US20070020790A1 - Light emitting device methods - Google Patents

Abstract

Light-emitting device methods are disclosed.

Description

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS
• This application is a continuation of Ser. No. 10/794,452, filed Mar. 5, 2004 which claims priority under 35 U.S.C. §119 to the following U.S. Provisional Patent Applications: 60/462,889, filed Apr. 15, 2003; 60/474,199, filed May 29, 2003; 60/475,682, filed Jun. 4, 2003; 60/503,653, filed Sep. 17, 2003; 60/503,654 filed Sep. 17, 2003; 60/503,661, filed Sep. 17, 2003; 60/503,671, filed Sep. 17, 2003; 60/503,672, filed Sep. 17, 2003; 60/513,807, filed Oct. 23, 2003; and 60/514,764, filed Oct. 27, 2003. This application also claims priority under 35 U.S.C. §120 to, and is a continuation-in-part of, the following U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/723,987, entitled “Light Emitting Devices,” and filed Nov. 26, 2003; U.S. Ser. No. 10/724,004, entitled “Light Emitting Devices,” and filed Nov. 26, 2003; U.S. Ser. No. 10/724,033, entitled “Light Emitting Devices,” and filed Nov. 26, 2003; U.S. Ser. No. 10/724,006, entitled “Light Emitting Devices,” and filed Nov. 26, 2003; U.S. Ser. No. 10/724,029, entitled “Light Emitting Devices,” and filed Nov. 26, 2003; U.S. Ser. No. 10/724,015, entitled “Light Emitting Devices,” and filed Nov. 26, 2003; U.S. Ser. No. 10/724,005, entitled “Light Emitting Devices,” and filed Nov. 26, 2003; U.S. Ser. No. 10/735,498, entitled “Light Emitting Devices,” and filed Dec. 12, 2003. Each of these patent applications is incorporated herein by reference.
TECHNICAL FIELD
• The invention relates to light-emitting device methods.
BACKGROUND
• A light emitting diode (LED) often can provide light in a more efficient manner than an incandescent light source and/or a fluorescent light source. The relatively high power efficiency associated with LEDs has created an interest in using LEDs to displace conventional light sources in a variety of lighting applications. For example, in some instances LEDs are being used as traffic lights and to illuminate cell phone keypads and displays.
• Typically, an LED is formed of multiple layers, with at least some of the layers being formed of different materials. In general, the materials and thicknesses selected for the layers determine the wavelength(s) of light emitted by the LED. In addition, the chemical composition of the layers can be selected to try to isolate injected electrical charge carriers into regions (commonly referred to as quantum wells) for relatively efficient conversion to optical power. Generally, the layers on one side of the junction where a quantum well is grown are doped with donor atoms that result in high electron concentration (such layers are commonly referred to as n-type layers), and the layers on the opposite side are doped with acceptor atoms that result in a relatively high hole concentration (such layers are commonly referred to as p-type layers).
• A common approach to preparing an LED is as follows. The layers of material are prepared in the form of a wafer. Typically, the layers are formed using an epitaxial deposition technique, such as metal-organic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD), with the initially deposited layer being formed on a growth substrate. The layers are then exposed to various etching and metallization techniques to form contacts for electrical current injection, and the wafer is subsequently sectioned into individual LED chips. Usually, the LED chips are packaged.
• During use, electrical energy is usually injected into an LED and then converted into electromagnetic radiation (light), some of which is extracted from the LED.
SUMMARY
• The invention relates to light-emitting device methods.
• In one aspect, the invention features a method of making a light-emitting device. The method includes disposing a planarization layer on a surface of a layer of semiconductor material, and disposing a lithography layer on a surface of the planarization layer. The method also includes performing nanolithography to remove at least a portion of the planarization layer, at least a portion of the lithography layer and at least a portion of the layer of semiconductor material, thereby forming a dielectric function in the surface of the layer of semiconductor material that varies spatially according to a pattern.
• In another aspect, the invention features a method of making a light-emitting device. The method includes providing an article that comprises a layer of semiconductor material and a planarization layer supported by the layer of semiconductor material. The method also includes performing nanolithography to remove at least a portion of the planarization layer and at least a portion of the layer of semiconductor material, thereby forming a dielectric function in the surface of the layer of semiconductor material that varies spatially according to a pattern.
• Embodiments can feature one or more of the following advantages.
• In certain embodiments, a light-emitting system can include an LED and/or a relatively large LED chip that can exhibit relatively high light extraction.
• In some embodiments, a light-emitting system can include an LED and/or a relatively large LED chip that can exhibit relatively high surface brightness, relatively high average surface brightness, relatively low need for heat dissipation or relatively high rate of heat dissipation, relatively low etendue and/or relatively high power efficiency.
• In certain embodiments, a light-emitting system can include an LED and/or a relatively large LED chip that can be designed so that relatively little light emitted by the LED/LED chip is absorbed by packaging.
• In some embodiments, a light-emitting system can include a packaged LED (e.g., a relatively large packaged LED) that can be prepared without using an encapsulant material. This can result in a packaged LED that avoids certain problems associated with the use of certain encapsulant materials, such as reduced performance and/or inconsistent performance as a function of time, thereby providing a packaged LED that can exhibit relatively good and/or reliable performance over a relatively long period of time.
• In certain embodiments, a light-emitting system can include an LED (e.g., a packaged LED, which can be a relatively large packaged LED) that can have a relatively uniform coating of a phosphor material.
• In some embodiments, a light-emitting system can include an LED (e.g., a packaged LED, which can be a relatively large packaged LED) that can be designed to provide a desired light output within a particular angular range (e.g., within a particular angular range relative to the LED surface normal).
• In some embodiments, a light-emitting system can include an LED and/or a relatively large LED chip that can be prepared by a process that is relatively inexpensive.
• In certain embodiments, a light-emitting system can include an LED and/or a relatively large LED chip that can be prepared by a process that can be conducted on a commercial scale without incurring costs that render the process economically unfeasible.
• Features and advantages of the invention are in the description, drawings and claims.
DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS
• FIG. 1 is a schematic representation of a light emitting system.
• FIG. 2 is a side view of an LED with a patterned surface.
• FIG. 3 is a top view the patterned surface of the LED ofFIG. 2.
• FIG. 4 is a graph of an extraction efficiency of an LED with a patterned surface as function of a detuning parameter.
• FIG. 5 is a schematic representation of the Fourier transformation of a patterned surface of an LED.
• FIG. 6 is a graph of an extraction efficiency of an LED with a patterned surface as function of nearest neighbor distance.
• FIG. 7 is a graph of an extraction efficiency of an LED with a patterned surface as function of a filling factor.
• FIG. 8 is a top view a patterned surface of an LED.
• FIG. 9 is a graph of an extraction efficiency of LEDs with different surface patterns.
• FIG. 10 is a graph of an extraction efficiency of LEDs with different surface patterns.
• FIG. 11 is a graph of an extraction efficiency of LEDs with different surface patterns.
• FIG. 12 is a graph of an extraction efficiency of LEDs with different surface patterns.
• FIG. 13 is a schematic representation of the Fourier transformation two LEDs having different patterned surfaces compared with the radiation emission spectrum of the LEDs.
• FIG. 14 is a graph of an extraction efficiency of LEDs having different surface patterns as a function of angle.
• FIG. 15 is a side view of an LED with a patterned surface and a phosphor layer on the patterned surface.
• FIG. 16 is a cross-sectional view of a multi-layer stack.
• FIG. 17 is a cross-sectional view of a multi-layer stack.
• FIG. 18 is a cross-sectional view of a multi-layer stack.
• FIG. 19 is a cross-sectional view of a multi-layer stack.
• FIG. 20 depicts a side view of a substrate removal process.
• FIG. 21 is a partial cross-sectional view of a multi-layer stack.
• FIG. 22 is a partial cross-sectional view of a multi-layer stack.
• FIG. 23 is a partial cross-sectional view of a multi-layer stack.
• FIG. 24 is a partial cross-sectional view of a multi-layer stack.
• FIG. 25 is a partial cross-sectional view of a multi-layer stack.
• FIG. 26 is a partial cross-sectional view of a multi-layer stack.
• FIG. 27 is a partial cross-sectional view of a multi-layer stack.
• FIG. 28 is a partial cross-sectional view of a multi-layer stack.
• FIG. 29 is a partial cross-sectional view of a multi-layer stack.
• FIG. 30 is a partial cross-sectional view of a multi-layer stack.
• FIG. 31 is a partial cross-sectional view of a multi-layer stack.
• FIG. 32 is a partial cross-sectional view of a multi-layer stack.
• FIG. 33 is a partial cross-sectional view of a multi-layer stack.
• FIG. 34 is a partial cross-sectional view of a multi-layer stack.
• Like reference symbols in the various drawings indicate like elements.
DETAILED DESCRIPTION
• FIG. 1 is a schematic representation of a light-emittingsystem50 that has anarray60 ofLEDs100 incorporated therein.Array60 is configured so that, during use, light that emerges from LEDs100 (see discussion below) emerges fromsystem50 viasurface55.
• Examples of light-emitting systems include projectors (e.g., rear projection projectors, front projection projectors), portable electronic devices (e.g., cell phones, personal digital assistants, laptop computers), computer monitors, large area signage (e.g., highway signage), vehicle interior lighting (e.g., dashboard lighting), vehicle exterior lighting (e.g., vehicle headlights, including color changeable headlights), general lighting (e.g., office overhead lighting), high brightness lighting (e.g., streetlights), camera flashes, medical devices (e.g., endoscopes), telecommunications (e.g. plastic fibers for short range data transfer), security sensing (e.g. biometrics), integrated optoelectronics (e.g., intrachip and interchip optical interconnects and optical clocking), military field communications (e.g., point to point communications), biosensing (e.g. photo-detection of organic or inorganic substances), photodynamic therapy (e.g. skin treatment), night-vision goggles, solar powered transit lighting, emergency lighting, airport runway lighting, airline lighting, surgical goggles, wearable light sources (e.g. life-vests). An example of a rear projection projector is a rear projector television. An example of a front projection projector is a projector for displaying on a surface, such as a screen or a wall. In some embodiments, a laptop computer can include a front projection projector.
• Typically,surface55 is formed of a material that transmits at least about 20% (e.g., at least about 30%, at least about 40%, at least about 50%, at least about 60%, at least about 70%, at least about 80%, at least about 90%, at least about 95%) of the light that emerges fromLEDs100 and impinges onsurface55. Examples of materials from which surface55 can be formed include glass, silica, quartz, plastic and polymers.
