, macular edema, retinal pigment epithelium detachments, coats disease, uveitis, sicca syndrome, hereditary diseases associated with increased extra-/intracellular lipid storage/accumulation, and juvenile macular degeneration,

8. A method of ameliorating a symptom of eye disease, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a peptide wherein said peptide: ranges in length from about 18 to 37 amino acids and comprises at least 3 alanines (A), 2 aspartates (D), 2 glutamates (E), 4 phenylalanines (F), 4 lysines (K), 1 valine (V), 1 tryptophan (W), 1 tyrosine (Y); wherein said peptide forms a class A amphipathic helix; comprises at least one “D” amino acid residue; and protects a phospholipid against oxidation by an oxidizing agent, wherein said active agent is administered in combination with a antiangiogenic agents.

9. The method ofclaim 8, wherein said peptide further comprises a protecting group coupled to the amino or carboxyl terminus.

10. The method ofclaim 8, wherein said peptide further comprises a first protecting group coupled to the amino terminus and a second protecting group coupled to the carboxyl terminus.

11. The method ofclaim 9, wherein said protecting groups are independently selected from the group consisting of acetyl, amide, and 3 to 20 carbon alkyl groups, Fmoc, Tboc, 9-fluoreneacetyl group, 1-fluorenecarboxylic group, 9-florenecarboxylic group, 9-fluorenone-1-carboxylic group, benzyloxycarbonyl, Xanthyl (Xan), Trityl (Trt), 4-methyltrityl (Mtt), 4-methoxytrityl (Mmt), 4-methoxy-2,3,6-trimethyl-benzenesulphonyl (Mtr), Mesitylene-2-sulphonyl (Mts), 4,4-dimethoxybenzhydryl (Mbh), Tosyl (Tos), 2,2,5,7,8-pentamethyl chroman-6-sulphonyl (Pmc), 4-methylbenzyl (MeBzl), 4-methoxybenzyl (MeOBzl), Benzyloxy (BzlO), Benzyl (Bzl), Benzoyl (Bz), 3-nitro-2-pyridinesulphenyl (Npys), 1-(4,4-dimentyl-2,6-diaxocyclohexylidene)ethyl (Dde), 2,6-dichlorobenzyl (2,6-DiCl-Bzl), 2-chlorobenzyloxycarbonyl (2—Cl-Z),2-bromobenzyloxycarbonyl (2—Br-Z), Benzyloxymethyl (Born), t-butoxycarbonyl (Boc), cyclohexyloxy (cHxO), t-butoxymethyl (Bum), t-butoxy (tBuO), t-Butyl (tBu), Acetyl (Ac), and Trifluoroacetyl (TFA).

12. The method ofclaim 8, wherein all enantiomeric amino acids are “D” amino acids.

13. The method ofclaim 8, wherein said peptide is mixed with a pharmacologically acceptable excipient.

14. The method ofclaim 8, wherein said peptide is mixed with a pharmacologically acceptable excipient suitable for oral administration to a mammal.

15. The method ofclaim 8, wherein said peptide comprises an amino acid sequence selected from the group consisting of D-W-F-K-A-F-Y-D-K-V-A-E-K-F-K-E-A-F (SEQ ID NO: 1191), -D-W-L-K-A-F-Y-D-K-V-A-E-K-L-K-E-A-F-P-D-W-L-K-A-F-Y-D-K-V-A-E-K-L-K-E-A-F (SEQ ID NO: 1192), -D-W-L-K-A-F-Y-D-K-V-A-E-K-L-K-E-F-F-P-D-W-L-K-A-F-Y-D-K-V-A-E-K-L-K-E-F-F (SEQ ID NO: 1193), -D-W-F-K-A-F-Y-D-K-V-A-E-K-L-K-E-A-F-P-D-W-F-K-A-F-Y-D-K-V-A-E-K-L-K-E-A-F (SEQ ID NO: 1194), D-K-L-K-A-F-Y-D-K-V-F-E-W-A-K-E-A-F-P-D-K-L-K-A-F-Y-D-K-V-F-E-W-L-K-E-A-F (SEQ ID NO: 1195), D-K-W-K-A-V-Y-D-K-F-A-E-A-F-K-E-F-L-P-D-K-W-K-A-V-Y-D-K-F-A-E-A-F-K-E-F-L (SEQ ID NO: 1196), D-W-F-K-A-F-Y-D-K-V-A-E-K-F-K-E-A-F-P-D-W-F-K-A-F-Y-D-K-V-A-E-K-F-K-E-A-F-(SEQ ID NO: 1197), or the reverse of any of these sequences.

