US20060213599A1 - Fiber adhesive material - Google Patents

Abstract

A fiber velvet comprising nano-size fibers or nanofibrils attached to micro-size fibers is disclosed. Methods of manufacturing the velvet as well as various uses of the velvet are also described. For example, the fiber velvet can be used as a thermal interface or as an adhesive material. The nanofibrils may be attached to a flat base or membrane, or may be attached to the tip portions of the micro-size or larger diameter fibers. Various attributes of the micro-size fibers and of the nano-size fibers, for example, geometry (e.g. size, length, packing density) material type (e.g. carbon, metal, polymer, or ceramic) and properties (e.g. conductivity, modulus, surface energy, dielectric constant, surface roughness) can be selected depending on the desired attributes of the fiber velvet. The nanofibrils have a diameter of less than about 1 micron, and may advantageously be formed from single walled and/or multi-walled carbon nanotubes.

Description

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS
• This application is a divisional of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/464,830, titled Fiber Adhesive Material, and filed on Jun. 17, 2003, which claims priority to U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 60/390,239, titled Dendritic Adhesive, and filed on Jun. 17, 2002 and is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/593,587, titled Thermal Interface, and filed on Jun. 13, 2000, which claims priority to U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 60/139,443, entitled Thermal Interface, and filed on Jun. 14, 1999. The entire disclosures of all of these applications are hereby incorporated by reference in their entirety.
BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION
• 1. Field of the Invention
• The invention relates to adhesive materials such as tapes that provide a dry and reusable medium for adhering two surfaces together.
• 2. Description of Related Art
• Much of thermal management involves the transfer of heat from one element to another. While individual elements might have very high conductance, the heat transfer rate between contact surfaces of the two elements can limit overall performance of the thermal control system. Similarly, the strength of an adhesive bond formed between the two elements is often dependent on the contacting surfaces. The heat transfer rate and adhesive strength between the two elements can improve by maximizing the contact region between the two elements.
• Existing methods of bonding include brazing, soldering, gluing, bolting, taping, sewing, zippering, and use of Velcro® fasteners. Desirable properties include high strength of attachment, easy removability, reliability, and reusability. Other considerations include chemical compatibility, outgassing, and mass. Brazing and gluing with adhesive is strong, but not reusable nor easily removable. Bolts can be heavy and require special fixturing for attaching. Tape is not very strong, tends to leave a residue, and loses its sticking ability with use. It does not work well in wet environments.
• A different form of adhesive is found in a foot of a Tokay gecko. The foot includes a structure which allows the gecko to run over glass ceilings or climb wet glass walls. The toes of the Tokay gecko have pads consisting of thousands of 5 um-diameter keratinous fibers (called setae). The ends of the setae split into hundreds of 100-nm diameter fibrils. Each nanofibril terminates in an ellipsoidal structure called a “spatula.” Each spatula has a diameter ranging from 200-500 nm. The adhesive force of a single seta against Si was measured to be 200 μN (20 mg). It has been hypothesized that van der Waal forces are responsible for the gecko's amazing ability to climb up smooth vertical surfaces. If utilized to full capacity, the 100 mm²area of a gecko's foot, consisting of 500,000 such setae, should then be able to produce 100 N (10 kg) of adhesive force. The corresponding effective adhesive strength is 106 MPa (15,000 psi). This adhesive strength is well suited for many applications. The micron-size setae serve as a compliant support which conforms to the surface to allow the nanometer-sized tips (themselves compliant on a small scale) to make intimate contact with the surface.
• A manufactured adhesive that could provide the adhesion properties of the gecko foot is desirable. Such an adhesive would be compliant and could stick by intermolecular (van der Waals) forces resulting from its intimate contact with the surface. Such an adhesive would provide broad utility as an adhesive or attachment mechanism. The adhesive could be strong, dry, removable, reusable, and lightweight, combining many of the most desirable properties of the gecko foot. Such an adhesive may also have enhanced thermal and/or electrical conductance, providing an effective thermal/electrical interface with a built-in attach mechanism that is strong, removable, and reusable.
SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION
• The systems and methods of the present invention have several features, no single one of which is solely responsible for its desirable attributes. Without limiting the scope of this invention as expressed by the claims which follow, its more prominent features will now be discussed briefly. After considering this discussion, and particularly after reading the section entitled “Detailed Description” one will understand how the features of this invention provide several advantages over traditional paper coupon systems.
• One aspect of the invention is an adhesive material that comprises a base, an array of first fibers bonded to the base, each having a cross sectional diameter of less than approximately 15 microns, and an array of second fibers bonded predominantly to a portion of at least some of the first fibers and having a cross sectional diameters of less than about 1 micron, the second fibers being arranged and configured to form a strong VdW bond when pressed against a mating surface.
• Another aspect of the present invention is a method for making an adhesive material. The method comprises growing aligned whiskers having a diameter of less than about 1 micron from the tips of carbon fibers having a diameter of greater than about 3 microns and less than about 15 microns, and optionally depositing a material on a portion of the whiskers to form non-planar tips.
• Another aspect of the present invention is an adhesive material tape that comprises a first plurality of fibers having first and second ends, the first plurality of fibers being predominantly aligned such that the first ends are bonded to a base surface of the tape, and a second plurality of fibers having first and second ends, the second plurality of fibers being predominantly aligned such that the first ends are bonded to the second ends of the first plurality of fibers and the second ends of the second plurality of fibers being arranged to adhere to a mating surface by intermolecular attraction.
• Yet another aspect of the present invention is a method for enhancing the performance of an adhesive tape made from a plurality of predominantly aligned carbon fibers having diameters of less than approximately 15 microns. The method comprises placing a plurality of nanofibrils having diameters of approximately 1 micron proximate to at least some tips of the predominantly aligned carbon fibers, and depositing a film on an end portion of the nanofibrils.
• Still another aspect of the present invention is an adhesive tape that comprises a central support, and a plurality of nanofibrils extending from one or both major surface(s) of the central support, wherein at least some of the nanofibrils have a diameter of less than about 1 micron, the nanofibrils being arranged and configured to form a strong vdW bond when pressed against a mating surface.
BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS
• FIG. 1A is a side view of one embodiment of a thermally conductive gasket incorporating nanofibrils.
• FIG. 1B is a side view of another embodiment of a thermally conductive gasket incorporating nanofibrils.