• In some embodiments, it may be desirable for the light that emerges (e.g., total light intensity, light intensity as a function of wavelength, and/or peak emission wavelength) from eachLED100 to be substantially the same. An example is time-sequencing of substantially monochromatic sources (e.g. LEDs) in display applications (e.g., to achieve vibrant full-color displays). Another example is in telecommunications where it can be advantageous for an optical system to have a particular wavelength of light travel from the source to the light guide, and from the light guide to the detector. A further example is vehicle lighting where color indicates signaling. An additional example is in medical applications (e.g., photosensitive drug activation or biosensing applications, where wavelength or color response can be advantageous).
• In certain embodiments, it may be desirable for the light that emerges (e.g., total light intensity, light intensity as a function of wavelength, and/or peak emission wavelength) from at least some ofLEDs100 to be different from the light that emerges (e.g., total light intensity, light intensity as a function of wavelength, and/or peak emission wavelength) fromdifferent LEDs100. An example is in general lighting (e.g., where multiple wavelengths can improve the color rendering index (CRI)). CRI is a measurement of the amount of color shift that objects undergo when lighted by the light-emitting system as compared with the color of those same objects when seen under a reference lighting system (e.g., daylight) of comparable correlated temperature. Another example is in camera flashes (e.g., where substantially high CRI, such as substantially close to the CRI of noontime sunlight, is desirable for a realistic rendering of the object or subject being photographed). A further example is in medical devices (e.g., where substantially consistent CRI is advantageous for tissue, organ, fluid, etc. differentiation and/or identification). An additional example is in backlighting displays (e.g., where certain CRI white light is often more pleasing or natural to the human eye).
• Although depicted inFIG. 1 as being in the form of an array,LEDs100 can be configured differently. As an example, in some embodiments,system50 includes asingle LED100. As another example, in certain embodiments, the array is curved to help angularly direct the light from various sources onto the same point (e.g., an optic such as a lens). As a further example, in some embodiments, the array of devices is hexagonally distributed to allow for close-packing and high effective surface brightness. As an additional example, in certain embodiments, the devices are distributed around a mirror (e.g., a dichroic mirror) that combines or reflects light from the LEDs in the array.
• InFIG. 1 the light that emerges fromLEDs100 is shown as traveling directly fromLEDs100 to surface55. However, in some embodiments, the light that emerges fromLEDs100 can travel an indirect path fromLEDs100 to surface55. As an example, in some embodiments,system50 includes asingle LED100. As another example, in certain embodiments, light fromLEDs100 is focused onto a microdisplay (e.g., onto a light valve such as a digital light processor (DLP) or a liquid crystal display (LCD)). As a further example, in some embodiments, light is directed through various optics, mirrors or polarizers (e.g., for an LCD). As an additional example, in certain embodiments, light is projected through primary or secondary optics, such as, for example, a lens or a set of lenses.
• FIG. 2 shows a side view of anLED100 in the form of a packaged die.LED100 includes amulti-layer stack122 disposed on asubmount120.Multi-layer stack122 includes a 320 nm thick silicon doped (n-doped)GaN layer134 having a pattern ofopenings150 in itsupper surface110.Multi-layer stack122 also includes abonding layer124, a 100 nmthick silver layer126, a 40 nm thick magnesium doped (p-doped)GaN layer128, a 120 nm thick light-generatingregion130 formed of multiple InGaN/GaN quantum wells, and aAlGaN layer132. An n-side contact pad136 is disposed onlayer134, and a p-side contact pad138 is disposed onlayer126. An encapsulant material (epoxy having an index of refraction of 1.5)144 is present betweenlayer134 and acover slip140 and supports142.Layer144 does not extend intoopenings150.
• Light is generated byLED100 as follows. P-side contact pad138 is held at a positive potential relative to n-side contact pad136, which causes electrical current to be injected intoLED100. As the electrical current passes through light-generatingregion130, electrons from n-dopedlayer134 combine inregion130 with holes from p-dopedlayer128, which causesregion130 to generate light. Light-generatingregion130 contains a multitude of point dipole radiation sources that emit light (e.g., isotropically) within theregion130 with a spectrum of wavelengths characteristic of the material from which light-generatingregion130 is formed. For InGaN/GaN quantum wells, the spectrum of wavelengths of light generated byregion130 can have a peak wavelength of about 445 nanometers (nm) and a full width at half maximum (FWHM) of about 30 nm.
• It is to be noted that the charge carriers in p-dopedlayer126 have relatively low mobility compared to the charge carriers in the n-dopedsemiconductor layer134. As a result, placing silver layer126 (which is conductive) along the surface of p-dopedlayer128 can enhance the uniformity of charge injection fromcontact pad138 into p-dopedlayer128 and light-generatingregion130. This can also reduce the electrical resistance ofdevice100 and/or increase the injection efficiency ofdevice100. Because of the relatively high charge carrier mobility of the n-dopedlayer134, electrons can spread relatively quickly from n-side contact pad136 throughoutlayers132 and134, so that the current density within the light-generatingregion130 is substantially uniform across theregion130. It is also to be noted thatsilver layer126 has relatively high thermal conductivity, allowinglayer126 to act as a heat sink for LED100 (to transfer heat vertically from themulti-layer stack122 to submount120).
• At least some of the light that is generated byregion130 is directed towardsilver layer126. This light can be reflected bylayer126 and emerge fromLED100 viasurface110, or can be reflected bylayer126 and then absorbed within the semiconductor material inLED100 to produce an electron-hole pair that can combine inregion130, causingregion130 to generate light. Similarly, at least some of the light that is generated byregion130 is directed towardpad136. The underside ofpad136 is formed of a material (e.g., a Ti/Al/Ni/Au alloy) that can reflect at least some of the light generated by light-generatingregion130. Accordingly, the light that is directed to pad136 can be reflected bypad136 and subsequently emerge fromLED100 via surface110 (e.g., by being reflected from silver layer126), or the light that is directed to pad136 can be reflected bypad136 and then absorbed within the semiconductor material inLED100 to produce an electron-hole pair that can combine inregion130, causingregion130 to generate light (e.g., with or without being reflected by silver layer126).
• As shown inFIGS. 2 and 3,surface110 ofLED100 is not flat but consists of a modified triangular pattern ofopenings150. In general, various values can be selected for the depth ofopenings150, the diameter ofopenings150 and the spacing between nearest neighbors inopenings150 can vary. Unless otherwise noted, for purposes of the figures below showing the results of numerical calculations,openings150 have adepth146 equal to about 280 nm, a non-zero diameter of about 160 nm, a spacing between nearest neighbors or about 220 nm, and an index of refraction equal to 1.0. The triangular pattern is detuned so that the nearest neighbors inpattern150 have a center-to-center distance with a value between (a−Δa) and (a+Δa), where “a” is the lattice constant for an ideal triangular pattern and “Δa” is a detuning parameter with dimensions of length and where the detuning can occur in random directions. To enhance light extraction from LED100 (see discussion below), detuning parameter, Δa, is generally at least about one percent (e.g., at least about two percent, at least about three percent, at least about four percent, at least about five percent) of ideal lattice constant, a, and/or at most about 25% (e.g., at most about 20%, at most about 15%, at most about 10%) of ideal lattice constant, a. In some embodiments, the nearest neighbor spacings vary substantially randomly between (a−Δa) and (a+Δa), such thatpattern150 is substantially randomly detuned.
• For the modified triangular pattern ofopenings150, it has been found that a non-zero detuning parameter enhances the extraction efficiency of anLED100. ForLED100 described above, as the detuning parameter Δa increases from zero to about 0.15 a, numerical modeling (described below) of the electromagnetic fields in theLED100 has shown that the extraction efficiency of the device increases from about 0.60 to about 0.70, as shown inFIG. 4.
• The extraction efficiency data shown inFIG. 4 are calculated by using a three-dimensional finite-difference time-domain (FDTD) method to approximate solutions to Maxwell's equations for the light within and outside ofLED100. See, for example, K. S. Kunz and R. J. Luebbers,The Finite-Difference Time-Domain Methods(CRC, Boca Raton, Fla., 1993); A. Taflove,Computational Electrodynamics: The Finite-Difference Time-Domain Method(Artech House, London, 1995), both of which are hereby incorporated by reference. To represent the optical behavior ofLED100 with aparticular pattern150, input parameters in a FDTD calculation include the center frequency and bandwidth of the light emitted by the point dipole radiation sources in light-generatingregion130, the dimensions and dielectric properties of the layers withinmultilayer stack122, and the diameters, depths, and nearest neighbor distances (NND) between openings inpattern150.
• In certain embodiments, extraction efficiency data forLED100 are calculated using an FDTD method as follows. The FDTD method is used to solve the full-vector time-dependent Maxwell's equations:$\overrightarrow{\nabla }\times \overrightarrow{E}=-\mu \frac{\partial \overrightarrow{H}}{\partial t},\overrightarrow{\nabla }\times \overrightarrow{H}={\varepsilon }_{\infty }\frac{\partial \overrightarrow{E}}{\partial t}+\frac{\partial \overrightarrow{P}}{\partial t},$
  where the polarizability {right arrow over (P)}={right arrow over (P)}₁+{right arrow over (P)}₂+ . . . +{right arrow over (P)}_mcaptures the frequency-dependent response of the quantum well light-generatingregion130, the p-contact layer126 and other layers withinLED100. The individual {right arrow over (P)}_mterms are empirically derived values of different contributions to the overall polarizability of a material (e.g., the polarization response for bound electron oscillations, the polarization response for free electron oscillations). In particular,$\frac{{<figure-callout\; label="d"\; filenames="US20070020790A1-20070125-D00006.png,US20070020790A1-20070125-D00007.png"\; state="\{\{state\}\}">d</figure-callout>}^2{\overrightarrow{P}}_m}{<figure-callout\; label="d\; t"\; filenames="US20070020790A1-20070125-D00006.png,US20070020790A1-20070125-D00007.png"\; state="\{\{state\}\}">d</figure-callout>t^{}{}^2}+{\gamma }_m\frac{d{\overrightarrow{P}}_m}{dt}+{\omega }_m^2{\overrightarrow{P}}_m=\varepsilon \left(\omega \right)\overrightarrow{E},$
  where the polarization corresponds to a dielectric constant$\varepsilon \left(\omega \right)={\varepsilon }_{\infty }+\sum _m^{}\frac{s_m}{{\omega }_m^2-{\omega }^2-i{\gamma }_m\omega }.$
• For purposes of the numerical calculations, the only layers that are considered are encapsulant144,silver layer126 and layers betweenencapsulant144 andsilver layer126. This approximation is based on the assumption thatencapsulant144 andlayer126 are thick enough so that surrounding layers do not influence the optical performance ofLED100. The relevant structures withinLED100 that are assumed to have a frequency dependent dielectric constant aresilver layer126 and light-generatingregion130. The other relevant layers withinLED100 are assumed to not have frequency dependent dielectric constants. It is to be noted that in embodiments in whichLED100 includes additional metal layers betweenencapsulant144 andsilver layer126, each of the additional metal layers will have a corresponding frequency dependent dielectric constant. It is also to be noted that silver layer126 (and any other metal layer in LED100) has a frequency dependent term for both bound electrons and free electrons, whereas light-generatingregion130 has a frequency dependent term for bound electrons but does not have a frequency dependent term for free electrons. In certain embodiments, other terms can be included when modeling the frequency dependence of the dielectric constant. Such terms may include, for example, electron-phonon interactions, atomic polarizations, ionic polarizations and/or molecular polarizations.
