US20050051271A1 - Plasma immersion ion implantation system including an inductively coupled plasma source having low dissociation and low minimum plasma voltage - Google Patents

Abstract

A system for processing a workpiece includes a plasma immersion implantation reactor with an enclosure comprising a side wall and a ceiling and defining a chamber, and a workpiece support pedestal within the chamber having a workpiece support surface facing the ceiling and defining a process region extending generally across the wafer support pedestal. The reactor includes a gas distribution apparatus for introducing a process gas containing a first species to be ion implanted into a surface layer of the workpiece, and inductively coupled source power applicator, and an RF plasma source power generator coupled to the inductively coupled source power applicator for inductively coupling RF source power into the process zone. The reactor further includes an RF bias generator having an RF bias frequency and coupled to the workpiece support pedestal for applying an RF bias to the workpiece. The system further includes a second wafer processing apparatus, and a wafer transfer apparatus for transferring the workpiece between the plasma immersion ion implantation reactor and the second wafer processing apparatus.

Description

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS
• This application is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/164,327 filed Jun. 5, 2003 by Kenneth Collins et al., entitled EXTERNALLY EXCITED TORROIDAL PLASMA SOURCE WITH MAGNETIC CONTROL OF ION DISTRIBUTION and assigned to the present assignee.
BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION
• The present invention is related to semiconductor microelectronic circuit fabrication, and particularly to ion implantation using plasma immersion.
• The formation of semiconductor junctions on the surface of a semiconductor crystal (such as silicon wafer) is generally carried out by implantation of ions of either acceptor or donor impurity species (e.g., Boron or Arsenic) into the surface. Currently, ion implantation is efficiently carried out by ion beam accelerators. An ion beam accelerator raster-scans a beam of donor or acceptor ions across the semiconductor wafer surface. The implanted semiconductor wafer surface is then annealed at elevated temperatures in excess of 600° C. in order to cause the implanted species to be substituted for silicon atoms within the crystal lattice. This process is defined as dopant activation. The depth of the implanted species below the surface, in conjunction with a subsequent anneal process, determines the junction depth, which is determined by the kinetic energy of the ion beam and subsequent annealing thermal budget. The conductance of the implanted region of the semiconductor is determined by the junction depth and the volume concentration of the thermally activated implanted dopant species. The implanted dopant species concentration is controlled by the rate at which the ion beam is scanned across the semiconductor surface and the beam current. The activated implanted dopant species concentration is controlled by the above, and the subsequent anneal process (temperature and time characteristics). For current semiconductor fabrication processes, in which semiconductor circuit feature size is about 130 nm, ion beam accelerators are suitable for ion implantation because the junction depth is fairly deep (over 330 Angstroms) and the required dopant dose is fairly modest (about 2×10¹⁴to about 2×10¹⁵ions/cm²). Such a modest dopant concentration is fulfilled by an ion beam accelerator with an implant operation lasting only minutes. Because of the deep junction depth, the abruptness of the junction need be no smaller than 6 nm/dec (i.e., nanometers per decade of concentration). Therefore, ion energy distribution is not critical, and some ions may have a kinetic energy that carries them somewhat beyond the desired junction depth without degrading the abruptness beyond the 4.1 nm/dec level. Therefore, techniques for enhancing the ion beam flux that compromise ion energy distribution can be used. These techniques include using an ion beam that has a few times the kinetic energy corresponding to the desired junction depth, or about 2 keV, (and therefore several times the ion flux density), and then electrically decelerating the ion beam down to the correct kinetic energy (e.g., 500 eV) just before it impacts the semiconductor wafer surface. The deceleration process is not precise and leaves a fraction of implanted particles (neutrals) above the correct energy level, which is sometimes referred to as a high energy tail or energy contamination. The high energy tail arises from the natural occurrence of neutrals in the ion beam and the immunity of such neutrals from the electrostatic deceleration process. Such neutrals therefore impact the wafer at the original energy (e.g., 2 keV), so that they are implanted below the desired junction depth, due to the high energy tail, causing a loss of junction abruptness. But this is not harmful because of the relatively relaxed requirement for junction abruptness (6 nm/dec). Moreover, rapid thermal annealing by halogen lamps, for example, tends to “wash out” the effect of the high energy tail due to diffusion.
• However, as semiconductor circuit feature size decreases with progress in device speed, ion beam accelerators become less efficient. For example, at a feature size of 65 nm, the junction depth is only about 170 Angstroms and the abruptness is much steeper, at 2.8 nm/dec. With such a shallow junction, the required dopant dose is greater (to avoid an increased resistance), or about 10¹⁵to about 2×10¹⁶ions/cm². In order to activate such higher dopant concentrations in the silicon crystal, and in order to avoid increasing junction depth during annealing, dynamic surface annealing is advantageously employed, in which the wafer surface (e.g., down to depth oforder 1000 Angstroms) is laser-heated to near melting (e.g., 1300 deg. C.) for a period of a nanosecond to tens of milliseconds. Dynamic surface annealing activates a higher concentration of dopant and increases junction depth by less than 20 Å compared with rapid thermal annealing. (By comparison, rapid thermal annealing can add over 100 Å to the junction depth, which would double the junction depth in some cases.) However, dynamic surface annealing does not reduce the high energy tail. Therefore, in order to stay within the more stringent junction abruptness requirement and in order to avoid a high energy tail, the ion beam accelerator must be operated in drift mode, in which the ions are accelerated up to but not beyond the kinetic energy corresponding to the desired junction depth (e.g., only 500 eV), so that no ions will be implanted below the desired depth, and no deceleration process is required. For example, a junction depth of 10-20 nm may translate to an ion beam energy of only 500 eV. Unfortunately, the lower ion energy in drift mode limits the ion beam flux (and current), so that the time required to reach the desired high dopant concentration can be as long as a half hour or one hour. This problem arises particularly in shallow junction implant of light species such as Boron, in which the beam voltage must be reduced to avoid high velocity Boron ions being implanted below the desired junction depth. The problem arises basically because the space charge effects in the ion beam produce repulsive forces between the ions in the beam in a radial direction, generally, limiting the beam density and therefore the beam current. Such effects become more important as the beam energy is reduced (as it must be for implanting the lighter elements such as Boron), resulting in lower beam currents and longer implant times. Such long implant times greatly limit productivity and increase production costs. For example, in order to avoid a decrease in wafer through-put, the number of ion beam implant machines must be increased. In the future, feature sizes will decrease further, down to 45 nm, so that such problems will worsen in proportion as the technology advances.
• These problems pertain particularly to cases in which the species to be implanted has a low atomic weight (such as Boron), so that the acceleration voltage must be small, which translates into a small ion beam flux and a long implant time. For higher atomic weight species (such as Arsenic), the acceleration voltages are much higher and the ion beam flux is therefore sufficiently high to keep implantation times down to an acceptable level. One way of permitting an increased beam acceleration voltage for lighter implant species such as Boron, in order to improve ion flux and reduce implant time, is to implant molecular ions consisting of one Boron atom or more and another volatile species such as Fluorine, Hydrogen, or other species. Examples of such molecular ions are BF₂, B₁₀H₁₄. Thus, implanting BF₂permits the use of a much higher beam energy and therefore a higher and more acceptable ion beam flux. However, while much of the implanted fluorine tends to diffuse out of the silicon crystal during annealing, a significant amount does not, leaving some crystal lattice sites that contain neither a semiconductor atom (Si) nor a dopant impurity atom (B), thus (for some applications) reducing the overall quality of the semiconductor material. Therefore, this technique is not desirable universally for all applications.
• In summary, advances in technology dictate a more shallow junction depth, a greater junction abruptness and a higher dopant concentration in the semiconductor surface. Such advances in technology (where features size decreases to 65 nm and ultimately to 45 nm) render ion beam implantation of lighter dopants such as Boron impractical. This is because the traditional ion beam implanter provides too little ion beam flux in such applications.