• FIG. 2 is a perspective view of a carbon fiber having a nanofibrils attached to the tip.
• FIG. 3A is a scanning electron microscope image of a 7 micron diameter fiber with a mop of nanofibrils attached to the tip.
• FIG. 3B is an increased magnification of the fiber ofFIG. 3A.
• FIG. 4 is a scanning electron microscope image of a mop of nanofibrils which has been mechanically compressed.
• FIG. 5 is a scanning electron microscope image of the tips of the fibers of a thermal gasket prior to the deposition of nanofibrils.
• FIG. 6A is a scanning electron microscope image the tip of one fiber of the gasket ofFIG. 5 after lapping.
• FIG. 6B is a scanning electron microscope image the tip of one fiber of the gasket ofFIG. 5 after lapping and carbon CVD deposition.
• FIG. 6C is a scanning electron microscope image the tip of one fiber of the gasket ofFIG. 5 after lapping, carbon CVD deposition, and nanofibril deposition.
• FIG. 6D is a higher magnification of the nanofibril mop ofFIG. 6C.
• FIG. 7A is a side view of a single-sided fiber velvet that comprises an array of fibers canted at an angle.
• FIG. 7B is a detailed view of one of the fibers fromFIG. 7A showing nanofibrils attached to the tip of a single fiber.
• FIG. 7C is a detailed view of the nanofibrils fromFIG. 7B.
• FIG. 8 is a perspective view of two biased carbon fibers having nanofibrils grown at an acute angle to the carbon fiber shafts.
DETAILED DESCRIPTION
• Embodiments of the invention will now be described with reference to the accompanying Figures, wherein like numerals refer to like elements throughout. The terminology used in the description presented herein is not intended to be interpreted in any limited or restrictive manner, simply because it is being utilized in conjunction with a detailed description of certain specific embodiments of the invention. Furthermore, embodiments of the invention may include several novel features, no single one of which is solely responsible for its desirable attributes or which is essential to practicing the inventions herein described.
• The inventions described herein relate to materials and associated devices that transfer heat between and/or adhere one device/surface and another. For example, a compliant thermal interface material developed by the applicant, which is presently marketed as VEL-THERM, is superior to existing commercial thermal interface gaskets. This material is a soft, carbon fiber velvet consisting of numerous high-κ (as high as 1000 W/mK) carbon fibers aligned perpendicularly to the interface plane. In some embodiments, such a “brush” of predominantly aligned carbon fibers is embedded in an adhesive substrate such that the tips of the fibers are attached to the surface of the substrate at one end, and are exposed at the other end. Free-standing “interleaf” gaskets can also be fabricated. These have fiber tips on both major surfaces, and the fibers are held together with an encapsulant such as a silicone or epoxy material.
• Commercially available carbon fibers are formed from either pitch or PAN precursor material and drawn onto fiber tow. Each fiber typically has diameter ˜10 μm, but which may vary between approximately 3 and 15 microns. Pitch fibers are graphitized by heating to high temperatures (near 3000° C.), giving them high thermal conductivities κ˜1000 W/mK.
• When placed between two surfaces, each fiber provides a high thermal conductivity path from one surface to the other. For uneven gaps, each fiber can bend independently in order to span the local gap. Low pressures are necessary to allow each fiber to touch both surfaces. Contact is maintained by either clamping or pressing the fiber tips into adhesive and bonding in place. By using high-κ fibers oriented in the direction of heat flow, such gaskets have a high κ (as high as 200 W/mK), while at the same time being even more compliant than conventional, particle-filled gaskets. Such velvet gaskets also work better than copper foil (at comparable pressures) because they provide a greater area of contact, conforming to uneven surfaces.
• Many configurations are possible depending on the application requirements. Thus, the velvet can be bonded to one or both surfaces with various adhesives or PSA “tapes” including metal foils. The highest measured total thermal conductance has been achieved by a high-κ carbon fiber interleaf “gasket” in which the fibers are encapsulated in a silicone gel encapsulant.
• The total thermal resistance of a thermal gasket interface is the sum of three contributions: the resistance of the bulk material itself, and the resistances of each interface where the material comes in contact with the interfacing surface. In terms of conductance (inverse of resistance) this may be written as:
  h_total⁻¹=h_bulk⁻¹+h_interface1⁻¹+h_interface2⁻¹
• In some embodiments, h_bulk=κ_bulk/t=400,000 W/m²K, which is 40× higher than h_total. Thus, the total joint resistance is dominated by the contact resistance between the fiber tips and the contacting surfaces. Each interface has h_interface˜20,000 W/m²K. If the contact conductance is increased to values comparable to the bulk conductance, the total conductance of the interface can be dramatically improved.
• To improve this contact conductance, some embodiments of the invention utilize very small diameter fibers having diameters less than about 1 micron either in conjunction with, or as an alternative to, the typically 3-15 micron diameter conventional carbon fibers. These small diameter fibers are referred to herein as nanofibrils or whiskers. Conventional carbon and silica whiskers may be utilized. Conventional carbon whiskers may be grown from a Ni or Fe catalyst by CVD processing. However, they have typically relatively large diameters of ˜1 μm. Furthermore, in order for conventional carbon whiskers to have high κ, they must be graphitized by heating to ˜3000° C.
• In some advantageous embodiments of the invention, the whiskers comprise single or multi-walled carbon “nanotubes”. A nanotube is a recently discovered form of carbon that is basically an elongated version of a C₆₀molecule, also known as a Buckminster Fullerene, and commonly referred to as a “Buckyball”. A single-walled nanotube consists of a rolled graphene sheet, forming a tube of diameter 1.4 nm, and capped at each end. Nanotubes display many interesting and useful properties including very high thermal conductivity and high stiffness. They are highly robust; they elastically buckle, rather than fracture or plastically deform, when bent to large angles. Multiwalled nanotubes, which have larger diameters of up to about 500 nanometers, can also be grown, with similar properties. These properties make both single and multi-walled nanotubes surprisingly useful as components of thermal interfaces. Their thermal conductivity provides excellent heat transfer characteristics, and their mechanical properties provide the capacity to form large areas of compliant contact with adjacent surfaces.
• One embodiment of a thermal interface constructed in accordance with these principles is illustrated inFIGS. 1A and 1B. Referring now toFIG. 1A, the thermal interface comprises a base20 which has extending therefrom an array ofnanofibrils22 having diameters of less than about 1 micron.FIG. 1B illustrates a two sided nanofibril gasket. In this embodiment, the base24 forms a central support, nanofibrils26,28 extend in opposite directions from both major surfaces. Thecentral support24 orbase20 may, for example, be about 1 to 20 or mils thick, depending on the desired mechanical properties.