• The emission of light from the quantum well region of light-generatingregion130 is modeled by incorporating a number of randomly-placed, constant-current dipole sources within the light-generatingregion130, each emitting short Gaussian pulses of spectral width equal to that of the actual quantum well, each with random initial phase and start-time.
• To cope with the pattern ofopenings150 insurface110 of theLED100, a large supercell in the lateral direction is used, along with periodic boundary conditions. This can assist in simulating relatively large (e.g., greater than 0.01 mm on edge) device sizes. The full evolution equations are solved in time, long after all dipole sources have emitted their energy, until no energy remains in the system. During the simulation, the total energy emitted, the energy flux extracted throughtop surface110, and the energy absorbed by the quantum wells and the n-doped layer is monitored. Through Fourier transforms both in time and space, frequency and angle resolved data of the extracted flux are obtained, and therefore an angle- and frequency-resolved extraction efficiency can be calculated. By matching the total energy emitted with the experimentally known luminescence of light-generatingregion130, absolute angle-resolved extraction in lumens/per solid angle/per chip area for given electrical input is obtained.
• Without wishing to be bound by theory, it is believed that thedetuned pattern150 can enhance the efficiency with which light generated inregion130 emerges fromLED100 viasurface110 becauseopenings150 create a dielectric function that varies spatially inlayer134 according topattern150. It is believed that this alters the density of radiation modes (i.e., light modes that emerge from surface110) and guided modes (i.e., light modes that are confined within multi-layer stack122) withinLED100, and that this alteration to the density of radiation modes and guided modes withinLED100 results in some light that would otherwise be emitted into guided modes in the absence ofpattern150 being scattered (e.g., Bragg scattered) into modes that can leak into radiation modes. In certain embodiments, it is believed that pattern150 (e.g., the pattern discussed above, or one of the patterns discussed below) can eliminate all of the guided modes withinLED100.
• It is believed that the effect of detuning of the lattice can be understood by considering Bragg scattering off of a crystal having point scattering sites. For a perfect lattice arranged in lattice planes separated by a distance d, monochromatic light of wavelength λ is scattered through an angle θ according to the Bragg condition, nλ=2d sin θ, where n is an integer that gives the order of the scattering. However, it is believed that for a light source having a spectral bandwidth Δλ/λ and emitting into a solid angle ΔΘ, the Bragg condition can be relaxed by detuning the spacing of between lattice sites by a detuning parameter Δa. It is believed that detuning the lattice increases the scattering effectiveness and angular acceptance of the pattern over the spectral bandwidth and spatial emission profile of the source.
• While a modifiedtriangular pattern150 having a non-zero detuning parameter Δa has been described that can enhance light extraction fromLED100, other patterns can also be used to enhance light extraction fromLED100. When determining whether a given pattern enhances light extraction fromLED100 and/or what pattern of openings may be used to enhance light extraction fromLED100, physical insight may first be used to approximate a basic pattern that can enhance light extraction before conducting such numerical calculations.
• The extraction efficiency ofLED100 can be further understood (e.g., in the weak scattering regime) by considering the Fourier transform of the dielectric function that varies spatially according topattern150.FIG. 5 depicts the Fourier transform for an ideal triangular lattice. Extraction of light into a particular direction with in-plane wavevector k is related to the source emission S_k′ into all those modes with in-plane wavevector k′ (i.e. parallel to pattern150) that are compatible to k by the addition or subtraction of a reciprocal lattice vector G, i.e k=k′±G. The extraction efficiency is proportional to the magnitude of the corresponding Fourier component (F_k) of the dielectric function ε_Ggiven by$F_{\overrightarrow{k}}=c_{\overrightarrow{k}}\stackrel{}{\sum _{\stackrel{->}{G}}}{\varepsilon }_{\overrightarrow{G}}{S}_{\overrightarrow{k}-\overrightarrow{G}},{\varepsilon }_{\overrightarrow{G}}=\int \varepsilon \left(\overrightarrow{r}\right)e^{-i\overrightarrow{G}\overrightarrow{r}}d\overrightarrow{r}$
• Since light propagating in the material generally satisfies the equation k²(in-plane)+k²(normal)=ε(ω/c)², the maximum G to be considered is fixed by the frequency (ω) emitted by the light-generating region and the dielectric constant of the light-generating region. As shown inFIG. 5, this defines a ring in reciprocal space which is often called the light line. The light line will be an annulus due to the finite bandwidth of the light-generating region but for sake of clarity we illustrate the light line of a monochromatic source. Similarly, light propagating within the encapsulant is bounded by a light line (the inner circle inFIG. 5). Therefore, the extraction efficiency is improved by increasing F_kfor all directions k that lie within the encapsulant light-line which amounts to increasing the number of G points within the encapsulant light line and increasing the scattering strength ε_Gfor G points which lie within the material light line. This physical insight can be used when selecting patterns that can improve extraction efficiency.
• As an example,FIG. 6 shows the effect of increasing lattice constant for an ideal triangular pattern. The data shown inFIG. 6 are calculated using the parameters given forLED100 shown inFIG. 2, except that the emitted light has a peak wavelength of 450 nm, and the depth of the holes, the diameter of the holes, and the thickness of the n-dopedlayer134 scale with the nearest neighbor distance, a, as 1.27 a, 0.72 a, and 1.27 a+40 nm, respectively. Increasing the lattice constant, increases the density of G points within the light-line of the encapsulant. A clear trend in extraction efficiency with NND is observed. It is believed that the maximum extraction efficiency occurs for NND approximately equal to the wavelength of light in vacuum. The reason a maximum is achieved, is that as the NND becomes much larger than the wavelength of light, the scattering effect is reduced because the material becomes more uniform.
• As another example,FIG. 7 shows the effect of increasing hole size or filling factor. The filling factor for a triangular pattern is given by (2π/√3)*(r/a)², where r is the radius of a hole. The data shown inFIG. 7 are calculated using the parameters given for theLED100 shown inFIG. 2, except that the diameter of the openings is changed according the filling factor value given on the x-axis of the graph. The extraction efficiency increases with filling factor as the scattering strengths (ε_G) increase. A maximum is observed for this particular system at a filling factor of ˜48%. In certain embodiments,LED100 has a filling factor of at least about 10% (e.g., at least about 15%, at least about 20%) and/or at most about 90% (e.g., at most about 80%, at most about 70%, at most about 60%).
• While a modified triangular pattern has been described in which a detuning parameter relates to positioning of openings in the pattern from the positions in an ideal triangular lattice, a modified (detuned) triangular pattern may also be achieved by modifying the holes in an ideal triangular pattern while keeping the centers at the positions for an ideal triangular pattern.FIG. 8 shows an embodiment of such a pattern. The enhancement in light extraction, the methodology for conducting the corresponding numerical calculation, and the physical explanation of the enhanced light extraction for a light-emitting device having the pattern shown inFIG. 8 is generally the same as described above. In some embodiments, a modified (detuned) pattern can have openings that are displaced from the ideal locations and openings at the ideal locations but with varying diameters.
• In other embodiments, enhanced light extraction from a light-emitting device can be achieved by using different types of patterns, including, for example, complex periodic patterns and nonperiodic patterns. As referred to herein, a complex periodic pattern is a pattern that has more than one feature in each unit cell that repeats in a periodic fashion. Examples of complex periodic patterns include honeycomb patterns, honeycomb base patterns, (2×2) base patterns, ring patterns, and Archimidean patterns. As discussed below, in some embodiments, a complex periodic pattern can have certain openings with one diameter and other openings with a smaller diameter. As referred to herein, a nonperiodic pattern is a pattern that has no translational symmetry over a unit cell that has a length that is at least 50 times the peak wavelength of light generated byregion130. Examples of nonperiodic patterns include aperiodic patterns, quasicrystalline patterns, Robinson patterns, and Amman patterns.
• FIG. 9 shows numerical calculations forLED100 for two different complex periodic patterns in which certain openings in the patterns have a particular diameter, and other openings in the patterns have smaller diameters. The numerical calculations represented inFIG. 9 show the behavior of the extraction efficiency (larger holes with a diameter of 80 nm) as the diameter of the smaller holes (dR) is varied from zero nm to 95 nm. The data shown inFIG. 7 are calculated using the parameters given for theLED100 shown inFIG. 2 except that the diameter of the openings is changed according the filling factor value given on the x-axis of the graph. Without wishing to be bound by theory, multiple hole sizes allow scattering from multiple periodicities within the pattern, therefore increasing the angular acceptance and spectral effectiveness of the pattern. The enhancement in light extraction, the methodology for conducting the corresponding numerical calculation, and the physical explanation of the enhanced light extraction for a light-emitting device having the pattern shown inFIG. 9 is generally the same as described above.
• FIG. 20 hows numerical calculations forLED100 having different ring patterns (complex periodic patterns). The number of holes in the first ring surrounding the central hole is different (six, eight or 10) for the different ring patterns. The data shown inFIG. 10 are calculated using the parameters given for theLED100 shown inFIG. 2, except that the emitted light has a peak wavelength of 450 nm. The numerical calculations represented inFIG. 10 show the extraction efficiency ofLED100 as the number of ring patterns per unit cell that is repeated across a unit cell is varied from two to four. The enhancement in light extraction, the methodology for conducting the corresponding numerical calculation, and the physical explanation of the enhanced light extraction for a light-emitting device having the pattern shown inFIG. 10 is generally the same as described above.