• In order to find an ion source having much higher ion flux for low atomic weight species such as Boron, the field has turned to an ion source whose flux at a given implant depth is less affected by the space charge effect or (indirectly) atomic weight, namely a plasma ion source. Specifically, the semiconductor wafer is immersed in a plasma consisting of dopant ions (such as Boron ions). However, such plasma ion immersion implantation has been plagued by various difficulties.
• One type of plasma immersion ion implantation reactor employs a pulsed D.C. voltage applied to a pedestal supporting the semiconductor wafer in a vacuum chamber filled with a dopant-containing gas such as BF3. The D.C. voltage creates a plasma discharge in the chamber in which Boron ions and other ions dissociated from the BF3 ions are accelerated into the wafer surface. The D.C. voltage maintains the plasma by creation of secondary electrons from collisions with the chamber surfaces or wafer surface. The rate at which such collisions produce secondary electrons depends upon the condition of the chamber surfaces. Accordingly, such a reactor is unacceptably sensitive to changes in the condition of the chamber surfaces due, for example, to contamination of the chamber surfaces. As a result, such a plasma ion immersion implantation reactor cannot maintain a target junction depth or abruptness, for example, and is plagued by contamination problems.
• This type of reactor tends to produce a relatively low density plasma and must be operated at relatively high chamber pressure in order to maintain the plasma density. The high chamber pressure and the lower plasma density dictate a thicker plasma sheath with more collisions in the sheath that spread out ion energy distribution. This spreading can result in a larger lateral junction distribution and may reduce junction abruptness. Furthermore, the reactor is sensitive to conditions on the wafer backside because the plasma discharge depends upon ohmic contact between the wafer backside and the wafer support pedestal.
• One problem inherent with D.C. voltage applied to the wafer support is that its pulse width must be such that the dopant ions (e.g., Boron) are accelerated across the plasma sheath near the wafer surface with sufficient energy to reach the desired junction depth below the surface, while the pulse width must be limited to avoid (discharge) any charge build-up on the wafer surface that would cause device damage (charging damage). The limited pulse width is problematic in that the periodic decrease in ion energy can result in deposition on the semiconductor surface rather than implantation, the deposition accumulating in a new layer that can block implantation during the pulse on times. Another problem arises because ions must impact the wafer surface with at least a certain target energy in order to penetrate the surface up to a desirable depth (the as-implanted junction depth) and become substitutional below the surface and up to the desired annealed junction depth during the annealing process. Below this energy, they do not penetrate the surface up to the as-implanted junction depth and do not become substitutional at the desired junction depth upon annealing. Moreover, the ions below the target energy may simply be deposited on the wafer surface, rather than being implanted, to produce a film that can impede implantation. Unfortunately, due to resistive and capacitive charging effects (RC time constant) on dielectric films on the wafer that tend to accompany a D.C. discharge, the ions reach the target energy during only a fraction of each pulse period (e.g., during the first microsecond), so that there is an inherent inefficiency. Moreover, the resulting spread in ion energy reduces the abruptness of the P-N junction. This problem cannot be solved by simply increasing the bias voltage, since this would increase the junction depth beyond the desired junction depth.
• Another type of plasma immersion ion implantation reactor employs inductive coupling to generate the plasma, in addition to the pulsed D.C. voltage on the wafer. This type of reactor reduces the problems associated with plasma maintenance from secondary electrons, but still suffers from the problems associated with pulsed D.C. voltages on the wafer discussed immediately above.
• Another type of plasma ion immersion implantation reactor employs an RF voltage applied to the wafer support pedestal that both controls ion energy and maintains the plasma. As in the pulsed D.C. voltage discussed above, the RF voltage on the wafer support creates a plasma discharge in the chamber in which Boron ions and other ions dissociated from the BF₃ions are accelerated into the wafer surface. The RF voltage generates and maintains the plasma mainly by capacitively coupling RF energy from the electrode across the sheath to electrons in the plasma just above the sheath (low pressure case) or electrons in the bulk plasma volume (high pressure case). While such a reactor has reduced sensitivity to chamber surface conditions as compared to reactors employing a pulsed DC bias, it is still quite sensitive. Also, ion energy and flux cannot be independently selected with a single RF power source. Ion flux may still be unacceptably low for high throughput applications with a single RF power source. Contamination due to wall sputtering or etching may also be high due to elevated plasma potential.
• Another type of plasma ion immersion implantation reactor employs a microwave power applicator for generating the plasma. This reactor has a microwave waveguide pointed axially downward to a magnetic field centered about the axis. Electron cyclotron resonance (ECR) occurs in a particular surface of the field to produce the plasma (for a microwave frequency of 2.45 GHz, this surface is where the magnetic field is about 875 gauss). The magnetic field is divergent, with a field gradient creating a drift current towards the substrate being processed. This drift current consists of both electrons (directly acted on by the interaction of microwave induced electric field and divergent DC magnetic field) and positively-charged ions (indirectly acted on by the deficit in negative charge formed due to the out-flux of electrons) and corresponding to a voltage of 10 to 100 eV. One problem is that the magnetic field gradient is non-uniform, so that the radial distribution of plasma ion energy is non-uniform, causing non-uniform junction depths across the wafer. Another problem is the relatively high ion energy directed at the wafer, limiting the degree to which junction depths can be minimized. One way of addressing the non-uniformity issue is to place the microwave ECR source far above the wafer. The problem with such an approach is that the ion density and flux is at least proportionately decreased, thus reducing the productivity of the reactor. A related problem is that, because the plasma ion density at the wafer surface is reduced by the increased source-to-wafer distance, the chamber pressure must be reduced in order to reduce recombination losses. This rules out some applications that would be advantageously carried out at high pressure (applications which benefit from wide angular ion energy distribution) such as conformal doping of polysilicon lines and three dimensional devices. Another way of addressing the non-uniformity issue is to place another magnet array between the source and the wafer, in an effort to straighten the magnetic field. However, the additional magnetic field would increase magnetic flux at the wafer surface, increasing the risk of charge damage to semiconductor structures on the wafer.
• In summary, plasma immersion ion implantation reactors have various limitations, depending upon the type of reactor: plasma reactors in which a pulsed D.C. voltage is applied to the wafer pedestal are too sensitive to chamber conditions and are inefficient; and plasma reactors with microwave ECR sources tend to produce non-uniform results. Thus, there is a need for a plasma immersion ion implantation reactor that is free of the foregoing limitations.
SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION
• A system for processing a workpiece includes a plasma immersion implantation reactor with an enclosure comprising a side wall and a ceiling and defining a chamber, and a workpiece support pedestal within the chamber having a workpiece support surface facing the ceiling and defining a process region extending generally across the wafer support pedestal. The reactor includes a gas distribution apparatus for introducing a process gas containing a first species to be ion implanted into a surface layer of the workpiece, and inductively coupled source power applicator, and an RF plasma source power generator coupled to the inductively coupled source power applicator for inductively coupling RF source power into the process zone. The reactor further includes an RF bias generator having an RF bias frequency and coupled to the workpiece support pedestal for applying an RF bias to the workpiece. The system further includes a second wafer processing apparatus, and a wafer transfer apparatus for transferring the workpiece between the plasma immersion ion implantation reactor and the second wafer processing apparatus.
BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS
• FIG. 1 illustrates a first case that maintains an overhead torroidal plasma current path.
• FIG. 2 is a side view of a case corresponding to the case ofFIG. 1.
• FIG. 3 is a graph illustrating the behavior of free fluorine concentration in the plasma with variations in wafer-to-ceiling gap distance.