• Several methods of growing arrays of nanofibrils/whiskers on substrate surfaces are known in the art. Chemical vapor deposition techniques have been used to grow relatively aligned nanotubes on nickel and nickel coated glass substrates as reported in Ren, et al.,Science, Volume 282, pages 1105-1107 (Nov. 6, 1998) and in Huang et al.,Applied Physics Letters,Volume 73,Number 26, pages 3845-3847 (Dec. 28, 1998), the disclosures of which are hereby incorporated by reference in their entireties. Ren et al. used a plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD) process in which the nanotubes grew from a nickel film catalyst in the presence of acetylene (C₂H₂), ammonia (NH₃), and nitrogen (N₂) at temperatures less than 666° C. Multiwalled nanotubes with diameters from 20-400 nm and lengths from 0.1-50 μm were obtained. Thicker Ni films resulted in larger diameter nanotubes. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) images showed that the nanotubes were multiwalled, centrally hollow tubes, not solid fiber. Each wall is presumed to be a highly thermally conductive graphitic layer. Key to their success seems to be the introduction of ammonia, which Ren et al. conjectured participated with the nickel in the catalytic reaction. The plasma enables growth at lower temperatures. The electric field of the plasma may also play a role in forming the nanotube array.
• In one advantageous embodiment, the base20 ormembrane24 is aluminum, and the arrays of nanofibrils are created by forming a film of porous alumina on the aluminum substrate, growing nanotubes within the pores of the alumina film, and then etching away the alumina. This method is described in detail in J. Li et al.,Applied Physics Letters, Volume 75, Number 3 (Jul. 19, 1999), the disclosure of which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety. With this method, a hexagonally ordered array of substantially axially aligned carbon multi-walled nanotubes on aluminum is fabricated using a hexagonal “nanochannel alumina” (NCA) membrane as a template. The template is formed on pure aluminum by anodization and consists of alumina with long, cylindrical pores with diameters from 10-500 nm diameter and lengths that span the thickness of the “membrane”. Cobalt catalyst “nanoseeds” are deposited in the bottom of each pore by electrodeposition. Multi-walled nanotubes are then grown in each of the pores by hot-wall CVD at 650° C. (just below the melting point of Al). The alumina is then etched away, leaving an array of multiwalled nanotubes on an aluminum substrate. Double sided thermal gaskets as shown inFIG. 1B may be created by forming the alumina template on both sides of an aluminum sheet, and growing nanotubes on both sides. Alternatively, a thick porous alumina membrane may comprise the support.
• Outstanding features of this array are (1) uniformity of nanotube diameters, (2) near perfect alignment perpendicular to the substrate, (3) regularly spaced nanotubes in a highly ordered hexagonal lattice, (4) uniformity of nanotube lengths. Furthermore, this technique allows independent control of the nanotube diameter, length, and packing fraction. The fabrication technique has advantages over others. It eliminates the need to use a plasma, hot filament, and photolithography, involving only wet chemistry and hot-wall CVD. It can be scaled up for large areas. Furthermore, the parameters are in the proper range for application as a thermal interface, with the nanotubes being about 10-500 nanometers is diameter, a 50% packing fraction, and lengths from 1-100 microns.
• In another embodiment, nanofibrils (or whiskers) are placed in contact with one or both ends of at least some of the fibers of an array of predominantly aligned larger diameter carbon fibers. In this embodiment, rather than enhancing the thermal interface performance of a foil by adding nanofibrils to one or both surfaces of a foil membrane, the performance of a carbon fiber brush/velvet which is formed from a predominantly aligned array of 3-15 micron diameter fibers is enhanced by the addition of nanofibrils to the tip region of the larger diameter fibers.
• An analysis of heat transfer in the tip region of a carbon fiber gasket illustrates the importance of this region to the overall heat transfer efficiency. For small temperature differences, radiation exchange can be neglected. When the contact area is small compared to the contacting bodies, there is an extra “constriction resistance” due to bottlenecking of the heat flow through the constriction, given by:
  R_constriction˜1/(4 κa)
• where κ is the harmonic mean of the contacting materials: κ⁻¹=κ₁⁻¹+κ₂⁻¹, and a is the diameter of the contact area (taken to be circular). For small a, which depends on applied pressure, material hardness, tip geometry, and surface roughness, this resistance can be quite large. A conducting whisker array on the fiber tip removes the heat flow bottleneck, greatly alleviating the constriction resistance.
• Attaching whiskers to the fiber tips improves thermal conductance of the gasket for several reasons. In applications where the interface is in a vacuum, the whiskers at the fiber tip will reduce the constriction resistance of the fiber contact point. In a vacuum, heat is conducted through the physical contact area between the fiber tips and the contacting surface, which is often only a small fraction of the fiber cross sectional area. The contact pressure P is low compared to the hardness H of the contacting materials (P<<10⁻⁴H), which therefore do not deform very much. In addition, the fiber tip is not flat, being highly irregular in shape.
• In the presence of air or other fluid surrounding medium, and at low contact pressures (P<10⁻⁴H), heat is mostly conducted through the fluid-filled gap; that is, the solid spot conduction is small compared to conduction through the fluid. Furthermore, convective heat transfer in air is usually negligible for gap widths less than ˜6 mm. For an irregularly-shaped fiber tip, the average gap6 between the bottom of the fiber and the contacting surface is of the order of the fiber radius (5 microns). Assuming conditions are such that the mean free path is small (˜0.3 microns for air at STP) compared to δ, we may use Fourier's law of heat conduction. The conductance through the bottom of the fiber is then q/ΔT=κδ.
• The thermal conductance through a medium of conductivity K between an isothermal flat surface and an isothermal vertical cylinder of length L and diameter D may be approximated as:$q/\Delta T=\kappa \frac{2\pi L}{\ln \left(4L/D\right)},\mathrm{if}D/L⪡1.$
• We take the effective length to be about the average interfiber distance L˜Dφ^−1/2, where φ is the fiber packing fraction. The total thermal conductance per unit area of one of the interfaces of a velvet is then approximated as:$h_{\mathrm{interface}}=\frac{2\kappa \varphi }{D}\left(1+\frac{4L/D}{\ln (4L/D}\right)\sim \frac{2\kappa \varphi }{D}\left(1+\frac{4{\varphi }^{-1/2}}{\ln \left(4{\varphi }^{-1/2}\right)}\right)$
• The second term dominates; that is, most of the heat conducts from the sides of the fiber near the tip through the conducting medium to the flat surface. For φ=20%, h_interface˜12φκ/D ˜6000 W/m²K for air (κ=0.025 W/mK) and ˜24,000 W/m²K for silicone encapsulant (κ=0.1 W/mK).
• Thus, a fiber tip enhanced with a nanofibril or whisker array would fill the gap with a medium with a higher effective κ, thereby improving h_interface. This may be accomplished in a variety of ways. In one embodiment, an unaligned discontinuous powder of nanofibrils is used to coat the tip region of the large fiber velvet. These powders are commercially available as, for example, type Pyrograf III whiskers from Applied Sciences, Inc. This material is a powder of cut whiskers with diameters of about 50-300 nanometers and lengths of about 20 to 80 microns. The nanofibril powder may be used as filler for thermally conductive grease, for example, which is applied to the tips of the velvet fibers. Alternatively, the powder is placed directly on the tips by soaking them in a solution of Pyrograf III in ethanol. The solution is advantageously ultrasonically vibrated to better disperse and disentangle the whiskers. After application, the presence of the nanofibrils in the tip region of the larger fibers improves heat transfer at the interface between the larger fiber tips and the surface of the component the tips are in contact with.