• FIG. 11 shows numerical calculations forLED100 having an Archimidean pattern. The Archimedean pattern A7 consists ofhexagonal unit cells230 of 7 equally-spaced holes with a nearest neighbor distance of a. Within aunit cell230, six holes are arranged in the shape of a regular hexagon and the seventh hole is located at the center of the hexagon. Thehexagonal unit cells230 then fit together along their edges with a center-to-center spacing between the unit cells of a′=a*(1+√{square root over (3)}) to pattern the entire surface of the LED. This is known as an A7 tiling, because 7 holes make up the unit cell. Similarly, the Archimidean tiling A19 consists of 19 equally-spaced holes with a NND of a. The holes are arranged in the form of an inner hexagon of seven holes, and outer hexagon of 12 holes, and a central hole within the inner hexagon. Thehexagonal unit cells230 then fit together along their edges with a center-to-center spacing between the unit cells of a′=a*(3+√{square root over (3)}) to pattern the entire surface of the LED. The enhancement in light extraction, the methodology for conducting the corresponding numerical calculation, and the physical explanation of the enhanced light extraction for a light-emitting device having the pattern shown inFIG. 11 is generally the same as described above. As shown inFIG. 11 the extraction efficiency for A7 and A19 is about 77%. The data shown inFIG. 11 are calculated using the parameters given for theLED100 shown inFIG. 2, except that the emitted light has a peak wavelength of 450 and except that the NND is defined as the distance between openings within an individual cell.
• FIG. 12 shows numerical calculation data forLED100 having a quasicrystalline pattern. Quasicrystalline patterns are described, for example, in M. Senechal,Quasicrystals and Geometry(Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England 1996), which is hereby incorporated by reference. The numerical calculations show the behavior of the extraction efficiency as the class of 8-fold based quasi-periodic structure is varied. It is believed that quasicrystalline patterns exhibit high extraction efficiency due to high degree of in-plane rotational symmetries allowed by such structures. The enhancement in light extraction, the methodology for conducting the corresponding numerical calculation, and the physical explanation of the enhanced light extraction for a light-emitting device having the pattern shown inFIG. 12 is generally the same as described above. Results from FDTD calculations shown inFIG. 12 indicate that the extraction efficiency of quasicrystalline structures reaches about 82%. The data shown inFIG. 12 are calculated using the parameters given for theLED100 shown inFIG. 2, except that the emitted light has a peak wavelength of 450 and except that the NND is defined as the distance between openings within an individual cell.
• While certain examples of patterns have been described herein, it is believed that other patterns can also enhance the light extraction fromLED100 if the patterns satisfy the basic principles discussed above. For example, it is believed that adding detuning to quasicrystalline or complex periodic structures can increase extraction efficiency.
• In some embodiments, at least about 45% (e.g., at least about 50%, at least about 55%, at least about 60%, at least about 70%, at least about 80%, at least about 90%, at least about 95%) of the total amount of light generated by light-generatingregion130 that emerges fromLED100 emerges viasurface110.
• In certain embodiments, the cross-sectional area ofLED100 can be relatively large, while still exhibiting efficient light extraction fromLED100. For example, one or more edges ofLED100 can be at least about one millimeter (e.g., at least about 1.5 millimeters, at least about two millimeters, at least about 2.5 millimeters, at least about three millimeters), and at least about 45% (e.g., at least about 50%, at least about 55%, at least about 60%, at least about 70%, at least about 80%, at least about 90%, at least about 95%) of the total amount of light generated by light-generatingregion130 that emerges fromLED100 emerges viasurface110. This can allow for an LED to have a relatively large cross-section (e.g., at least about one millimeter by at least about one millimeter) while exhibiting good power conversion efficiency.
• In some embodiments, the extraction efficiency of an LED having the design ofLED100 is substantially independent of the length of the edge of the LED. For example, the difference between the extraction efficiency of an LED having the design ofLED100 and one or more edges having a length of about 0.25 millimeter and the extraction efficiency of LED having the design ofLED100 and one or more edges having a length of one millimeter can vary by less than about 10% (e.g., less than about 8%, less than about 5%, less than about 3%). As referred to herein, the extraction efficiency of an LED is the ratio of the light emitted by the LED to the amount of light ls generated by the device (which can be measured in terms of energy or photons). This can allow for an LED to have a relatively large cross-section (e.g., at least about one millimeter by at least about one millimeter) while exhibiting good power conversion efficiency.
• In certain embodiments, the quantum efficiency of an LED having the design ofLED100 is substantially independent of the length of the edge of the LED. For example, the difference between the quantum efficiency of an LED having the design ofLED100 and one or more edges having a length of about 0.25 millimeter and the quantum efficiency of LED having the design ofLED100 and one or more edges having a length of one millimeter can vary by less than about 10% (e.g., less than about 8%, less than about 5%, less than about 3%). As referred to herein, the quantum efficiency of an LED is the ratio of the number of photons generated by the LED to the number of electron-hole recombinations that occur in the LED. This can allow for an LED to have a relatively large cross-section (e.g., at least about one millimeter by at least about one millimeter) while exhibiting good performance.
• In some embodiments, the wall plug efficiency of an LED having the design ofLED100 is substantially independent of the length of the edge of the LED. For example, the difference between the wall plug efficiency of an LED having the design ofLED100 and one or more edges having a length of about 0.25 millimeter and the wall plug efficiency of LED having the design ofLED100 and one or more edges having a length of one millimeter can vary by less than about 10% (e.g., less than about 8%, less than about 5%, less than about 3%). As referred to herein, the wall plug efficiency of an LED is the product of the injection efficiency of the LED (the ratio of the numbers of carriers injected into the device to the number of carriers that recombine in the light-generating region of the device), the radiative efficiency of the LED (the ratio of electron-hole recombinations that result in a radiative event to the total number of electron-hole recombinations), and the extraction efficiency of the LED (the ratio of photons that are extracted from the LED to the total number of photons created). This can allow for an LED to have a relatively large cross-section (e.g., at least about one millimeter by at least about one millimeter) while exhibiting good performance.
• In some embodiments, it may be desirable to manipulate the angular distribution of light that emerges fromLED100 viasurface110. To increase extraction efficiency into a given solid angle (e.g., into a solid angle around the direction normal to surface110) we examine the Fourier transform of the dielectric function that varies spatially according to pattern150 (as described earlier).FIG. 13 shows the Fourier transform construction for two ideal triangular lattices of different lattice constant. To increase the extraction efficiency, we seek to increase the number of G points within the encapsulant light line and scattering strengths of G points (ε_G) within the material light line. This would imply increasing the NND so as to achieve the effect depicted inFIG. 6. However, here we are concerned with increasing the extraction efficiency into a solid angle centered around the normal direction. Therefore, we would also like to limit the introduction of higher order G points by reducing the radius of the encapsulant light line, such that the magnitude of G>(ω(n_e))/c. We can see that by decreasing the index of refraction of the encapsulant (the bare minimum of which is removing the encapsulant all together) we allow larger NND and therefore increase the number of G points within the material light line that are available to contribute to extraction in the normal direction (F_k=0) while simultaneously avoiding diffraction into higher order (oblique angles) in the encapsulant. The above described trends are depicted inFIG. 14 which shows extraction efficiency into a solid angle (given by the collection half-angle in the diagram). The data shown inFIG. 14 are calculated using the parameters given for theLED100 shown inFIG. 2, except that the emitted light has a peak wavelength of 530 nm and a bandwidth of 34 nm, the index of refraction of the encapsulant was 1.0, the thickness of the p-doped layer was 160 nm, the light generating layer was 30 nm thick, the NND (a) for the three curves is shown onFIG. 14, and the depth, hole diameter, and n-doped layer thickness scaled with a, as 1.27 a, 0.72 a, and 1.27 a+40 nm, respectively. As the lattice constant is increased, the extraction efficiency at narrow angles increases as well as the overall extraction efficiency into all angles. However, for even larger lattice constant, diffraction into higher order modes in the encapsulant limits the extraction efficiency at narrow angles even though the overall extraction efficiency increases into all angles. For a lattice constant of 460 nm, we calculate greater than 25% extraction efficiency into a collection half-angle of 30°. That is, about half of the extracted light is collected within only about 13.4% of the upper hemisphere of solid angle demonstrating the collimation effect of the pattern. It is believed that any pattern that increases the number of G points within the material light line while limiting the number of G points within the encapsulant light line to only the G points at k=0 can improve the extraction efficiency into a solid angle centered around the normal direction.
• The approach is especially applicable for reducing the source etendue which is believed to often be proportional to n², where n is the index of refraction of the surrounding material (e.g., the encapsulant). It is therefore believed that reducing the index of refraction of the encapsulating layer forLED100 can lead to more collimated emission, a lower source etendue, and therefore to a higher surface brightness (here defined as the total lumens extracted into the etendue of the source). In some embodiments then, using an encapsulant of air will reduce the source etendue while increasing extraction efficiency into a given collection angle centered around the normal direction.
• In certain embodiments, when light generated byregion130 emerges fromLED100 viasurface110, the distribution of light is more collimated than a lambertian distribution. For example, in some embodiments, when light generated byregion130 emerges fromLED100 viasurface110, at least about 40% (e.g., at least about 50%, at least about 70%, at least about 90%) of the light emerging via the surface of the dielectric layer emerges within at most about 30° (e.g., at most about 25°, at most about 20°, at most about 15°) of an angle normal tosurface110.
• The ability to extract a relatively high percentage of light from a desired angle alone or coupled with a relatively high light extraction can allow for a relatively high density of LEDs to be prepared on a given wafer. For example, in some embodiments, a wafer has at least about five LEDs (e.g., at least about 25 LEDs, at least about 50 LEDs) per square centimeter.
• In some embodiments, it may be desirable to modify the wavelength(s) of light that emerge(s) from a packagedLED100 relative to the wavelength(s) of light generated by light-generatingregion130. For example, as shown inFIG. 15, anLED300 having a layer containing aphosphor material180 can be disposed onsurface110. The phosphor material can interact with light at the wavelength(s) generated byregion130 to provide light at desired wavelength(s). In some embodiments, it may be desirable for the light that emerges from packagedLED100 to be substantially white light. In such embodiments, the phosphor material inlayer180 can be formed of, for example, a (Y,Gd)(Al,Ga)G:Ce³⁺ or “YAG” (yttrium, aluminum, garnet) phosphor. When pumped by blue light emitted from the light-generatingregion130, the phosphor material inlayer180 can be activated and emit light (e.g., isotropically) with a broad spectrum centered around yellow wavelengths. A viewer of the total light spectrum emerging from packagedLED100 sees the yellow phosphor broad emission spectrum and the blue InGaN narrow emission spectrum and typically mixes the two spectra to perceive white.