16. The method ofclaim 15, wherein said peptide comprises a protecting group coupled to the amino terminal and said amino terminal protecting group is a protecting group selected from the group consisting of acetyl, propeonyl, and a 3 to 20 carbon alkyl.

17. The method ofclaim 15, wherein said peptide comprises a protecting group coupled to the carboxyl terminal and said carboxyl terminal protecting group is an amide.

18. The method ofclaim 15, wherein said peptide comprises: a first protecting group coupled to the amino terminus wherein said protecting group is a protecting group selected from the group consisting of acetyl, propeonyl, and a 3 to 20 carbon alkyl; and a second protecting group coupled to the carboxyl terminal and said carboxyl terminal protecting group is an amide.

19. The method ofclaim 8, wherein said oxidizing agent is selected from the group consisting of hydrogen peroxide, 13(S)-HPODE, 15(S)-HPETE, HPODE, HPETE, HODE, and HETE.

20. The method ofclaim 8, wherein said phospholipid is selected from the group consisting of 1-palmitoyl-2-arachidonoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphorylcholine (Ox-PAPC), 1-palmitoyl-2-oxovaleroyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphorylcholine (POVPC), 1-palmitoyl-2-glutaroyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphorylcholine (PGPC), 1-palmitoyl-2-epoxyisoprostane-sn-glycero-3-phosphorylcholine (PEIPC), 1-stearoyl-2-arachidonoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphorylcholine (SAPC), 1-stearoyl-2-oxovaleroyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphorylcholine (SOVPC), 1-stearoyl-2-glutaroyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphorylcholine (SGPC), 1-stearoyl-2-epoxyisoprostane-sn-glycero-3-phosphorylcholine (SEIPC), 1-stearoyl-2-arachidonyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphorylethanolamine (Ox-SAPE),1-stearoyl-2-oxovaleroyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphorylethanolamine (SOVPE),1-stearoyl-2-glutaroyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphorylethanolamine (SGPE), and 1-stearoyl-2-epoxyisoprostane-sn-glycero-3-phosphorylethanolamine (SEIPE).

21. The method ofclaim 1, wherein the anti-angiogenic therapy is selected from the list consisting of pegaptanib (Macugen™ by Pfizer), ranibizumab (Lucentis™ by Genentech) bevacizumab (Avastin™ by Genentech), carboxyamidotriazole, TNP-470, CM101, IFN-α, IL-12, platelet factor 4, suramin, SU5416, thrombospondin, VEGFR antagonists, angiostatic steroids+heparin, cartilage-derived angiogenesis inhibitory factor, matrix metallopreteinase inhibitors, angiostatin, endostatin, 2-methoxyestradiol, tecogalan, prolactin, α_vβ₃inhibitors, and linomide, VEGF-Trap (by Regeneron Pharmaceuticals), Aminosterols (Evizion® by Genera Corp.), Cortisen (Retaane® by Alcon), tyrosine kinase inhibitors, anti-angiogenic siRNA, inhibitors of the complement system, gentherapeutic therapies (e.g. AdPEDF.11 by Genvec).

22. The method ofclaim 5, wherein the anti-angiogenic therapy is selected from the list consisting of pegaptanib (Macugen™ by Pfizer), ranibizumab (Lucentis™ by Genentech) bevacizumab (Avastin™ by Genentech), carboxyamidotriazole, TNP-470, CM101, IFN-α, IL-12, platelet factor 4, suramin, SU5416, thrombospondin, VEGFR antagonists, angiostatic steroids+heparin, cartilage-derived angiogenesis inhibitory factor, matrix metallopreteinase inhibitors, angiostatin, endostatin, 2-methoxyestradiol, tecogalan, prolactin, α_vβ₃inhibitors, and linomide., VEGF-Trap (by Regeneron Pharmaceuticals), Aminosterols (Evizion® by Genera Corp.), Cortisen (Retaane® by Alcon), tyrosine kinase inhibitors, anti-angiogenic siRNA, inhibitors of the complement system, gentherapeutic therapies (e.g. AdPEDF.11 by Genvec).

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