• Because the nanofibril powder is not an aligned array of nanofibrils, there are many inter fibril interfaces which still interfere with efficient heat transfer. Thermal conductance will be improved further if the nanofibrils formed a more ordered array with the nanofibrils spanning the gap between the tip of the larger diameter fiber and the component surface from end to end. This is shown conceptually inFIG. 2. As shown in this Figure, a mop ofnanofibrils36 is attached to the tip portion of alarger diameter fiber38. Thenanofibrils36 preferably extend predominantly away from thelarger diameter fiber38 and toward thecomponent surface40. In this embodiment, the nanofibrils may be configured to span the gap between each fiber and the mating surface, forming a high conductivity (κ˜200 W/mK), soft mop that effectively thermally shorts out the resistive gap. Although heat transfer efficiency between the tip of thelarger fiber38 and thecomponent surface40, may be expected to be better with better nanofibril alignment, even relatively poorly aligned masses of nanofibrils may be used to improve fiber tip heat transfer performance.
• In one set of gasket fabrication procedures performed by the inventors, nanofibrils were formed onto larger diameter fibers and fiber velvets. In these procedures a CVD apparatus comprising a stainless steel (SS) vacuum chamber was utilized. In this chamber, a controlled gas mixture of ammonia and hydrocarbon (propylene or acetylene) flows down through a SS tube from the top, fills the chamber, and is pumped from the bottom with a mechanical pump. The gas flow is controlled and monitored with MKS mass flow controllers. The pressure is controlled by a needle valve above the pump and monitored with a MKS Baratron gauge. A quartz window allows visual monitoring of the experiment.
• The plasma is sustained between two 2″-diameter, graphite electrodes. The bottom electrode is mounted on a ceramic (mullite) tube. A SS-sheathed thermocouple runs up the inside of the tube in order to monitor the temperature of the bottom electrode. The top electrode is mounted to the SS gas inlet tube; its height can be adjusted to control the gap. The bottom electrode (anode) is grounded through the thermocouple sheath. The top electrode (cathode) is electrically isolated from the chamber and carries the (negative) high voltage, powered by a 1 kW DC power supply capable of 1000V/1 A.
• A hot filament is used for three purposes: (1) thermal nonequilibrium heating of the sample (2) emission of electrons to stabilize the glow discharge and prevent arcing (3) cracking of the hydrocarbon gas. Tungsten wire, 15 mil diameter, is wound into a coil and mounted between the electrodes. The support and electrical connections are made through an electrical feedthrough in the back. The filament is powered through an isolation transformer at 60 Hz. In the later CVD runs, the W coil was prevented from “drooping” when heated by supporting the coil with an alumina tube running through it, thus allowing better control of its position. Typical power applied through the coil was 200 W.
• In a typical procedure, the sample, including substrate and catalyst coating, is placed on the bottom electrode. The chamber is sealed and leak tested with a He leak detector with a mass spectrometer. A gas flow of 160 sccm ammonia is established with a pressure of a few torr. An ammonia plasma is initiated between the electrodes and the tungsten filament is heated to ˜1500° C., as monitored by an optical pyrometer. The filament radiatively heats the sample. The temperature of the anode is monitored, although the sample is hotter than this. The sample is heated and etched for 10-15 mins. Then 80 sccm of hydrocarbon gas (propylene or acetylene) is introduced to start the CVD deposition, i.e. growth of carbon nanofibrils. After ˜5 mins, the deposition is ceased and the chamber allowed to cool, after which the sample is removed and examined.
• Dozens of PE-HF CVD runs have been performed using the techniques described by Ren et al. and Huang et al. set forth above using a number of substrates including commercially available nickel coated carbon fibers, as well as nickel coated pitch and PAN carbon fiber velvet gaskets.FIGS. 3A and 3B illustrate nanofibril “mops”40 grown onto nickel coated 7 micron diameter carbon fibers. These nanofibrils appear to be similar in structure to commercial vapor grown carbon fibers comprising tubes of concentric, graphitic layers. However, they tend to have a high defect density, exemplified by their not being straight, and causing them to have a lower thermal conductivity than ideal. The κ of these nanofibrils has not been measured, but they are most likely graphitizable, and if necessary, heat treatment at 2800° C. would likely give them a κ of ˜2000 W/mK.
• Under an optical microscope, one of the “befuzzed” fibers was singled out for investigating how the nanotube mop responds to pressure exerted by a surface with which it comes into contact. The befuzzed fiber tip was contacted with flat-bladed tweezers with enough force to bend the fiber, as observed under the optical microscope. The sample was then placed in the SEM to examine the effect. Shown inFIG. 4 is an SEM image of the pressed befuzzed fiber tip. Although the diameter of the fiber is only 7 μm, the diameter of the befuzzed fiber is approximately 40 μm. Although a bit flattened, the mop can still be seen around the fiber tip, indicating some degree of mechanical resilience.
• In another set of fabrication procedures, high thermal conductivity gaskets were made out of high-κ (˜1000 W/mK), pitch carbon fibers (˜10 micron diameter), The fibers are preferentially aligned in the z-direction such that each fiber spans the entire thickness of 1 mm. The fibers are held together with a light, epoxy wash coat. Capillary forces cause the epoxy to collect at the nodes where fibers contact each other. The packing fraction of fibers is about 10%, which implies a theoretical bulk thermal conductivity value of κ˜100 W/mK and a bulk conductance of h˜100,000 W/m²K.
• Gaskets of a high-κ velvet (100 W/mK) attached to a POCO carbon substrate may be made by electroflocking high-κ (generally about 100-1000 W/mK) pitch fibers (for example, 10 micron diameter×0.5 mm length) into high-κ (˜2 W/mK) carbonizable polymer such as polyimide. Electroflocking is a known technique for forming aligned fiber arrays. Pneumatic or mechanical flocking techniques may also be used. A variety of carbon fiber types may also be utilized, such as are commercially available from Amoco Corp. or Toray. A nickel film is ion beam sputtered into the velvet, most notably on the fiber tips. Carbon whisker arrays are then grown on the nickel coated fibers via PECVD processing.
• The carbon fibers are precision cut from a continuous spool. Although the mean length of the pitch fibers will be controlled (typically 0.5 mm), there is some variation in length of 50 micron or more, which is comparable to the average distance between adjacent fibers. A few psi pressure is required to bend the longer fibers so that the tips of the shorter fibers contact the interfacing surface. In some embodiments, the velvet samples may be lapped and polished before deposition of the Ni film so that the fiber tips are more co-planar (within a few microns). This can be accomplished by EDM cutting or by potting the velvet in a removable medium and then lapping and polishing it flat. The potting medium is then removed.
• Co-planar tips may allow the “whiskerized” velvets to have high conductivity using less than 1 psi pressure since there is no need to compress the velvet in order for all of the tips to contact the interfacing surface. Co-planar tips may also have an effect on the quality or uniformity of the whisker arrays on the tips.
• In one specific process, six gaskets were potted in a removable polymer and lapped on both sides with fine sandpaper (600 grit). The potting medium was then removed. These gaskets were processed in a carbon CVD reactor in order to carbonize the epoxy wash coat and deposit a thin carbon CVD layer (˜2 micron-thick) that would hold the fibers together. The resulting gaskets are then able to withstand the PE-HF CVD process. A 55±5 nm-thick film of Ni catalyst was ion-beam sputtered onto both sides of four of the carbon CVD'ed gaskets.
Example
• Pitch carbon fiber gasket sample cs7-144 was processed in the PE-HF CVD reactor under the conditions listed in Table 1