• In certain embodiments,layer180 can be substantially uniformly disposed onsurface10. For example, the distance between the top151 ofpattern150 and the top181 oflayer180 can vary by less than about 20% (e.g., less than about 10%, less than about 5%, less than about 2%) acrosssurface110.
• In general, the thickness oflayer180 is small compared to the cross-sectional dimensions ofsurface130 ofLED100, which are typically about one millimeter (mm) by one mm. Becauselayer180 is substantially uniformly deposited onsurface110, the phosphor material inlayer180 can be substantially uniformly pumped by light emerging viasurface110. Thephosphor layer180 is relatively thin compared to the dimensions of thesurface110 of theLED100, such that light emitted by the light-generatingregion130 is converted into lower wavelength light within thephosphor layer180 approximately uniformly over theentire surface110 ofLED100. Thus, the relatively thin,uniform phosphor layer180 produces a uniform spectrum of white light emitted from theLED100 as a function of position onsurface110.
• In general,LED100 can be fabricated as desired. Typically, fabrication ofLED100 involves various deposition, laser processing, lithography, and etching steps.
• For example,FIG. 16 shows aLED wafer500 containing an LED layer stack of material deposited on a substrate (e.g., sapphire, compound semiconductor, zinc oxide, silicon carbide, silicon)502. Such wafers are commercially available. Exemplary commercial suppliers include Epistar Corporation, Arima Optoelectronics Corporation and South Epitaxy Corporation. Onsubstrate502 are disposed, consecutively, a buffer layer504 (e.g., a nitride-containing layer, such as a GaN layer, an AlN layer, an AlGaN layer), an n-doped semiconductor layer (e.g., an n-doped Si:GaN)layer506, a current spreading layer508 (e.g., an AlGaN/GaN heterojunction or superlattice), a light-emitting region510 (e.g., an InGaN/GaN multi-quantum well region), and a semiconductor layer512 (e.g., a p-doped Mg:GaN layer).Wafer500 generally has a diameter of at least about two inches (e.g., from about two inches to about 12 inches, from about two inches to about six inches, from about two inches to about four inches, from about two inches to about three inches).
• FIG. 17 shows amulti-layer stack550 includinglayers502,504,506,508,510 and512, as well aslayers520,522,524 and526, which are generally formed of materials capable of being pressure and/or heat bonded as described below. For example,layer520 can be a nickel layer (e.g., electron-beam evaporated),layer522 can be a silver layer (e.g., electron-beam evaporated),layer524 can be a nickel layer (e.g., electron-beam evaporated), andlayer526 can be a gold layer (e.g., electron-beam evaporated). In some embodiments,layer520 can be a relatively thin layer, andlayer524 can be a relatively thick layer.Layer524 can act, for example, as diffusion barrier to reduce the diffusion of contaminants (e.g., gold) intolayers520,522 and/or524 itself. After deposition oflayers520,522,524 and526,multi-layer stack550 can be treated to achieve an ohmic contact. For example, stack550 can be annealed (e.g., at a temperature of from about 400° C. to about 600° C.) for a period of time (e.g., from about 30 seconds to about 300 seconds) in an appropriate gas environment (e.g., nitrogen, oxygen, air, forming gas).
• FIG. 18 shows amulti-layer stack600 that includes a submount (e.g., germanium (such as polycrystalline germanium), silicon (such as polycrystalline silicon), silicon-carbide, copper, copper-tungsten, diamond, nickel-cobalt)602 havinglayers604,606,608 and610 deposited thereon.Submount602 can be formed, for example, by sputtering or electroforming.Layer604 is a contact layer and can be formed, for example, from aluminum (e.g., electron evaporated).Layer606 is a diffusion barrier and can be formed, for example, from Ni (e.g. electron evaporated).Layer608 can be a gold layer (e.g., electron-beam evaporated), andlayer610 can be a AuSn bonding layer (e.g., thermal evaporated, sputtered) ontolayer608. After deposition oflayers604,606,608 and610,multi-layer stack600 can be treated to achieve an ohmic contact. For example, stack600 can be annealed (e.g., at a temperature of from about 350° C. to about 500° C.) for a period of time (e.g., from about 30 seconds to about 300 seconds) in an appropriate gas environment (e.g., nitrogen, oxygen, air, forming gas).
• FIG. 19 shows amulti-layer stack650 formed by bonding together layers526 and610 (e.g., using a solder bond, using a eutectic bond, using a peritectic bond).Layers526 and610 can be bonded, for example, using thermal-mechanical pressing. As an example, after contactinglayers526 and610,multi-layer stack650 can be put in a press and pressurized (e.g., using a pressure of up to about 5 MPa, up to about 2 MPa) heated (e.g., to a temperature of from about 200° C. to about 400° C.).Stack650 can then be cooled (e.g., to room temperature) and removed from the press.
• Substrate502 andbuffer layer504 are then at least partially removed fromstack650. In general, this can be achieved using any desired methods. For example, as shown inFIG. 20, in some embodiments,substrate502 is removed by exposing stack650 (e.g., throughsurface501 of substrate502) to electromagnetic radiation at an appropriate wavelength to partially decomposelayer504. It is believed that this results in local heating oflayer504, resulting in the partial decomposition of the material oflayer504 adjacent the interface oflayer504 andsubstrate502, thereby allowing for the removal ofsubstrate502 from stack650 (see discussion below). For example, in embodiments in whichlayer504 is formed of gallium nitride, it is believed that constituents including gallium and gaseous nitrogen are formed. In some embodiments, stack650 can be heated during exposure ofsurface501 to the electromagnetic radiation (e.g., to reduce strain within stack650).Stack650 can be heated, for example, by placingstack650 on a hot plate and/or by exposingstack650 to an additional laser source (e.g. a CO₂laser).Heating stack650 during exposure ofsurface501 to electromagnetic radiation can, for example, reduce (e.g., prevent) liquid gallium from re-solidifying. This can reduce the build up of strain withinstack650 which can occur upon the re-solidification of the gallium
• In certain embodiments, after exposure to the electromagnetic radiation, residual gallium is present and keepssubstrate502 bonded instack650. In such embodiments, stack650 can be heated to above the melting temperature of gallium to allowsubstrate502 to be removed from the stack. In certain embodiments, stack650 may be exposed to an etchant (e.g., a chemical etchant, such as HCl) to etch the residual gallium and removesubstrate502. Other methods of removing the residual gallium (e.g., physical methods) may also be used.
• As an example, in certain embodiments,surface501 is exposed to laser radiation including the absorption wavelength of layer504 (e.g., about 248 nanometers, about 355 nanometers). Laser radiation processes are disclosed, for example, in U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,420,242 and 6,071,795, which are hereby incorporated by reference. The multi-layer stack is then heated to above the melting point of gallium, at whichpoint substrate502 andbuffer layer504 are removed from the stack by applying a lateral force to substrate502 (e.g., using a cotton swab).
• In some embodiments, multiple portions ofsurface501 are simultaneously exposed to the electromagnetic radiation. In certain embodiments, multiple portions ofsurface501 are sequentially exposed to electromagnetic radiation. Combinations of simultaneous and sequential exposure can be used. Further, the electromagnetic radiation can be exposed onsurface501 in the form of a pattern (e.g., a serpentine pattern, a circular pattern, a spiral pattern, a grid, a grating, a triangular pattern, an elementary pattern, a random pattern, a complex pattern, a periodic pattern, a nonperiodic pattern). In some embodiments, the electromagnetic radiation can be rastered across one or more portions ofsurface501. In certain embodiments,surface501 is exposed to overlapping fields of electromagnetic radiation.
• In some embodiments, the electromagnetic radiation passes through a mask before reachingsurface501. As an example, the electromagnetic radiation can pass through an optical system that includes a mask (e.g., a high thermal conductivity mask, such as a molybdenum mask, a copper-beryllium mask) before reachingsurface501. In some embodiments, the mask is an aperture (e.g., for truncating or shaping the beam). The optical system can include, for example, at least two lenses having the mask disposed therebetween. As another example, the mask can be formed as a pattern of material onsurface501, with the mask leaving certain portions ofsurface501 exposed and some portions ofsurface501 unexposed. Such a mask can be formed, for example, via a lithography process. In some embodiments, the electromagnetic radiation can be rastered across one or more portions of the mask.
• Without wishing to be bound by theory, it is believed that reducing at least one dimension of the region onsurface501 exposed to electromagnetic radiation within a given area ofsurface501 can limit undesired crack propagation, such as crack propagation intolayer504,layer506 or other layers ofstack650 during removal ofsubstrate502, while still allowing for crack propagation at the interface betweensubstrate502 andbuffer layer504. It is believed that, if the size of the feature of the electromagnetic radiation onsurface501 is too large, then a gaseous bubble (e.g., a nitrogen bubble) may form that can create a localized pressure that can cause undesired cracking. For example, in embodiments in which surface501 is exposed to laser radiation that forms a spot or a line onsurface501, at least one dimension of the spot or line can be a maximum of at most about one millimeter (e.g., at most about 500 microns, at most about 100 microns, at most about 25 microns, at most about 10 microns). In some embodiments, the spot size is from about five microns to about one millimeter (e.g., from about five microns to about 100 microns, from about five microns to about 25 microns, from about five microns to about 10 microns).
• In certain embodiments,stack650 is vibrated whilesurface501 is exposed to the electromagnetic radiation. Without wishing to be bound by theory, it is believed that vibratingstack650 while exposingstack650 to the electromagnetic radiation can enhance crack propagation along the interface betweenlayer504 andsubstrate502. Generally, the conditions are selected to limit the propagation of cracks into layer504 (e.g., so that substantially no cracks propagate intolayer504,506, and the rest of stack650).
• After removal ofsubstrate502, a portion ofbuffer layer504 typically remains on at least a portion of the surface oflayer506. A residue of material from substrate502 (e.g., containing aluminum and/or oxygen) can also be present on the remaining portion ofbuffer layer504 and/or on the surface oflayer506. It is generally desirable to remove the remaining portions ofbuffer layer504 and any residue fromsubstrate502, to expose the surface oflayer506, and to clean the exposed surface oflayer506 because layer506 (which is typically formed of an n-doped semiconductor material) can exhibit good electrical properties (e.g., desirable contact resistance) for subsequent formation of an electrical contact. One or more process steps are usually used to remove any residue and/or remaining portion ofbuffer layer504 present, and to clean the surface of layer506 (e.g., to remove impurities, such as organics and/or particles). The process(es) can be performed using a variety of techniques and/or combinations of techniques. Examples include chemical-mechanical polishing, mechanical polishing, reactive ion etching (e.g., with a substantially chemically etching component), physical etching, and wet etching. Such methods are disclosed, for example, in Ghandhi, S.,VLSI Fabrication Principles: Silicon & Gallium Arsenide(1994), which is hereby incorporated by reference. In certain embodiments,buffer layer504 is not completely removed. Instead, in such embodiments, these processes can be used to remove only on portions ofbuffer layer504 that correspond to locations where electrical leads will subsequently be disposed (e.g., by using a self-aligned process).