• FIG. 4 is a graph illustrating the behavior of free fluorine concentration in the plasma with variations in RF bias power applied to the workpiece.
• FIG. 5 is a graph illustrating the behavior of free fluorine concentration in the plasma with variations in RF source power applied to the coil antenna.
• FIG. 6 is a graph illustrating the behavior of free fluorine concentration in the plasma with variations in reactor chamber pressure.
• FIG. 7 is a graph illustrating the behavior of free fluorine concentration in the plasma with variations in partial pressure of an inert diluent gas such as Argon.
• FIG. 8 is a graph illustrating the degree of dissociation of process gas as a function of source power for an inductively coupled reactor and for a reactor according to an embodiment of the present invention.
• FIG. 9 illustrates a variation of the case ofFIG. 1.
• FIGS. 10 and 11 illustrate a variation of the case ofFIG. 1 in which a closed magnetic core is employed.
• FIG. 12 illustrates another case of the invention in which a torroidal plasma current path passes beneath the reactor chamber.
• FIG. 13 illustrates a variation of the case ofFIG. 10 in which plasma source power is applied to a coil wound around a distal portion the closed magnetic core.
• FIG. 14 illustrates a case that establishes two parallel torroidal plasma currents.
• FIG. 15 illustrates a case that establishes a plurality of individually controlled parallel torroidal plasma currents.
• FIG. 16 illustrates a variation of the case ofFIG. 15 in which the parallel torroidal plasma currents enter and exit the plasma chamber through the vertical side wall rather than the ceiling.
• FIG. 17A illustrates a case that maintains a pair of mutually orthogonal torroidal plasma currents across the surface of the workpiece.
• FIG. 17B illustrates the use of plural radial vanes in the case ofFIG. 17A.
• FIGS. 18 and 19 illustrate an case of the invention in which the torroidal plasma current is a broad belt that extends across a wide path suitable for processing large wafers.
• FIG. 20 illustrates a variation of the case ofFIG. 18 in which an external section of the torroidal plasma current path is constricted.
• FIG. 21 illustrates a variation of the case ofFIG. 18 employing cylindrical magnetic cores whose axial positions may be adjusted to adjust ion density distribution across the wafer surface.
• FIG. 22 illustrates a variation ofFIG. 21 in which a pair of windings are wound around a pair of groups of cylindrical magnetic cores.
• FIG. 23 illustrates a variation ofFIG. 22 in which a single common winding is wound around both groups of cores.
• FIGS. 24 and 25 illustrate an case that maintains a pair of mutually orthogonal torroidal plasma currents which are wide belts suitable for processing large wafers.
• FIG. 26 illustrates a variation of the case ofFIG. 25 in which magnetic cores are employed to enhance inductive coupling.
• FIG. 27 illustrates a modification of the case ofFIG. 24 in which the orthogonal plasma belts enter and exit the reactor chamber through the vertical side wall rather than through the horizontal ceiling.
• FIG. 28A illustrates an implementation of the case ofFIG. 24 which produces a rotating torroidal plasma current.
• FIG. 28B illustrates a version of the case ofFIG. 28A that includes magnetic cores.
• FIG. 29 illustrates a preferred case of the invention in which a continuous circular plenum is provided to enclose the torroidal plasma current.
• FIG. 30 is a top sectional view corresponding toFIG. 29.
• FIGS. 31A and 31B are front and side sectional views corresponding toFIG. 30.
• FIG. 32 illustrates a variation of the case29 employing three independently driven RF coils underneath the continuous plenum facing at 120-degree intervals.
• FIG. 33 illustrates a variation of the case ofFIG. 32 in which the three RF coils are driven at 120-degree phase to provide an azimuthally rotating plasma.
• FIG. 34 illustrates a variation of the case ofFIG. 33 in which RF drive coils are wound around vertical external ends of respective magnetic cores whose opposite ends extend horizontally under the plenum at symmetrically distributed angles.
• FIG. 35 is a version of the case ofFIG. 17 in which the mutually transverse hollow conduits are narrowed as in the case ofFIG. 20.
• FIG. 36 is a version of the case ofFIG. 24 but employing a pair ofmagnetic cores3610,3620 withrespective windings3630,3640 therearound for connection to respective RF power sources.
• FIG. 37 is a case corresponding to that ofFIG. 35 but having three instead of two reentrant conduits with a total of six reentrant ports to the chamber.
• FIG. 38 is a case corresponding to that ofFIG. 38 but having three instead of two reentrant conduits with a total of six reentrant ports to the chamber.
• FIG. 39 is a case corresponding to that ofFIG. 35 in which the external conduits join together in acommon plenum3910.
• FIG. 40 is a case corresponding to that ofFIG. 36 in which the external conduits join together in acommon plenum4010.
• FIG. 41 is a case corresponding to that ofFIG. 37 in which the external conduits join together in acommon plenum4110.
• FIG. 42 is a case corresponding to that ofFIG. 38 in which the external conduits join together in acommon plenum4210.
• FIG. 43 is a case corresponding to that ofFIG. 17 in which the external conduits join together in acommon plenum4310.
• FIG. 44 illustrates cases a reactor similar to that ofFIG. 1 and having a magnetic pole piece for controlling plasma ion density uniformity.
• FIG. 45 illustrates a reactor like that ofFIG. 44 in which the magnetic pole piece has a reduced diameter near the ceiling surface, and the ceiling is a dual zone gas distribution plate.
• FIGS. 46, 47 and48 illustrate different shapes for the pole piece.
• FIG. 49 illustrates one implementation of the gas distribution plate.
• FIG. 50 is a detailed view of a gas injection orifice inFIG. 49.
• FIG. 51 is a graph depicting the magnetic field that the magnetic pole piece can generate.
• FIG. 52 is a graph of the magnetic field magnitude as a function of radius.
• FIGS. 53 and 54 illustrate different ways of controlling process gas flow.
• FIGS. 55A and 55B illustrate the use of a splitter in the torroidal plasma path.
• FIGS. 56A, 56B and56C illustrate use of splitters where the torroidal plasma current enters the chamber vertically.
• FIGS. 57 and 58 illustrate different shapes for a splitter.
• FIGS. 59A and 59B illustrate use of splitters where the torroidal plasma current enters the chamber radially.
• FIGS. 60, 61,62 and63 illustrate the use of splitters where the torroidal plasma current is introduced vertically at a corner of the chamber.
• FIG. 64 illustrates how a splitter may extend only part of the process region height.
• FIGS. 65A, 65B and66 illustrate a splitter design adapted to increase the effective radial path length of the torroidal plasma current inside the chamber for a given chamber diameter.
• FIG. 67 illustrates the use of MERIE magnets with the torroidal plasma current source ofFIG. 1.
• FIGS. 68 and 69 illustrate the use of fins to better confine the torroidal plasma current to the processing region.
• FIGS. 70, 71 and72 illustrate an RF power applicator having distributed inductances.
• FIG. 72 illustrates distributed inductances corresponding to theFIGS. 70, 71A and71B.
• FIG. 73 illustrates a circular arrangement of the distributed inductances ofFIG. 72.
• FIG. 74 illustrates distributed inductances and capacitances in an arrangement corresponding to that ofFIGS. 71A and 71B.
• FIGS. 75 and 76 are schematic diagrams illustrating different ways of inductively coupling RF power using the magnetic core ofFIGS. 71A and 71B.
• FIG. 77 illustrates the use of an insulator layer to electrically isolate the termination sections and torroidal tubes ofFIG. 44.
• FIG. 78 illustrates how the uniformity control magnet or magnetic pole may be placed under the wafer support pedestal.
• FIG. 79 depicts an inductively coupled plasma immersion ion implantation reactor having an RF bias power applicator.