  TABLE 1
  PE-HF CVD deposition conditions of pitch fiber gasket
  sample

  	Sample#	cs7-144
  	Mounting	Lying flat on anode
  	conditions
  	Plasma power	160 W
  	HF power	300 W
  	Max temperature	527° C.
  	Plasma etch time	12 min
  	Deposition time	5 min
  	Hydrocarbon gas	Acetylene
  	Mass gain	4.6 mg (5%)
  	Resulting deposit	Heavy, bottom side

• After the chamber cooled, the sample was removed and examined under the microscope. The bottom of Sample cs7-144 was covered with carbon deposit that was visible under the optical microscope. The 90.5 mg sample had gained 4.6 mg, which corresponds to a 4 micron-thick, uniform layer of carbon over one surface. Some areas displayed thicker deposits than others did. The variation may reflect variation in local temperature, hydrocarbon concentration, and/or catalyst microstructure.
• FIG. 5 is a 250× SEM image of a pitch carbon fiber gasket, looking from above, prior to the deposit of nanofibrils to the larger diameter fibers. The preferential alignment of the fibers is evident.FIGS. 6A-6C show the tip of a single pitch fiber of Sample cs7-144 after various processing steps,FIG. 6A after lapping,FIG. 6B after carbon CVD, andFIG. 6C after PE-HF CVD. Many of the pitch fibers form a “pac-man”-shaped cross section during their manufacture. The fibers are remarkably flat after lapping. The carbon CVD deposited a uniform layer of ˜2 μm of carbon, increasing the diameter of each fiber from ˜12 μm to ˜16 μm. It also formed a nodular structure at the tip which is no longer flat. InFIG. 6C, it is seen that the PE-HF CVD did indeed deposit an array of carbon nanofibrils on the tips and along the shafts of the fibers.FIG. 6D shows an ×10 k view of the nanofibrils. They are not straight, but form a “mop” which appears to be highly packed. The nanofibril diameters are on the order of 100 nm.
• Another means of enhancing the conductance at the tips is to add phase change material (PCM) at and around the tips. Thermally-conductive PCM is commercially available from several vendors. It is typically sold in sheet form with thicknesses from 1 to several mils. It consists of a wax (high molecular weight hydrocarbon), filled with thermally conductive solid particles such as BN, alumina, diamond, silver flake, etc. As described above with reference to thermal grease, the phase change material may also include cut carbon nanofibrils. These particles typically have characteristic sizes from 1 to several microns. In addition, there may be wetting agents added so that the wax wets the particles, as well as the tips of the fibers.
• Useful PCM is a solid at room temperature, and softens and melts at elevated temperatures. It may or may not be molten at operating temperatures. The PCM sheet is typically supported by release liner paper that is eventually peeled away before application. In some advantageous embodiments, the melting point of the material is between about 30 degrees C. and 100 degrees C. In some cases, the melting point is between about 40 degrees C. and 70 degree C.
• The PCM can be added to the fiber tips by a number of methods. The fibers can be flocked into a sheet of PCM that is heated to just the right temperature so that the tips of the flocked fibers adhere to it and remain vertically oriented. The fibers can then be anchored to the PCM sheet by melting the PCM further and/or pushing the fiber tips further into the PCM. The resulting velvet may or may not then be partially encapsulated with silicone gel, PCM, acrylic spray, foam, or other means of encapsulation. The purpose of encapsulation is to (1) hold the fibers together, providing structural support, and (2) preventing fibers from escaping as potentially harmful debris. The latter is of special concern if the fibers are electrically conductive. Next, a PCM sheet can by placed on top of the resulting velvet, and the entire PCM/velvet/PCM sandwich pressed together and/or heated to fuse everything together.
• This material has several advantages over the use of thermal grease and elastomer potted velvets. Similar to grease, high thermal conductivity PCM improves interface conductance. However, the PCM may be localized preferentially near the tips. This makes gasket very compliant, unlike velvet that is totally filled with elastomer. Furthermore, solid PCM is not messy at room temperature like thermal grease, it supports velvet at room temperature when in solid form, and PCM acts as an adhesive that prevents fibers from escaping as debris.
• Adhesive Material
• The nanofibril material described above, which may advantageously include coupling nanofibrils to the larger fibers to form a fiber velvet, can also be used as an adhesive material. As explained above, fiber velvets can form compliant interface pads. These pads can be effective as a thermal interface since they make contact at their fiber tips. For uneven gaps, most or all of the fibers can bend independently in order to span the local gap. Low pressures are sufficient to allow substantially all of the fibers to touch both surfaces. These same attributes are also desirable in an adhesive. An adhesive material that incorporates a fiber velvet provides a dry and reusable medium for adhering to a mating surface.
• FIG. 7A is a perspective view of a single-sided fiber velvet50 that comprises an array of fibers.FIG. 7B is a detailed conceptual view of one of the fibers fromFIG. 7A showing an array ofnanofibrils36 attached to the tip of asingle fiber38. The end of thefiber38 that is distal to thenanofibrils36 is fixedly attached to a base orsubstrate material20 using one of the methods described above. The ends of thenanofibrils36 that are distal to thefiber38 are available for adhering to a mating surface.
• Many configurations are possible depending on the application requirements. Thus, the fibers can be bonded to one or both surfaces of a central support with various adhesives or pressure sensitive adhesive (PSA) “tapes” including metal foils and polymers. A single-sided velvet50 shown inFIG. 7A forms a flexible one-sided tape. Alternatively, a second array of fibers may be attached to a lower surface of the base20 to form a two-sided tape. Previously described exemplary materials for the substrate orbase20 include a POCO graphite substrate a foil of aluminum, or a plastic film.
• Thefibers38 can be, for example, any commercially available type. Commercially available carbon fiber include those formed from either pitch or PAN precursor material and drawn onto fiber tow. Thecarbon fibers38 may be precision cut from a continuous spool.
• The term “fiber” as used herein refers to a structure with greater than a 1:1 aspect ratio. The terms “nanofiber” or “nanofibril” as used herein refers to a fiber with a diameter of equal to or less than about 1 μm (micrometer).