• Often, whensubstrate502 is removed, the amount of strain in stack650 (e.g., due to the lattice mismatch and/or thermal mismatch between the layers in stack650) can change. For example, if the amount of strain instack650 is decreased, the peak output wavelength ofregion510 can change (e.g., increase). As another example, if the amount of strain instack650 is increased, the peak output wavelength ofregion510 can change (e.g., decrease).
• To limit undesired cracking during removal ofsubstrate502, in some embodiments, consideration is given to the coefficient of thermal expansion of bothsubstrate502, the coefficient of thermal expansion ofsubmount602, the combined thickness oflayers504,506,508,510, and512, and/or the coefficient of thermal expansion of one or more oflayers504,506,508,510, and512. As an example, in some embodiments,substrate502 andsubmount602 are selected so that the coefficient of thermal expansion ofsubmount602 differs from a coefficient of thermal expansion ofsubstrate502 by less than about 15% (e.g., less than about 10%, less than about 5%). As another example, in certain embodiments,substrate502 andsubmount602 are selected so that the thickness ofsubmount602 is substantially greater than the thickness ofsubstrate502. As an additional example, in some embodiments, semiconductor layers504,506,508,510,512 andsubmount602 are selected so that the coefficient of thermal expansion ofsubmount602 differs from a coefficient of thermal expansion of one or more oflayers504,506,608,510, and512 by less than about 15% (e.g., less than about 10%, less than about 5%).
• In general,substrate502 andsubmount602 can have any desired thickness. In some embodiments,substrate502 is at most about five millimeters (e.g., at most about three millimeters, at most about one millimeter, about 0.5 millimeter) thick. In certain embodiments,submount602 is at most about 10 millimeters (e.g., at most about five millimeters, at most about one millimeter, about 0.5 millimeter) thick. In some embodiments,submount602 is thicker thansubstrate502, and, in certain embodiments,substrate502 is thicker thansubmount602.
• After removal ofbuffer layer504 and exposing/cleaning the surface oflayer506, the thickness oflayer506 can be reduced to a desired final thickness for use in the light-emitting device. This can be achieved, for example, using a mechanical etching process, alone or in combination with an etching process. In some embodiments, after etching/cleaning the exposed surface oflayer506, the surface oflayer506 has a relatively high degree of flatness (e.g., a relatively high degree of flatness on the scale of the lithography reticle to be used). As an example, in some embodiments, after etching/cleaning the exposed surface oflayer506, the surface oflayer506 has a flatness of at most about 10 microns per 6.25 square centimeters (e.g., at most about five microns per 6.25 square centimeters, at most about one micron per 6.25 square centimeters). As another example, in certain embodiments, after etching/cleaning the exposed surface oflayer506, the surface oflayer506 has a flatness of at most about 10 microns per square centimeter (e.g., at most about five microns per square centimeter, at most about one microns per square centimeter). In certain embodiments, after etching/cleaning the exposed surface oflayer506, the surface oflayer506 has an RMS roughness of at most about 50 nanometers (e.g., at most about 25 nanometers, at most about 10 nanometers, at most about five nanometers, at most about one nanometer).
• In some embodiments, prior to forming the dielectric function that varies spatially according to a pattern in the surface oflayer506, the exposed surface oflayer506 may be too rough and/or insufficiently flat to use nanolithography to form the pattern with sufficient accuracy and/or reproducibility. To enhance the ability to accurately and/or reproducibly form the pattern in the surface oflayer506, the nanolithography process may include depositing a planarization layer on the surface oflayer506 and a lithography layer on the surface of the planarization layer. For example,FIG. 21 shows an embodiment in which aplanarization layer702 is disposed on the surface oflayer506, and alithography layer704 is disposed on the surface oflayer702, an exposed surface505 oflayer506 may be relatively rough (e.g., RMS roughness of about 10 nanometers or more) after cleaning/etching layer506. In some embodiments,planarization layer702 is formed of multiple layers (e.g., of the same material) that are sequentially deposited.
• Examples of materials from whichplanarization layer702 can be selected include polymers (e.g., DUV-30J from Brewer Sciences, anti-reflection coatings, high viscosity formable polymers), and examples of materials from whichlithography layer704 can be selected include UV-curable polymers (e.g., low viscosity MonoMat™ available from Molecular Imprints, Inc.).Layers702 and704 can be formed using any desired technique, such as, for example, spin coating, vapor deposition, and the like.
• Layer702 can be, for example, at least about 100 nanometers thick (e.g., at least about 500 nanometers thick) and/or at most about five microns thick (e.g., at most about one micron thick).Layer704 can be, for example, at least about one nanometer thick (e.g., at least about 10 nanometers thick) and/or at most about one micron thick (e.g., at most about 0.5 micron thick).
• A mold that defines a portion of the desired pattern is then pressed into lithography layer and (typically with heating or UV-curing of the mold and/or layer704), and stepped across the surface oflayer704 in a portion-by-portion manner to form indentions in layer704 (FIG. 22) that correspond to the desired pattern in the surface oflayer506. In some embodiments, a single step covers the entire wafer (e.g., full wafer nanolithography techniques)Layer704 is then etched (e.g., using reactive ion etching, wet etching) to expose portions of the surface oflayer702 corresponding to what were the indented portions of layer704 (FIG. 23). Examples of such imprint/etch processes are disclosed, for example, in U.S. Pat. No. 5,722,905, and Zhang et al.,Applied Physics Letters,Vol. 83, No. 8, pp. 1632-34, both of which are hereby incorporated by reference. Typically, the pattern inlayer704 also leaves regions for depositing n-contacts later on in the process flow. In alternate embodiments, other techniques (e.g., x-ray lithography, deep ultraviolet lithography, extreme ultraviolet lithography, immersion lithography, interference lithography, electron beam lithography, photolithography, microcontact printing, self-assembly techniques) may be used to create the pattern inlayer704.
• As shown inFIG. 24, patternedlayer704 is used as a mask to transfer the pattern into the planarization layer702 (e.g., dry etching, wet etching). An example of a dry etching method is reactive ion etching. Referring toFIG. 25,layers702 and704 are subsequently used as a mask to transfer the pattern into the surface of layer506 (e.g., using dry etching, wet etching). As shown inFIG. 26, following etching oflayer506, thelayers702 and704 are removed (e.g., using an oxygen-based reactive ion etch, a wet solvent etch).
• Referring toFIG. 27, in some embodiments, the process can include, disposing a material708 (e.g., a metal, such as aluminum, nickel, titanium, tungsten) in the etched portions oflayers702 and704 (e.g., by evaporation) and on the surface oflayer704. As shown inFIG. 28,layers702 and704 are then etched (e.g., using reactive ion etching, wet etching), leaving behind etch-resistant material708 on the surface oflayer506, which can serve as a mask for etching the pattern into the surface of layer506 (FIG. 29). Referring toFIG. 30, etchresistant material708 can then be removed (e.g., using dry etching, wet etching).
• In some embodiments, the process can include, after forming the indents inlayer704, disposing (e.g., spin coating) an etch resistant material (e.g., a Si-doped polymer)710 on the surface oflayer704 and in the indents inlayer704, andmaterial710 is then etched back (e.g., using dry etching) so that to expose the surface oflayer704 while maintaining the etch-resistant material in the indents in layer704 (FIG. 31). As shown inFIG. 32, portions oflayers702 and704 are then etched (e.g., using reactive ion etching, dry etching, wet etching), leaving behind etch-resistant material708 and the portions oflayers702 and704 undermaterial708, which serve as a mask for etching the pattern into the surface of layer506 (FIG. 33). Referring toFIG. 34, the remaining portions oflayers702 and704, as well as etchresistant material708, can then be removed (e.g., using reactive ion etching, dry etching, wet etching). In some embodiments, removinglayer708 can involve the use of a plasma process (e.g., a fluorine plasma process).
• After the pattern has been transferred to n-dopedlayer506, a layer of phosphor material can optionally be disposed (e.g., spin-coated) onto the patterned surface of n-dopedlayer506. In some embodiments, the phosphor can conformally coat the patterned surface (coat with substantially no voids present along the bottoms and sidewalls of the openings in the patterned surface). Alternatively, a layer of encapsulant material can be disposed on the surface of patterned n-doped layer506 (e.g. by CVD, sputtering, suspension by liquid binder that is subsequently evaporated). In some embodiments, the encapsulant can contain one or more phosphor materials. In some embodiments, the phosphor can be compressed to achieve thickness uniformity less than about 20%, less than about 15%, less than about 10%, less than about 5%, or less than about 2% of the average thickness of the phosphor. In some embodiments, the phosphor-containing encapsulant can conformally coat the patterned surface.
• After the dielectric function pattern has been created in the n-dopedlayer506, individual LED dice can be cut from the wafer. Once wafer processing and wafer testing is complete, individual LED dice are separated and prepared for packaging and testing. A sidewall passivation step and/or a pre-separation deep mesa etching step may be used to reduce potential damage to the electrical and/or optical properties of the patterned LED incurred during wafer cutting. The individual LEDs can be any size up to the size of the wafer itself, but individual LEDs are typically square or rectangular, with sides having a length between about 0.5 mm to 5 mm. To create the dice, standard photolithography is used to define the location of contact pads on the wafer for energizing the device, and ohmic contacts are evaporated (e.g. using electron beam evaporation) onto the desired locations.
• If an LED die is packaged, the package should generally be capable of facilitating light collection while also providing mechanical and environmental protection of the die. For example, a transparent cover can be packaged on the LED die to protect the patterned surface of the506 when an encapsulant is not used. The cover slip is attached tosupports142 using a glassy frit that is melted in a furnace. The opposite ends of the supports are connected using a cap weld or an epoxy for example. Supports are typically Ni-plated to facilitate welding to an Au plated surface of the package. It believed that the absence of an encapsulant layer allows higher tolerable power loads per unit area in the patternedsurface LED100. Degradation of the encapsulant can be a common failure mechanism for standard LEDs and is avoided not using an encapsulant layer.