• FIGS. 80A, 80B and80C illustrate, respectively, an applied pulsed D.C. bias voltage, the corresponding sheath voltage behavior and an applied RF bias voltage.
• FIGS. 81A, 81B,81C and81D illustrate, respectively, an energy distribution of ion flux, a cycle of applied RF bias voltage, ion saturation current as a function of D.C. bias voltage, and energy distribution of ion flux for different frequencies of RF bias voltage.
• FIGS. 82A and 82B illustrate the temporal relationship between the power output waveforms of the source power generator and the bias power generator in a push-pull mode.
• FIGS. 82C and 82D illustrate the temporal relationship between the power output waveforms of the source power generator and the bias power generator in an in-synchronism mode.
• FIGS. 82E and 82F illustrate the temporal relationship between the power output waveforms of the source power generator and the bias power generator in a symmetric mode.
• FIGS. 82G and 82H illustrate the temporal relationship between the power output waveforms of the source power generator and the bias power generator in a non-symmetric mode.
• FIGS. 83A and 83B illustrate different versions of a capacitively coupled plasma immersion ion implantation reactor having an RF bias power applicator.
• FIG. 84 illustrates a plasma immersion ion implantation reactor having a reentrant torroidal path plasma source.
• FIG. 85 illustrates a plasma immersion ion implantation reactor having a torroidal plasma source with two intersecting reentrant plasma paths.
• FIG. 86 illustrates an interior surface of the ceiling of the reactor ofFIG. 85.
• FIG. 87 illustrates a gas distribution panel of the reactor ofFIG. 85.
• FIG. 88 is a partial view of the reactor ofFIG. 85 modified to include a plasma control center electromagnet.
• FIGS. 89A and 89B are side and top views, respectively, of a version of the reactor ofFIG. 88 having, in addition, a plasma control outer electromagnet.
• FIGS. 90A, 90B and90C are cross-sectional side view of the outer electromagnet ofFIG. 89A with different gap distances of a bottom plate for regulating magnetic flux.
• FIG. 91 illustrates an RF bias power coupling circuit in the reactor ofFIG. 85.
• FIG. 92 depicts an RF bias voltage waveform in accordance with a bias voltage control feature.
• FIG. 93 is a block diagram illustrating a control system for controlling bias voltage in accordance with the feature illustrated inFIG. 92.
• FIG. 94 is a top view of a vacuum control valve employed in the reactor ofFIG. 85.
• FIG. 95 is a cross-sectional side view of the valve ofFIG. 94 in the closed position.
• FIG. 96 is a side view of the interior surface of the housing of the valve ofFIG. 95 with an orientation at right angles to that ofFIG. 95.
• FIG. 97 is a cross-sectional side view of a high voltage wafer support pedestal useful in the reactor ofFIG. 85.
• FIG. 98 is an enlarged cross-sectional view of the wafer support pedestal ofFIG. 97 illustrating a fastener therein.
• FIG. 99 is a block diagram illustrating an ion implantation processing system including a plasma immersion ion implantation reactor.
• FIG. 100 is a graph illustrating electron density as a function of applied plasma source power for the inductively coupled plasma immersion ion implantation reactor ofFIG. 79 and the torroidal source plasma immersion ion implantation reactor ofFIG. 85.
• FIG. 101 is a graph illustrating free fluorine density as a function of applied plasma source power for the inductively coupled plasma immersion ion implantation reactor ofFIG. 79 and the torroidal source plasma immersion ion implantation reactor ofFIG. 85.
• FIG. 102 is a graph illustrating electron density as a function of applied plasma source power for the capacitively coupled plasma immersion ion implantation reactor ofFIG. 83A and the torroidal source plasma immersion ion implantation reactor ofFIG. 85.
• FIG. 103 is a graph illustrating dopant concentration as a function of junction depth for different ion energies in the reactor ofFIG. 85 and in a convention ion beam implant machine.
• FIG. 104 is a graph illustrating dopant concentration before and after post-implant rapid thermal annealing.
• FIG. 105 is a graph illustrating dopant concentration before and after dynamic surface annealing in the torroidal source plasma immersion ion implantation reactor ofFIG. 85 and in a convention ion beam implant machine.
• FIG. 106 is a graph depicting wafer resistivity after ion implantation and annealing as a function of junction depth obtained with the reactor ofFIG. 85 using dynamic surface annealing and with a conventional ion beam implant machine using rapid thermal annealing.
• FIG. 107 is a graph depicting implanted dopant concentration obtained with the reactor ofFIG. 85 before and after dynamic surface annealing.
• FIG. 108 is a graph of RF bias voltage in the reactor ofFIG. 85 (left ordinate) and of beamline voltage in a beamline implant machine (right ordinate) as a function of junction depth.
• FIG. 109 is a cross-sectional view of the surface of a wafer during ion implantation of source and drain contacts and of the polysilicon gate of a transistor.
• FIG. 110 is a cross-sectional view of the surface of a wafer during ion implantation of the source and drain extensions of a transistor.
• FIG. 111 is a flow diagram illustrating an ion implantation process carried out using the reactor ofFIG. 85.
• FIG. 112 is a flow diagram illustrating a sequence of possible pre-implant, ion implant and possible post implant processes carried using the reactor ofFIG. 85 in the system ofFIG. 99.
DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS
• Description of a Torroidal Source Reactor:
• Referring toFIG. 1, aplasma reactor chamber100 enclosed by acylindrical side wall105 and aceiling110 houses awafer pedestal115 for supporting a semiconductor wafer orworkpiece120. Aprocess gas supply125 furnishes process gas into thechamber100 through gas inlet nozzles130a-130dextending through theside wall105. Avacuum pump135 controls the pressure within thechamber100, typically holding the pressure below 0.5 milliTorr (mT). A half-torroidal hollow tube enclosure orconduit150 extends above theceiling110 in a half circle. Theconduit150, although extending externally outwardly fromceiling110, is nevertheless part of the reactor and forms a wall of the chamber. Internally it shares the same evacuated atmosphere as exists elsewhere in the reactor. In fact, thevacuum pump135, instead of being coupled to the bottom of the main part of the chamber as illustrated inFIG. 1, may instead be coupled to theconduit150. Theconduit150 has oneopen end150asealed around afirst opening155 in thereactor ceiling110 and itsother end150bsealed around asecond opening160 in thereactor ceiling110. The two openings orports150,160 are located on generally opposite sides of thewafer support pedestal115. Thehollow conduit150 is reentrant in that it provides a flow path which exits the main portion of the chamber at one opening and re-enters at the other opening. In this specification, theconduit150 may be described as being half-torroidal, in that the conduit is hollow and provides a portion of a closed path in which plasma may flow, the entire path being completed by flowing across the entire process region overlying thewafer support pedestal115. Notwithstanding the use of the term torroidal, the trajectory of the path as well as the cross-sectional shape of the path orconduit150 may be circular or non-circular, and may be square, rectangular or any other shape either a regular shape or irregular.
• Theexternal conduit150 may be formed of a relatively thin conductor such as sheet metal, but sufficiently strong to withstand the vacuum within the chamber. In order to suppress eddy currents in the sheet metal of the hollow conduit150 (and thereby facilitate coupling of an RF inductive field into the interior of the conduit150), an insulatinggap152 extends across and through thehollow conduit150 so as to separate it into two tubular sections. Thegap152 is filled by aring154 of insulating material such as a ceramic in lieu of the sheet metal skin, so that the gap is vacuum tight. A second insulatinggap153 may be provided, so that one section of theconduit150 is electrically floating. Abias RF generator162 applies RF bias power to thewafer pedestal115 andwafer120 through animpedance match element164.
• Thehollow conduit150 may be formed of a machined metal, such as aluminum or aluminum alloy. Passages for liquid cooling or heating may be incorporated in the walls of the hollow conduit.