• Each fiber typically has a diameter of 6-10 μm, but which may vary between approximately 3 and 15 microns. In some embodiments, thefibers38 of thecarbon fiber velvet50 have diameters that range from approximately 5 um to 10 um with lengths that range from approximately ½ mm to 3 mm. Electroflocking can be used to form the alignedfiber arrays38 on thebase20. Pneumatic or mechanical flocking techniques may also be used.
• Depending on the desired attachment scheme between thefiber velvet50 and the mating surface, various geometric and material attributes of thefibers38 can be selected. These attributes include material properties of the fibers and substrate, for example adhesive strength, modulus, Hamaker constant, dielectric constant, surface energy, and tensile strength and modulus and temperature regimes. These attributes also include geometry, for example, fiber length, fiber diameter, fiber number density, fiber angular bias, and pad thickness, For example, the diameters and lengths of thefibers38 can be selected depending on the desired compliance of the adhesive material produced with them. To create a more compliant adhesive, fibers with a smaller diameter, longer length, or smaller modulus can be selected.
• Once the material and diameter are selected, thefibers38 can be precision cut to the desired length and assembled into the velvet using the techniques described above. For one embodiment in an adhesive application, 6-um diameter×1.5-mm long ex-polyacrylonitrile (ex-PAN) carbon fibers are selected for thecarbon fibers38. These ex-PAN fibers are a glassy carbon and have the advantages of a small diameter, are easy to bend, bend elastically, and do not break easily.
• The fiber density of thefibers38 also affects the properties of the adhesive material. Fiber density is the density of thefibers38 in thefiber velvet50. Fiber density is also referred to as a packing fraction. Thus, the packing fraction selected may also be based on the desired properties of thecarbon fiber velvet50. For example, a high (20%) packing fraction could be used if relatively low compliance but high adhesive strength was desired. However, for an adhesive application, the packing fraction can be selected as low as a few percent. A lower packing fraction increases the compliance of the resultingcarbon fiber velvet50.
• To substantially improve the adhesive strength of thecarbon fiber velvet50 with a mating surface, arrays of carbon nanotubes/whiskers/nanofibrils36 are deposited onto or grown from the tips of thecarbon fibers38. The deposited nanofibrils36 can be arranged in a “mop” or in an aligned configuration on the tips of thecarbon fibers38. The aligned configuration has similarities to the contact ends of the setae of the gecko foot and is illustrated inFIGS. 7B and 7C. As with thefibers38, the characteristics or attributes of thenanofibrils36, for example, diameter, length, packing fraction, location, as well as their properties, for example, thermal and mechanical, can vary. Many of the characteristics of thenanofibrils36 can be controlled by the growth process and tailored to match or surpass that of the split nanofibrils at the end of a Gecko's seta.
• An exemplary process for growingnanofibrils36 on a substrate will now be described. In this process, a thin film of nickel or cobalt catalyst was deposited onto the substrate by ion-beam sputtering. The substrate can be ion-beam cleaned prior to deposition. The resulting film thickness was monitored with a quartz crystal thickness monitor and varied from 1-13 nm thick. Thinner films promote growth ofsmaller diameter nanofibrils36. An optional step in the process for growingnanofibrils36 comprises the deposition of a buffer layer between the substrate and the thin film prior to catalyst deposition. The addition of the buffer layer may promote formation of Ni nanodots upon heating. The inclusion of a buffer layer may facilitate bonding of thenanofibrils36 to the substrate. For example, a titanium (Ti) buffer layer can form a TiC “weld” between the nanofibrils36 and the substrate.
• Thenanofibrils36 were grown on the substrate in a PECVD reactor. The PECVD included a 1200° C. tube furnace with a 3″-diameter quartz tube. Cylindrical graphite electrodes were machined and assembled within the PECVD reactor. The substrate and deposited catalyst was placed on a lower electrode. The quartz tube was evacuated to less than 10 mtorr with a mechanical pump, and continued pumping as the temperature was raised to 700 or 750° C. Once the setpoint temperature was reached, an etchant gas (NH₃) was fed at a controlled rate (typically 200 sccm/min) with the pressure being adjusted to a few torr. High voltage (typically 600 V) was then applied between the electrodes and a plasma was initiated. Optionally, the NH₃plasma is allowed to etch the substrate and deposited catalyst for several minutes before startingnanofibril36 growth. The heating and/or etching step is critical in breaking up the catalyst film on the substrate to form nanodot seeds. Etching reduces the size of the nanodot seeds and breaks up larger nanodot seeds into smaller nanodot seeds. The size and density of the nanodot seeds determine the diameter and density of the nanofibrils that subsequently grow from the nanodot seeds. On silicon substrates, the diameter and density of the nanofibrils correlate with the Ni film thickness.
• A controlled flow of feed gas, for example acetylene, is then fed to initiate nanofibril growth. Details of the Ni-substrate interaction determine whether and how the nanodots form. Depending on the adhesion between the Ni catalyst and the substrate, thenanofibrils36 may grow in base-growth or tip-growth modes. Base-growth mode occurs when the catalyst seed remains attached to the substrate and the nanofibril grows out of the catalyst seed. Tip-growth mode occurs when the catalyst seed is carried with the tip of the nanofibril as the nanofibril grows from the catalyst seed). Adhesion of the Ni catalyst to the substrate promotes base growth. After about 15 minutes, the plasma was turned off and the gas flow stopped. The substrate and grown nanofibrils were allowed to cool in vacuum.
• Other methods for growing well-aligned nanofibrils on a substrate are described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,361,861 to Gao et al., which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety and by Li et al., Appl. Phys. Lett. 75, 367 (1999).
• The attributes of anexemplary fiber velvet50 that comprises arrays ofnanofibrils36 attached tocarbon fibers38 are described below. A combined packing fraction for thevelvet50 is calculated by multiplying the packing fraction of thecarbon fibers38 with the packing fraction of thenanofibrils36. The combined packing fraction for theexemplary velvet50 described below is 2% (10% carbon fiber×20% nanofibrils).