• Because the LEDs are cut from a large area flat wafer, their light output per area does not decrease with area. Also, because the cross section of an individual LEDs cut from a wafer is only slightly larger than the light-emitting surface area of the LED, many individual, and separately addressable LEDs can be packed closely together in an array. If one LED does not function (e.g., due to a large defect), then it does not significant diminish the performance of the array because the individual devices are closely packed.
• While certain embodiments have been described, other embodiments are possible.
• As an example, while certain thickness for a light-emitting device and associated layers are discussed above, other thicknesses are also possible. In general, the light-emitting device can have any desired thickness, and the individual layers within the light-emitting device can have any desired thickness. Typically, the thicknesses of the layers withinmulti-layer stack122 are chosen so as to increase the spatial overlap of the optical modes with light-generatingregion130, to increase the output from light generated inregion130. Exemplary thicknesses for certain layers in a light-emitting device include the following. In some embodiments,layer134 can have a thickness of at least about 100 nm (e.g., at least about 200 nm, at least about 300 nm, at least about 400 nm, at least about 500 nm) and/or at most about 10 microns (e.g., at most about five microns, at most about three microns, at most about one micron). In certain embodiments,layer128 has a thickness of at least about 10 nm (e.g., at least about 25 nm, at least about 40 nm) and/or at most about one micron (e.g., at most about 500 nm, at most about 100 nm). In some embodiments,layer126 has a thickness of at least about 10 nm (e.g., at least about 50 nm, at least about 100 nm) and/or at most about one micron (e.g., at most about 500 nm, at most about 250 nm). In certain embodiments, light-generatingregion130 has a thickness of at least about 10 nm (e.g., at least about 25 nm, at least about 50 nm, at least about 100 nm) and/or at most about 500 nm (e.g., at most about 250 nm, at most about 150 nm).
• As an example, while a light-emitting diode has been described, other light-emitting devices having the above-described features (e.g., patterns, processes) can be used. Such light-emitting devices include lasers and optical amplifiers.
• As another example, while current spreadinglayer132 has been described as a separate layer from n-dopedlayer134, in some embodiments, a current spreading layer can be integral with (e.g., a portion of)layer134. In such embodiments, the current spreading layer can be a relatively highly n-doped portion oflayer134 or a heterojunction between (e.g. AlGaN/GaN) to form a 2D electron gas.
• As a further example, while certain semiconductor materials have been described, other semiconductor materials can also be used. In general, any semiconductor materials (e.g., III-V semiconductor materials, organic semiconductor materials, silicon) can be used that can be used in a light-emitting device. Examples of other light-generating materials include InGaAsP, AlInGaN, AlGaAs, InGaAlP. Organic light-emitting materials include small molecules such as aluminum tris-8-hydroxyquinoline (Alq₃) and conjugated polymers such as poly[2-methoxy-5-(2-ethylhexyloxy)-1,4-vinylenephenylene] or MEH-PPV.
• As an additional example, while large area LEDs have been described, the LEDs can also be small area LEDs (e.g., LEDs smaller than the standard about 300 microns on edge).
• As another example, while a dielectric function that varies spatially according to a pattern has been described in which the pattern is formed of holes, the pattern can also be formed in other ways. For example, a pattern can be formed continuous veins and/or discontinuous veins in the appropriate layer. Further, the pattern in varying dielectric function can be achieved without using holes or veins. For example, materials having different dielectric functions can be patterned in the appropriate layer. Combinations of such patterns can also be used.
• As a further example, whilelayer126 has been described as being formed of silver, other materials can also be used. In some embodiments,layer126 is formed of a material that can reflect at least about 50% of light generated by the light-generating region that impinges on the layer of reflective material, the layer of reflective material being between the support and the multi-layer stack of materials. Examples of such materials include distributed Bragg reflector stacks and various metals and alloys, such as aluminum and aluminum-containing alloys.
• As another example,support120 can be formed of a variety of materials. Examples of materials from which support120 can be formed include copper, copper-tungsten, aluminum nitride, silicon carbide, beryllium-oxide, diamonds, TEC and aluminum.
• As an additional example, whilelayer126 has been described as being formed of a heat sink material, in some embodiments, a light-emitting device can include a separate layer (e.g., disposed betweenlayer126 and submount120) that serves as a heat sink. In such embodiments,layer126 may or may not be formed of a material that can serve as a heat sink.
• As a further example, while the varying pattern in dielectric function has been described as extending into n-dopedlayer134 only (which can substantially reduce the likelihood of surface recombination carrier losses) in addition to making use of the entire light-generating region, in some embodiments, the varying pattern in dielectric function can extend beyond n-doped layer (e.g., into current spreadinglayer132, light-generatingregion130, and/or p-doped layer128).
• As another example, while embodiments have been described in which air can be disposed betweensurface110 can coverslip140, in some embodiments materials other than, or in an addition to, air can be disposed betweensurface110 and coverslip140. Generally, such materials have an index of refraction of at least about one and less than about 1.5 (e.g., less than about 1.4, less than about 1.3, less than about 1.2, less than about 1.1). Examples of such materials include nitrogen, air, or some higher thermal conductivity gas. In such embodiments,surface110 may or may not be patterned. For example,surface110 may be non-patterned but may be roughened (i.e., having randomly distributed features of various sizes and shapes less than λ/5).
• As another example, while embodiments involving the deposition and etching of planarization and lithography layers have been described, in some embodiments, a pre-patterned etch mask can be laid down on the surface of the n-doped semiconductor layer.
• As a further example, in some embodiments, an etch mask layer can be disposed between the n-doped semiconductor layer and the planarization layer. In such embodiments, the method can include removing at least a portion of the etch mask layer (e.g., to form a pattern in the etch stop layer corresponding to the pattern in the n-doped semiconductor layer).
• As an additional example, while embodiments, have been disclosed in which surface110 is patterned and smooth, in some embodiments,surface110 may be patterned and rough (i.e., having randomly distributed features of various sizes and shapes less than λ/5, less than λ/2, less than λ). Further, in certain embodiments, the sidewalls ofopenings150 can be rough (i.e., having randomly distributed features of various sizes and shapes less than λ/5, less than λ/2, less than λ), with or withoutsurface110 being rough. Moreover, in some embodiments, the bottom surface ofopenings150 can be rough (i.e., having randomly distributed features of various sizes and shapes less than λ/5, less than λ/2, less than λ).Surface110, the sidewalls ofopenings150, and/or the bottom surfaces ofopenings150 can be roughened, for example, by etching (e.g., wet etching, dry etching, reactive ion etching). Without wishing to be bound by theory, it is believed that rougheningsurface110 and/or the sidewalls ofopenings150 may increase the probability, with respect to a atomically smooth surface, that a light ray will eventually strike at an angle that less than the critical angle given by Snell's law and will be extracted.
• As another example, in some embodiments, the submount can be machined to include spring-like structures. Without wishing to be bound by theory, it is believed that such spring-like structures may reduce cracking during removal of the substrate.
• As a further example, in some embodiments, the submount can be supported by an acoustically absorbing platform (e.g., a polymer, a metallic foam). Without wishing to be bound by theory, it is believed that such acoustically absorbing structures may reduce cracking during removal of the substrate.
• As an additional example, in some embodiments, the substrate is treated (e.g., etched, ground, sandblasted) before being removed. In certain embodiments, the substrate may be patterned before it is removed. In some embodiments, the thickness of the layers is selected so that, before removing the substrate and buffer layers, the neutral mechanical axis of the multi-layer stack is located substantially close (e.g., less than about 500 microns, less than about 100 microns, less than about 10 microns, less than about five microns) to the interface between the p-doped semiconductor layer and a bonding layer. In certain embodiments, portions of the substrate are separately removed (e.g., to reduce the likelihood of cracking).
• As another example, while embodiments have been described in which a buffer layer is separate from an n-doped semiconductor layer (e.g., a buffer layer grown on the substrate, with an n-doped semiconductor layer separately grown on the buffer), in some embodiments, there can be a single layer instead. For example, the single layer can be formed by first depositing a relatively low doped (e.g., undoped) semiconductor material on the substrate, followed by (in one process) depositing a relatively high doped (n-doped) semiconductor material.
• As a further example, while embodiments have been described in which a substrate is removed by a process that includes exposing a surface of the substrate to electromagnetic radiation (e.g., laser light), in some embodiments other methods can be used to remove the substrate. For example, removal of the substrate can involve etching and/or lapping the substrate. In certain embodiments, the substrate can be etched and/or lapped, and then subsequently exposed to electromagnetic radiation (e.g., laser light).
• As an additional example, in some embodiments, after depositing the planarization layer but before depositing the lithography layer, the upper surface of the planarization layer can be flattened. For example, a flat object, such as an optical flat, can be placed on the upper surface of the planarization layer while heating the planarization layer (e.g., with a hot plate). In some embodiments, a pressure can be applied (e.g., using a physical weight or press) to assist with the flattening process.
• As another example, in some embodiments the substrate can be treated before being removed. For example, the substrate can be exposed to one or more processes selected from etching, polishing, grinding and sandblasting. In certain embodiments, treating the substrate can include patterning the substrate. In some embodiments, treating the substrate includes depositing an antireflective coating on the substrate. Such an antireflective coating can, for example, allow relatively large regions of the substrate to be removed when using a substrate removal process that involves exposing the substrate to electromagnetic radiation because the coating can reduce reflection of the electromagnetic radiation. In certain embodiments, a pattern on the surface of the substrate can also be used to achieve an anti-reflection effect.
• In some embodiments, a light-emitting device can include a layer of a phosphor material coated onsurface110,cover layer140 and supports142.
• In certain embodiments, a light-emitting device can include acover layer140 that has a phosphor material disposed therein. In such embodiments,surface110 may or may not be patterned.
• In an alternative implementation, the light emitted by the light-generatingregion130 is UV (or violet, or blue) and thephosphor layer180 includes a mixture of a red phosphor material (e.g., L₂O₂S:Eu³⁺), a green phosphor material (e.g, ZnS:Cu,Al,Mn), and blue phosphor material (e.g, (Sr,Ca,Ba,Mg)₁₀(PO₄)₆Cl:Eu²⁺).
• Other embodiments are in the claims.