• Alternatively, thehollow conduit150 may be formed of a non-conductive material instead of the conductive sheet metal. The non-conductive material may be a ceramic, for example. In such an alternative case, neithergap152 or153 is required.
• Anantenna170 such as a winding orcoil165 disposed on one side of thehollow conduit150 and wound around an axis parallel to the axis of symmetry of the half-torroidal tube is connected through animpedance match element175 to anRF power source180. Theantenna170 may further include a second winding185 disposed on the opposite side of thehollow conduit150 and wound in the same direction as the first winding165 so that the magnetic fields from both windings add constructively.
• Process gases from thechamber100 fill thehollow conduit150. In addition, a separateprocess gas supply190 may supply process gases directly in to thehollow conduit150 through agas inlet195. The RF field in the externalhollow conduit150 ionizes the gases in the tube to produce a plasma. The RF field induced by thecircular coil antenna170 is such that the plasma formed in thetube150 reaches through the region between thewafer120 and theceiling110 to complete a torroidal path that includes the half-torroidalhollow conduit150. As employed herein, the term torroidal refers to the closed and solid nature of the path, but does not refer or limit its cross-sectional shape or trajectory, either of which may be circular or non-circular or square or otherwise. Plasma circulates (oscillates) through the complete torroidal path or region which may be thought of as a closed plasma circuit. The torroidal region extends across the diameter of thewafer120 and, in certain cases, has a sufficient width in the plane of the wafer so that it overlies the entire wafer surface.
• The RF inductive field from thecoil antenna170 includes a magnetic field which itself is closed (as are all magnetic fields), and therefore induces a plasma current along the closed torroidal path described here. It is believed that power from the RF inductive field is absorbed at generally every location along the closed path, so that plasma ions are generated all along the path. The RF power absorption and rate of plasma ion generation may vary among different locations along the closed path depending upon a number of factors. However, the current is generally uniform along the closed path length, although the current density may vary. This current alternates at the frequency of the RF signal applied to theantenna170. However, since the current induced by the RF magnetic field is closed, the current must be conserved around the circuit of the closed path, so that the amount of current flowing in any portion of the closed path is generally the same as in any other portion of the path. As will be described below, this fact is exploited in the invention to great advantage.
• The closed torroidal path through which the plasma current flows is bounded by plasma sheaths formed at the various conductive surfaces bounding the path. These conductive surfaces include the sheet metal of thehollow conduit150, the wafer (and/or the wafer support pedestal) and the ceiling overlying the wafer. The plasma sheaths formed on these conductive surfaces are charge-depleted regions produced as the result of the charge imbalance due to the greater mobility of the low-mass negative electrons and the lesser mobility of the heavy-mass positive ions. Such a plasma sheath has an electric field perpendicular to the local surface underlying the sheath. Thus, the RF plasma current that passes through the process region overlying the wafer is constricted by and passes between the two electric fields perpendicular to the surface of the ceiling facing the wafer and the surface of the wafer facing the gas distribution plate. The thickness of the sheath (with RF bias applied to the workpiece or other electrode) is greater where the electric field is concentrated over a small area, such as the wafer, and is less in other locations such as the sheath covering the ceiling and the large adjoining chamber wall surfaces. Thus, the plasma sheath overlying the wafer is much thicker. The electric fields of the wafer and ceiling/gas distribution plate sheaths are generally parallel to each other and perpendicular to the direction of the RF plasma current flow in the process region.
• When RF power is first applied to thecoil antenna170, a discharge occurs across thegap152 to ignite a capacitively coupled plasma from gases within thehollow conduit150. Above a threshold power level, the discharge and plasma current become spatially continuous through the length of thehollow conduit150 and along the entire torroidal path. Thereafter, as the plasma current through thehollow conduit150 increases, the inductive coupling of the RF field becomes more dominant so that the plasma becomes an inductively coupled plasma. Alternatively, plasma may be initiated by other means, such as by RF bias applied to the workpiece support or other electrode or by a spark or ultraviolet light source.
• In order to avoid edge effects at the wafer periphery, theports150,160 are separated by a distance that exceeds the diameter of the wafer. For example, for a 12 inch diameter wafer, theports150,160 are about 14 to 22 inches apart. For an 8 inch diameter wafer, theports150,160 are about 9 to 16 inches apart.
• Notwithstanding the use of the term “wafer”, the workpiece may be any shape, such as rectangular. The workpiece material may be a semiconductor, insulator, or conductor, or a combination of various materials. The workpiece may have 2-dimensional or 3-dimensional structure, as well.
• Advantages:
• A significant advantage is that power from the RF inductive field is absorbed throughout the relatively long closed torroidal path (i.e., long relative to the gap length between the wafer and the reactor ceiling), so that RF power absorption is distributed over a large area. As a result, the RF power density in the vicinity of the wafer-to-ceiling gap (i.e., theprocess region121 best shown inFIG. 2, not to be confused with the insulating gap152) is relatively low, thus reducing the likelihood of device damage from RF fields. In contrast, in prior inductively coupled reactors, all of the RF power is absorbed within the narrow wafer-to-ceiling gap, so that it is greatly concentrated in that region. Moreover, this fact often limits the ability to narrow the wafer-to-ceiling gap (in the quest of other advantages) or, alternatively, requires greater concentration of RF power in the region of the wafer. Thus, the invention overcomes a limitation of long standing in the art. This aspect enhances process performance for some applications by reducing residency time of the reactive gases through a dramatic reduction in volume of the process region or process zone overlying the wafer, as discussed previously herein.
• A related and even more important advantage is that the plasma density at the wafer surface can be dramatically increased without increasing the RF power applied to the coil antenna170 (leading to greater efficiency). This is accomplished by reducing the cross-sectional area of the torroidal path in the vicinity of the pedestal surface andwafer120 relative to the remainder of the torroidal path. By so constricting the torroidal path of the plasma current near the wafer only, the density of the plasma near the wafer surface is increased proportionately. This is because the torroidal path plasma current through thehollow conduit150 must be at least nearly the same as the plasma current through the pedestal-to-ceiling (wafer-to-ceiling) gap.
• A significant difference over the prior art is that not only is the RF field remote from the workpiece, and not only can ion density be increased at the wafer surface without increasing the applied RF field, but the plasma ion density and/or the applied RF field may be increased without increasing the minimum wafer-to-ceiling gap length. Formerly, such an increase in plasma density necessitated an increase in the wafer-to-ceiling gap to avoid strong fields at the wafer surface. In contrast, in the present invention the enhanced plasma density is realized without requiring any increase in the wafer-to-ceiling gap to avoid a concomitant increase in RF magnetic fields at the wafer surface. This is because the RF field is applied remotely from the wafer and moreover need not be increased to realize an increase in plasma density at the wafer surface. As a result, the wafer-to-ceiling gap can be reduced down to a fundamental limit to achieve numerous advantages. For example, if the ceiling surface above the wafer is conductive, then reducing the wafer-to-ceiling gap improves the electrical or ground reference provided by the conductive ceiling surface. A fundamental limit on the minimum wafer-to-ceiling gap length is the sum of the thicknesses of the plasma sheaths on the wafer surface and on the ceiling surface.
• A further advantage of the invention is that because the RF inductive field is applied along the entire torroidal path of the RF plasma current (so that its absorption is distributed as discussed above), thechamber ceiling110, unlike with most other inductively powered reactors, need not function as a window to an inductive field and therefore may be formed of any desired material, such as a highly conductive and thick metal, and therefore may comprise a conductive gas distribution plate as will be described below, for example. As a result, theceiling110 readily provides a reliable electric potential or ground reference across the entire plane of the pedestal orwafer120.