  Carbon Nanotube (CNT) array
  on a carbon fibertip

  Carbon fiber

  38
  	Diameter, D	5 μm
  	Length, L	500-1000 μm
  	Aspect ratio, α = L/D	100-200
  	Packing fraction, φ	10%
  	Young's modulus, E	234 GPa
  	Pad Compliance (Eφ/α2)	˜106Pa
  	Multi-Walled Nanotube
  	(MWNT)array 36
  	Diameter, D	20-200 nm
  	Length, L	10-50 μm
  	Aspect ratio, α = L/D	1000
  	Packing fraction, φ	20%
  	Young's modulus, E	1000 GPa (est)
  	Pad Compliance (Eφ/α2)	˜105Pa

• As explained with reference toFIGS. 6A-6C, thecarbon fibers38 can be lapped and polished to form acarbon fiber velvet50 with a uniform length and flat tips. Lapping and polishing before attaching or growingnanofibrils36 results in the fiber tips being more co-planar (within a few microns). This geometry provides a flat surface from where to grow the nanofibrils ornanotubes36. Such controlled tip geometry enhances the consistency of the adhesive surface of the nanotubes ornanofibrils36 that grow on the flat tips of thecarbon fibers38. One method of lapping the fiber tips involves potting thefibers38 during lapping of the carbon fiber tips. After lapping, the potting media is removed from between thecarbon fibers38. An example of such a removable potting medium is mothballs. However, lapping and polishing of the carbon fiber tips is not required for the subsequent attachment of thenanofibrils36 thereon. Alternatively, electro-discharge machining (EDM) can be used to flatten the ends of thecarbon fibers38 prior to attachment of thenanofibrils36.
• FIG. 8 illustrates asingle fiber38 that is at a bias angle θ with respect to thebase material20. A biased velvet hasfibers38 which are not perpendicular to theunderlying base20. Embodiments of the velvet includefibers38 that are biased in the same direction with respect to thebase20. Angles between 0 and 90 degrees could be selected. Biasing thecarbon fibers38 can further increase the compliance of thecarbon fiber velvet50. In one embodiment of thecarbon fiber velvet50, an angle of about 45 degrees is formed between theunderlying base20 and thecarbon fibers38.
• By biasing thecarbon fibers38 at a particular angle and then lapping the tips of thecarbon fibers38, thenanofibrils36 can be grown or attached at a particular angle to thecarbon fiber38 shafts as shown inFIG. 8. For example, as illustrated inFIG. 8, the nanofibrils can be grown or attached at an angle that is complementary to the angle θ so that thenanofibrils36 are normal to thebase20 and/or amating surface40. Alternatively, thenanofibrils36 are grown or attached at an angle with respect to the carbon fiber shafts so that thenanofibrils36 are not perpendicular or normal to thebase20 and/or themating surface40. Theseangled nanofibrils36 with respect to the carbon fiber shafts may be more compliant than thecarbon fibers38 when contacting themating surface40.
• Any of the deposition techniques previously described, including CVD, PECVD, or using an AO template, can be used to growcarbon nanofibrils36 on the tips ofcarbon fibers38. These deposition techniques utilize a nano-sized metal catalyst (e.g. nickel, iron, or cobalt) particle on thecarbon fiber38 tip from which the carbon nanotube grows. The catalyst might remain to provide a strong bond to thecarbon fiber38 tip. The strength of the base attachment can be improved by, for example, heat treatment. Another means by which the nanofibril can remain strongly attached to the fiber tip is by reacting the carbon nanofibril with a layer of Ti or other metal to form TiC or other appropriate carbide as a weld. Still another method of strongly attaching the carbon nanofibrils to the carbon fiber tip is by encapsulating with a conformal coating of carbon by chemical vapor deposition (CVD).
• One method of depositing the catalyst particles on the ends of thecarbon fibers38, is by ion beam sputtering a thin film of catalyst metal onto thecarbon fiber38 tips, and then appropriate heat treatment and/or etching in order to create nanometer-sized catalyst particles. Thenanofibril36 arrays then grow on the catalyst coatedfibers38 via PECVD processing. In embodiments where thenanofibrils36 are grown at ˜650 degrees C., a carbonizable adhesive can be used to attach thecarbon fibers38 to a carbon (e.g. POCO graphite) substrate. Such a configuration for thecarbon fibers38 andnanofibrils36 results in comparable size, length, and packing fraction values to that of Tokay gecko setae.
• Thenanotubes36 can be coated for specific environments. For example, coating the nanotubes with SiC enhances their high temperature capability in an oxidizing atmosphere (such as air).
• The diameter of thenanofibrils36 affects the adhesive strength between the tips of thenanofibrils36 and themating surface40. It is postulated that once intimate contact between thenanofibrils36 of the adhesive material and themating surface40 occurs, the compliance of thenanofibrils36 allows the adhesive material to stick to themating surface40 by intermolecular (van der Waals) forces. The van der Waals (vdW) force occurs between the uncharged atoms of themating surface40 and the uncharged atoms of thenanofibrils36. These vdW forces occur due to the mutual induction of an electric dipole moment in each atom. These mutually-induced electrical dipoles attract thenanofibril36 to themating surface40 and vice versa. To maximize the vdW adhesion, it is desirable that thenanotubes36 be relatively straight or slightly curved, have high packing fraction, small, uniform diameters, and long, uniform lengths.
• The dipole-dipole pair potential for the vdW forces is given by V=−C/r⁶, where C is a constant roughly proportional to the polarizabilities of the atoms. The vdW force between macroscopic bodies is the sum of all forces between atoms of one body and those of the other. While the vdW force is usually thought to be small between two atoms, it can be quite large between macroscopic bodies, especially when in close contact.
• The vdW force between a sphere of radius R and a flat surface, separated by distance D is:$F=\frac{\mathrm{AR}}{6D^2};$
  where A is the Hamaker constant defined as A=πCρ₁ρ₂, ρ₁and ρ₂are the number of atoms per volume in the two bodies, and C is the coefficient in the atom-atom pair potential V=−C/r⁶. Because C is roughly proportional to the polarizabilities of the two materials, A is approximately constant (i.e. independent of density) for all materials, lying in the range 0.3-6×10⁻¹⁹J for solid bodies. For further discussion see Israelachvili, J. N.,Intermolecular and Surface Forces, published by Academic Press, San Diego, 1985 which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety.
• The adhesive pressure over the projected area of the sphere is therefore:$P=\frac{F}{\pi R^2}=\frac{A}{6\pi D^{2}R}.$
• For an array of spheres with packing fraction φ, the adhesive force per area becomes:$P=\frac{A\varphi }{6\pi D^{2}R}.$
• Taking A=10⁻¹⁹J, D=0.3 nm, and φ=6%, the calculated adhesive strength for spheres, or fibers with hemispherical tips, as a function of sphere/fiber radius are listed below.