Claims (22)

1. A method of making a light-emitting device, the method comprising:

disposing a planarization layer on a surface of a layer of semiconductor material;

disposing a lithography layer on a surface of the planarization layer; and

performing nanolithography to remove at least a portion of the planarization layer, at least a portion of the lithography layer and at least a portion of the layer of semiconductor material, thereby forming a dielectric function in the surface of the layer of semiconductor material that varies spatially according to a pattern.

2. The method ofclaim 1, wherein performing nanolithography includes forming indentations in the lithography layer.

3. The method ofclaim 2, further comprising heating the lithography layer while forming the indentations in the lithography layer.

4. The method ofclaim 3, wherein the lithography layer is cooled after forming the indentations.

5. The method ofclaim 2, further comprising UV-curing the lithography layer while forming the indentations in the lithography layer.

6. The method ofclaim 2, wherein the indentations from the lithography layer correspond to the portion of the lithography layer removed during nanolithography.

7. The method ofclaim 1, wherein the portion of the planarization layer removed during nanolithography corresponds to the portion of the lithography layer removed during nanolithography.

8. The method ofclaim 7, wherein the portion of the layer of semiconductor material removed during nanolithography corresponds to the portion of the planarization layer removed during nanolithography.

9. The method ofclaim 8, wherein the portion of the layer of semiconductor material removed during nanolithography forms the pattern in the surface of the layer of semiconductor material.

10. The method ofclaim 1, further comprising, after removing portions of the lithography and planarization layers, depositing a material on exposed portions of the layer of semiconductor material.

11. The method ofclaim 10, further comprising depositing the material on an exposed upper surface of the lithography layer.

12. The method ofclaim 11, further comprising removing the portions of lithography layer having the material deposited thereon.

13. The method ofclaim 12, further comprising removing the portions of the planarization layer corresponding to the portions of the lithography layer having the material deposited thereon.

14. The method ofclaim 12, further comprising removing portions of the layer of semiconductor material that do not have the material deposited thereon to form the pattern in the surface of the layer of semiconductor material.

15. The method ofclaim 10, wherein the material comprises a metal.

16. The method ofclaim 15, wherein the material comprises at least one metal selected from the group consisting of aluminum, nickel, titanium and tungsten.

17. The method ofclaim 1, wherein performing nanolithography includes forming indentations in the lithography layer, and the method further comprises coating at least some of the indentations in the lithography layer with an etch resistant material.

18. The method ofclaim 17, wherein the etch resistant material is disposed on the surface of the lithography layer, and the etch resistant material is then etched to expose an upper surface of the lithography layer while keeping some of the etch resistant material in the indentations in the lithography layer.

19. The method ofclaim 18, wherein the etch resistant material is spin coated onto the lithography layer.

20-60. (canceled)

61. A method of making a light-emitting device, the method comprising:

providing an article that comprises a layer of semiconductor material, and a planarization layer supported by the layer of semiconductor material; and

performing nanolithography to remove at least a portion of the planarization layer and at least a portion of the layer of semiconductor material, thereby forming a dielectric function in the surface of the layer of semiconductor material that varies spatially according to a pattern.

62-106. (canceled)

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