• Increasing the Plasma Ion Density:
• One way of realizing higher plasma density near the wafer surface by reducing plasma path cross-sectional area over the wafer is to reduce the wafer-to-ceiling gap length. This may be accomplished by simply reducing the ceiling height or by introducing a conductive gas distribution plate or showerhead over the wafer, as illustrated inFIG. 2. Thegas distribution showerhead210 ofFIG. 2 consists of agas distribution plenum220 connected to thegas supply125 and communicating with the process region over thewafer120 through pluralgas nozzle openings230. The advantage of theconductive showerhead210 is two-fold: First, by virtue of its close location to the wafer, it constricts the plasma path over the wafer surface and thereby increases the density of the plasma current in that vicinity. Second, it provides a uniform electrical potential reference or ground plane close to and across the entire wafer surface.
• In order to avoid arcing across theopenings230, each opening230 may be relatively small, on the order of a millimeter (e.g., hole diameter is approximately 0.5 mm). The spacing between adjacent openings may be on the order of a several millimeters.
• Theconductive showerhead210 constricts the plasma current path rather than providing a short circuit through itself because a plasma sheath is formed around the portion of the showerhead surface immersed in the plasma. The sheath has a greater impedance to the plasma current than the space between thewafer120 and theshowerhead210, and therefore virtually all the plasma current goes around theconductive showerhead210.
• It is not necessary to employ a showerhead (e.g., the showerhead210) in order to constrict the torroidal plasma current or path in the vicinity of the process region overlying the wafer. The path constriction and consequent increase in plasma ion density in the process region may be achieved without theshowerhead210 by similarly reducing the wafer-to-ceiling height. If theshowerhead210 is eliminated in this manner, then the process gases may be supplied into the chamber interior by means of conventional gas inlet nozzles, gas diffusers, or gas slots (not shown).
• One advantage of theshowerhead210 is that different mixtures of reactive and inert process gas ratios may be introduced throughdifferent orifices230 at different radii, in order to finely adjust the uniformity of plasma effects on photoresist, for example. Thus, for example, a greater proportion of inert gas to reactive gas may be supplied to theorifices230 lying outside a median radius while a greater proportion of reactive gas to inert gas may be supplied to theorifices230 within that median radius.
• As will be described below, another way in which the torroidal plasma current path may be constricted in the process region overlying the wafer (in order to increase plasma ion density over the wafer) is to increase the plasma sheath thickness on the wafer by increasing the RF bias power applied to the wafer support pedestal. Since as described previously the plasma current across the process region is confined between the plasma sheath at the wafer surface and the plasma sheath at the ceiling (or showerhead) surface, increasing the plasma sheath thickness at the wafer surface necessarily decreases the cross-section of the portion of the torroidal plasma current within process region, thereby increasing the plasma ion density in the process region. Thus, as will be described more fully later in this specification, as RF bias power on the wafer support pedestal is increased, plasma ion density near the wafer surface is increased accordingly.
• High Etch Selectivity at High Etch Rates:
• The invention solves the problem of poor etch selectivity which sometimes occurs with a high density plasma. The reactor ofFIGS. 1 and 2 has a silicon dioxide-to-photoresist etch selectivity as high as that of a capacitively coupled plasma reactor (about 7:1) while providing high etch rates approaching that of a high density inductively coupled plasma reactor. It is believed that the reason for this success is that the reactor structure ofFIGS. 1 and 2 reduces the degree of dissociation of the reactive process gas, typically a fluorocarbon gas, so as to reduce the incidence of free fluorine in the plasma region over thewafer120. Thus, the proportion of free fluorine in the plasma relative to other species dissociated from the fluorocarbon gas is desirably reduced. Such other species include the protective carbon-rich polymer precursor species formed in the plasma from the fluorocarbon process gas and deposited on the photoresist as a protective polymer coating. They further include less reactive etchant species such as CF and CF₂formed in the plasma from the fluorocarbon process gas. Free fluorine tends to attack photoresist and the protective polymer coating formed thereover as vigorously as it attacks silicon dioxide, thus reducing oxide-to-photoresist etch selectivity. On the other hand, the less reactive etch species such as CF₂or CF tend to attack photoresist and the protective polymer coating formed thereover more slowly and therefore provide superior etch selectivity.
• It is believed that the reduction in the dissociation of the plasma species to free fluorine is accomplished in the invention by reducing the residency time of the reactive gas in the plasma. This is because the more complex species initially dissociated in the plasma from the fluorocarbon process gas, such as CF₂and CF are themselves ultimately dissociated into simpler species including free fluorine, the extent of this final step of dissociation depending upon the residency time of the gas in the plasma. The term “residency time” or “residence time” as employed in this specification corresponds generally to the average time that a process gas molecule and the species dissociated from the that molecule are present in the process region overlying the workpiece or wafer. This time or duration extends from the initial injection of the molecule into the process region until the molecule and/or its dissociated progeny are pass out of the process region along the closed torroidal path described above that extends through the processing zone.
• It is also believed that the reduction in the dissociation of the plasma species to free fluorine is accomplished by reducing the power density of the applied plasma source power as compared to conventional inductively coupled plasma sources. As stated above, power from the RF inductive field is absorbed throughout the relatively long closed torroidal path (i.e., long relative to the gap length between the wafer and the reactor ceiling), so that RF power absorption is distributed over a large area. As a result, the RF power density in the vicinity of the wafer-to-ceiling gap (i.e., theprocess region121 best shown inFIG. 2, not to be confused with the insulating gap152) is relatively low, thus reducing the dissociation of molecular gases.
• As stated above, the invention enhances etch selectivity by reducing the residency time in the process region of the fluorocarbon process gas. The reduction in residency time is achieved by constricting the plasma volume between thewafer120 and theceiling110.
• The reduction in the wafer-to-ceiling gap or volume has certain beneficial effects. First, it increases plasma density over the wafer, enhancing etch rate. Second, residency time falls as the volume is decreased. As referred to above, the small volume is made possible in the present invention because, unlike conventional inductively coupled reactors, the RF source power is not deposited within the confines of the process region overlying the wafer but rather power deposition is distributed along the entire closed torroidal path of the plasma current. Therefore, the wafer-to-ceiling gap can be less than a skin depth of the RF inductive field, and in fact can be so small as to significantly reduce the residency time of the reactive gases introduced into the process region, a significant advantage.
• There are two ways of reducing the plasma path cross-section and therefore the volume over thewafer120. One is to reduce the wafer-to-showerhead gap distance. The other is to increase the plasma sheath thickness over the wafer by increasing the bias RF power applied to thewafer pedestal115 by the RFbias power generator162, as briefly mentioned above. Either method results in a reduction in free fluorine content of the plasma in the vicinity of the wafer120 (and consequent increase in dielectric-to-photoresist etch selectivity) as observed using optical emission spectroscopy (OES) techniques.
• There are three additional methods of the invention for reducing free fluorine content to improve etch selectivity. One method is to introduce a non-chemically reactive diluent gas such as argon into the plasma. The argon gas may be introduced outside and above the process region by injecting it directly into thehollow conduit150 from the secondprocess gas supply190, while the chemically reactive process gases (fluorocarbon gases) enter the chamber only through theshowerhead210. With this advantageous arrangement, the argon ions, neutrals, and excited neutrals propagate within the torroidal path plasma current and through the process region across the wafer surface to dilute the newly introduced reactive (e.g., fluorocarbon) gases and thereby effectively reduce their residency time over the wafer. Another method of reducing plasma free fluorine content is to reduce the chamber pressure. A further method is to reduce the RF source power applied to thecoil antenna170.