  Fiber radius, R	Force per fiber, F (N)	P (psi)

  2	micron	3.70E−07	0.26
  200	nm	3.70E−08	2.6
  20	nm	3.70E−09	26
  2	nm	3.70E−10	260

• This model shows that more smaller fibers adhere more strongly than fewer large fibers of equal area because more atoms are in closer contact with theflat mating surface40. Furthermore, as the fiber radius reaches the nanometer range as withnanofibrils36, the adhesive strength can reach hundreds of psi.
• The density or packing fraction of thenanofibrils36 affects the adhesive strength between the tips of thenanofibrils36 and themating surface40. While the gecko foot has of theorder 10⁶nanofibrils per mm², thenanotube arrays36 have typical densities of 10⁷-10⁸/mm²as described in Ren et al. and Li et al. For acarbon fiber38 packing fraction of 10%, this would give ananofibril36 density of 10⁶-10⁷, which is comparable to or higher than the density for the gecko foot.
• The aspect ratio of thenanofibrils36 can be selected such that they will be able to bend and conform to any contactingmating surface40. In one embodiment, ananotube array36 with 50 nm diameter×5 um length would include such attributes.
• Depositing additional material on the contact surface of thenanofibrils36 can further enhance their adhesive strength to themating surface40. For example, if thenanofibrils36 are open at the ends and have insufficient tip area for high adhesive strength, thenanofibril36 tips can be encapsulated or filled. This filling can be accomplished by, for example, depositing a thin film with a thickness that is comparable to thenanofibril36 diameter. The encapsulating material could be, for example, a metal or a compliant polymer such as parylene. The encapsulating material can comprise, for example, conductive particles. The electrical characteristics of these conductive particles can be varied depending on the attributes desired of the adhesive material.
• For line of sight deposition on the tips of thenanofibrils36 by sputtering or evaporation, the deposited thin film can be thickest at the tips and thinned out on the upper surface area shafts of thenanofibrils36. Such an enhanced tip of thenanofibril36 serves a similar purpose as a gecko spatula to the setae. If a non-planar or rounded geometry is attained for the tip of thenanofibril36, such a rounded tip may adhere well in various orientations.
• Depending on the microstructure of thecarbon fiber velvet50, the microstructure may be susceptible to clogging by dirt or other particles. The attributes of themicrofibrils36 can be further selected to enhance self-cleaning whereby the contaminants are expelled from the microstructure. For example, it may be important for the material to be hydrophobic to enable this self-cleaning feature, and or comprise a certain packing fraction of nanofibrils. These features are used by the lotus plant to keep it clean. In this way, the attributes of the fibers can be optimized to reduce the effect of contaminants on the adhesive properties of the material.
• One of the advantages of this nanostructure is that the adhesive material is compliant and therefore able to conform to both flat and nonflat or rough surfaces with a minimal amount of applied pressure. Another advantage is that the adhesive material makes dry contact, sticking by intermolecular (van der Waals) forces, without leaving a sticky residue. Other advantages include: controlled design and manufacture, enabling tailoring and optimizing of array features by modifying fiber and nanotube diameters, lengths, packing fractions, orientation, and location.
• Exemplary applications of the adhesive material described herein include a wide range of ambient, and even hostile conditions: submarine, high temperature, space vacuum, and chemically corrosive environments. In some advantageous embodiments of the invention, the thermal conductivity and/or electrical conductivity of the carbon fibers can be combined with the adhesive properties. This can produce an electrical or thermal gasket/interface material that sticks without glue or mechanical fasteners to the components it is in contact with.
• The foregoing description details certain embodiments of the invention. It will be appreciated, however, that no matter how detailed the foregoing appears in text, the invention can be practiced in many ways. As is also stated above, it should be noted that the use of particular terminology when describing certain features or aspects of the invention should not be taken to imply that the terminology is being re-defined herein to be restricted to including any specific characteristics of the features or aspects of the invention with which that terminology is associated. The scope of the invention should therefore be construed in accordance with the appended claims and any equivalents thereof.

Claims (14)

1. A method of producing a substantial intermolecular (e.g. vdW) force over a selected area comprising placing an plurality of fabricated fibers distributed over said selected area in close proximity to a mating surface, wherein said fabricated fibers are configured and oriented to produce a resulting average intermolecular force per unit area that is greater than or equal to 2.6 psi over said selected area.

2. The method ofclaim 1, wherein at least some of said fabricated fibers have diameters of less than about 1 micron.

3. The method ofclaim 1, wherein the plurality of fibers has similar sizes.

4. The method ofclaim 1, wherein the plurality of fibers has different sizes.

5. The method ofclaim 4, wherein the plurality of fibers comprise a first size fiber attached to a second size fiber.

6. The method ofclaim 5, wherein the first size fiber has a cross sectional diameter of less than approximately 15 microns and the second size fiber has a cross sectional diameters of less than about 1 micron.

7. A method of adhering a first surface to a second surface, the method comprising:

contacting a plurality of fabricated fibers that are coupled to said first surface with said second surface; and

producing an average intermolecular force per unit area of greater than or equal to 2.6 psi between the plurality of fabricated fibers and the second surface.

8. The method ofclaim 7, wherein the plurality of fabricated fibers has similar sizes.

9. The method ofclaim 7, wherein the plurality of fabricated fibers has different sizes.

10. The method ofclaim 9, wherein the plurality of fabricated fibers comprise a first size fiber attached to a second size fiber.

11. The method ofclaim 10, wherein the first size fiber has a cross sectional diameter of less than approximately 15 microns and the second size fiber has a cross sectional diameters of less than about 1 micron.

12. A method of forming an adherent interface comprising producing an intermolecular force of greater than or equal to 2.6 psi over a selected area by placing a fabricated plurality of fibers in close proximity to a mating surface.

13. A method of thermally and/or electrically coupling first and second components comprising contacting at least one of said components with a compliant array of a plurality of nanofibrils, wherein said nanofibrils are arranged and configured to transfer heat and/or electrical current from said first component to said second component, and wherein said nanofibrils are also arranged and configured to support an average intermolecular adhesive force per unit area of at least 2.6 psi such that plurality of nanofibrils adhere to the component they are in contact.

14. The method ofclaim 13, wherein said nanofibrils comprise carbon.

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