• FIG. 3 is a graph illustrating a trend observed in the invention in which the free fluorine content of the plasma decreases as the wafer-to-showerhead gap distance is decreased.FIG. 4 is a graph illustrating that the free fluorine content of the plasma is decreased by decreasing the plasma bias power applied to thewafer pedestal115.FIG. 5 is a graph illustrating that plasma free fluorine content is reduced by reducing the RF source power applied to thecoil antenna170.FIG. 6 is a graph illustrating that the free fluorine content is reduced by reducing chamber pressure.FIG. 7 is a graph illustrating that plasma free fluorine content is reduced by increasing the diluent (Argon gas) flow rate into thetubular enclosure150. The graphs ofFIGS. 3-7 are merely illustrative of plasma behavioral trends inferred from numerous OES observations and do not depict actual data.
• Wide Process Window:
• The chamber pressure is generally less than 0.5 T and can be as low as 1 mT. The process gas may be C₄F₈injected into thechamber100 through the gas distribution showerhead at a flow rate of about 15 cc/m with 150 cc/m of Argon, with the chamber pressure being maintained at about 20 mT. Alternatively, the Argon gas flow rate may be increased to 650 cc/m and the chamber pressure to 60 mT. Theantenna170 may be excited with about 500 Watts of RF power at 13 MHz. The wafer-to-showerhead gap may be about 0.3 inches to 2 inches. The bias RF power applied to the wafer pedestal may be 13 MHz at 2000 Watts. Other selections of frequency may be made. The source power applied to thecoil antenna170 may be as low as 50 kHz or as high as several times 13 MHz or higher. The same is true of the bias power applied to the wafer pedestal.
• The process window for the reactor ofFIGS. 1 and 2 is far wider than the process window for a conventional inductively coupled reactor. This is illustrated in the graph ofFIG. 8, showing the specific neutral flux of free fluorine as a function of RF source power for a conventional inductive reactor and for the reactor ofFIGS. 1 and 2. For the conventional inductively coupled reactor,FIG. 8 shows that the free fluorine specific flux begins to rapidly increase as the source power exceeds between 50 and 100 Watts. In contrast, the reactor ofFIGS. 1 and 2 can accept source power levels approaching 1000 Watts before the free fluorine specific flux begins to increase rapidly. Therefore, the source power process window in the invention is nearly an order of magnitude wider than that of a conventional inductively coupled reactor, a significant advantage.
• Dual Advantages:
• The constriction of the torroidal plasma current path in the vicinity of the wafer or workpiece produces two independent advantages without any significant tradeoffs of other performance criteria: (1) the plasma density over the wafer is increased without requiring any increase in plasma source power, and (2) the etch selectivity to photoresist or other materials is increased, as explained above. It is believed that in prior plasma reactors it has been impractical if not impossible to increase the plasma ion density by the same step that increases etch selectivity. Thus, the dual advantages realized with the torroidal plasma source of the present invention appear to be a revolutionary departure from the prior art.
• Other Embodiments:
• FIG. 9 illustrates a modification of the case ofFIG. 1 in which theside antenna170 is replaced by asmaller antenna910 that fits inside the empty space between theceiling110 and thehollow conduit150. Theantenna910 is a single coil winding centered with respect to thehollow conduit150.
• FIGS. 10 and 11 illustrate how the case ofFIG. 1 may be enhanced by the addition of a closed magneticallypermeable core1015 that extends through the space between theceiling110 and thehollow conduit150. Thecore1015 improves the inductive coupling from theantenna170 to the plasma inside thehollow conduit150.
• Impedance match may be achieved without theimpedance match circuit175 by using, instead, a secondary winding1120 around thecore1015 connected across atuning capacitor1130. The capacitance of thetuning capacitor1130 is selected to resonate the secondary winding1120 at the frequency of theRF power source180. For a fixedtuning capacitor1130, dynamic impedance matching may be provided by frequency tuning and/or by forward power servoing.
• FIG. 12 illustrates a case of the invention in which ahollow tube enclosure1250 extends around the bottom of the reactor and communicates with the interior of the chamber through a pair ofopenings1260,1265 in the bottom floor of the chamber. Acoil antenna1270 follows along side the torroidal path provided by thehollow tube enclosure1250 in the manner of the case ofFIG. 1. WhileFIG. 12 shows thevacuum pump135 coupled to the bottom of the main chamber, it may just as well be coupled instead to theunderlying conduit1250.
• FIG. 13 illustrates a variation of the case ofFIGS. 10 and 11, in which theantenna170 is replaced by an inductive winding1320 surrounding an upper section of thecore1015. Conveniently, the winding1320 surrounds a section of thecore1015 that is above the conduit150 (rather than below it). However, the winding1320 can surround any section of thecore1015.
• FIG. 14 illustrates an extension of the concept ofFIG. 13 in which a secondhollow tube enclosure1450 runs parallel to the firsthollow conduit150 and provides a parallel torroidal path for a second torroidal plasma current. Thetube enclosure1450 communicates with the chamber interior at each of its ends through respective openings in theceiling110. Amagnetic core1470 extends under bothtube enclosures150,1450 and through thecoil antenna170.
• FIG. 15 illustrates an extension of the concept ofFIG. 14 in which an array of parallel hollow tube enclosures1250a,1250b,1250c,1250dprovide plural torroidal plasma current paths through the reactor chamber. In the case ofFIG. 15, the plasma ion density is controlled independently in each individualhollow conduit1250a-dby anindividual coil antenna170a-d, respectively, driven by an independentRF power source180a-d, respectively. Individual cylindrical open cores1520a-1520dmay be separately inserted within therespective coil antennas170a-d. In this case, the relative center-to-edge ion density distribution may be adjusted by separately adjusting the power levels of the individualRF power sources180a-d.
• FIG. 16 illustrates a modification of the case ofFIG. 15 in which the array oftube enclosures1250a-dextend through the side wall of the reactor rather than through theceiling110. Another modification illustrated inFIG. 16 is the use of a single commonmagnetic core1470 adjacent all of thetube enclosures1250a-dand having theantenna170 wrapped around it so that a single RF source excites the plasma in all of thetube enclosures1250a-d.
• FIG. 17A illustrates a pair of orthogonal tube enclosures150-1 and150-2 extending through respective ports in theceiling110 and excited by respective coil antennas170-1 and170-2. Individual cores1015-1 and1015-2 are within the respective coil antennas170-1 and170-2. This case creates two mutually orthogonal torroidal plasma current paths over thewafer120 for enhanced uniformity. The two orthogonal torroidal or closed paths are separate and independently powered as illustrated, but intersect in the process region overlying the wafer, and otherwise do not interact. In order to assure separate control of the plasma source power applied to each one of the orthogonal paths, the frequency of therespective RF generators180a,180bofFIG. 17 are different, so that the operation of theimpedance match circuits175a,175bis decoupled. For example, the RF generator180amay produce an RF signal at 11 MHz while theRF generator180bmay produce an RF signal at 12 MHz. Alternatively, independent operation may be achieved by offsetting the phases of the twoRF generators180a,180b.
• FIG. 17B illustrates howradial vanes181 may be employed to guide the torroidal plasma currents of each of the two conduits150-1,150-2 through the processing region overlying the wafer support. Theradial vanes181 extend between the openings of each conduit near the sides of the chamber up to the edge of the wafer support. Theradial vanes181 prevent diversion of plasma from one torroidal path to the other torroidal path, so that the two plasma currents only intersect within the processing region overlying the wafer support.
• Cases Suitable for Large Diameter Wafers:
• In addition to the recent industry trends toward smaller device sizes and higher device densities, another trend is toward greater wafer diameters. For example, 12-inch diameter wafers are currently entering production, and perhaps larger diameter wafers will be in the future. The advantage is greater throughput because of the large number of integrated circuit die per wafer. The disadvantage is that in plasma processing it is more difficult to maintain a uniform plasma across a large diameter wafer. The following cases of the present invention are particularly adapted for providing a uniform plasma ion density distribution across the entire surface of a large diameter wafer, such as a 12-inch diameter wafer.
• FIGS. 18 and 19 illustrate a hollow tube enclosure1810 which is a wide flattenedrectangular version1850 of thehollow conduit150 ofFIG. 1 that includes an insulatinggap1852. This version produces a wide “belt” of plasma that is better suited for uniformly covering a large diameter wafer such as a 12-inch diameter wafer or workpiece. The width W of the tube enclosure and of the pair ofopenings1860,1862 in theceiling110 may exceed the wafer by about 5% or more. For example, if the wafer diameter is 10 inches, then the width W of therectangular tube enclosure1850 and of theopenings1860,1862 is about 11 inches.FIG. 20 illustrates a modifiedversion1850′ of therectangular tube enclosure1850 ofFIGS. 18 and 19 in which aportion1864 of theexterior tube enclosure1850 is constricted.
• FIG. 20 further illustrates the optional use of focusingmagnets1870 at the transitions between the constricted and unconstricted portions of theenclosure1850. The focusingmagnets1870 promote a better movement of the plasma between the constricted and unconstricted portions of theenclosure1850, and specifically promote a more uniform spreading out of the plasma as it moves across the transition between theconstricted portion1864 and the unconstricted portion of thetube enclosure1850.
• FIG. 21 illustrates how plural cylindricalmagnetic cores2110 may be inserted through theexterior region2120 circumscribed by thetube enclosure1850. Thecylindrical cores2110 are generally parallel to the axis of symmetry of thetube enclosure1850.FIG. 22 illustrates a modification of the case ofFIG. 21 in which thecores2110 extend completely through theexterior region2120 surrounded by thetube enclosure1850 are replaced by pairs of shortenedcores2210,2220 in respective halves of theexterior region2120. The side coils165,185 are replaced by a pair ofcoil windings2230,2240 surrounding the respective core pairs2210,2220. In this case, the displacement D between the core pairs2210,2220 may be changed to adjust the ion density near the wafer center relative to the ion density at the wafer circumference. A wider displacement D reduces the inductive coupling near the wafer center and therefore reduces the plasma ion density at the wafer center. Thus, an additional control element is provided for precisely adjusting ion density spatial distribution across the wafer surface.FIG. 23 illustrates a variation of the case ofFIG. 22 in which theseparate windings2230,2240 are replaced by a single center winding2310 centered with respect to the core pairs2210,2220.
• FIGS. 24 and 25 illustrate a case providing even greater uniformity of plasma ion density distribution across the wafer surface. In the case ofFIGS. 24 and 25, two torroidal plasma current paths are established that are transverse to one another and are mutually orthogonal. This is accomplished by providing a second wide rectangularhollow enclosure2420 extending transversely and orthogonally relative to thefirst tube enclosure1850. Thesecond tube enclosure2420 communicates with the chamber interior through a pair ofopenings2430,2440 through theceiling110 and includes an insulatinggap2452. A pair ofside coil windings2450,2460 along the sides of thesecond tube enclosure2420 maintain a plasma therein and are driven by a secondRF power supply2470 through animpedance match circuit2480. As indicated inFIG. 24, the two orthogonal plasma currents coincide over the wafer surface and provide more uniform coverage of plasma over the wafer surface. This case is expected to find particularly advantageous use for processing large wafers of diameters of 10 inches and greater.
• As in the case ofFIG. 17, the case ofFIG. 24 creates two mutually orthogonal torroidal plasma current paths over thewafer120 for enhanced uniformity. The two orthogonal torroidal or closed paths are separate and independently powered as illustrated, but intersect in the process region overlying the wafer, and otherwise do not interact or otherwise divert or diffuse one another. In order to assure separate control of the plasma source power applied to each one of the orthogonal paths, the frequency of therespective RF generators180,2470 ofFIG. 24 are different, so that the operation of theimpedance match circuits175,2480 is decoupled. For example, theRF generator180 may produce an RF signal at 11 MHz while theRF generator2470 may produce an RF signal at 12 MHz. Alternatively, independent operation may be achieved by offsetting the phases of the twoRF generators180,2470.
• FIG. 26 illustrates a variation of the case ofFIG. 18 in which a modifiedrectangular enclosure2650 that includes an insulatinggap2658 communicates with the chamber interior through thechamber side wall105 rather than through theceiling110. For this purpose, therectangular enclosure2650 has a horizontaltop section2652, a pair of downwardly extendinglegs2654 at respective ends of thetop section2652 and a pair of horizontal inwardly extendinglegs2656 each extending from the bottom end of a respective one of the downwardly extendinglegs2654 to arespective opening2670,2680 in theside wall105.
• FIG. 27 illustrates how a secondrectangular tube enclosure2710 including an insulatinggap2752 may be added to the case ofFIG. 26, thesecond tube enclosure2710 being identical to therectangular tube enclosure2650 ofFIG. 26 except that therectangular tube enclosures2650,2710 are mutually orthogonal (or at least transverse to one another). The second rectangular tube enclosure communicates with the chamber interior through respective openings through theside wall105, including theopening2720. Like the case ofFIG. 25, thetube enclosures2650 and2710 produce mutually orthogonal torroidal plasma currents that coincide over the wafer surface to provide superior uniformity over a broader wafer diameter. Plasma source power is applied to the interior of the tube enclosures through the respective pairs ofside coil windings165,185 and2450,2460.
• FIG. 28A illustrates how the side coils165,185,2450,2460 may be replaced (or supplemented) by a pair of mutually orthogonalinterior coils2820,2840 lying within the external region2860 surrounded by the tworectangular tube enclosures2650,2710. Each one of thecoils2820,2840 produces the torroidal plasma current in a corresponding one of therectangular tube enclosures2650,2710. Thecoils2820,2840 may be driven completely independently at different frequencies or at the same frequency with the same or a different phase. Or, they may be driven at the same frequency but with a phase difference (i.e., 90 degrees) that causes the combined torroidal plasma current to rotate at the source power frequency. In this case thecoils2820,2840 are driven with the sin and cosine components, respectively, of acommon signal generator2880, as indicated inFIG. 28A. The advantage is that the plasma current path rotates azimuthally across the wafer surface at a rotational frequency that exceeds the plasma ion frequency so that non-uniformities are better suppressed than in prior art methods such as MERIE reactors in which the rotation is at a much lower frequency.
• Referring now toFIG. 28B, radial adjustment of plasma ion density may be generally provided by provision of a pair of magneticcylindrical cores2892,2894 that may be axially moved toward or away from one another within thecoil2820 and a pair of magneticcylindrical cores2896,2898 that may be axially moved toward or away from one another within thecoil2840. As each pair of cores is moved toward one another, inductive coupling near the center of each of the orthogonal plasma currents is enhanced relative to the edge of the current, so that plasma density at the wafer center is generally enhanced. Thus, the center-to-edge plasma ion density may be controlled by moving thecores2892,2894,2896,2898.
• FIG. 29 illustrates an alternative case of the invention in which the twotube enclosures2650,2710 are merged together into asingle enclosure2910 that extends 360 degrees around the center axis of the reactor that constitutes a single plenum. In the case ofFIG. 29, theplenum2910 has a half-domelower wall2920 and a half-domeupper wall2930 generally congruent with thelower wall2920. Theplenum2910 is therefore the space between the upper and lower half-dome walls2920,2930. An insulatinggap2921 may extend around theupper dome wall2920 and/or an insulatinggap2931 may extend around thelower dome wall2930. Theplenum2910 communicates with the chamber interior through anannular opening2925 in theceiling110 that extends 360 degrees around the axis of symmetry of the chamber.
• Theplenum2910 completely encloses aregion2950 above theceiling110. In the case ofFIG. 29, plasma source power is coupled into the interior of theplenum2910 by a pair of mutuallyorthogonal coils2960,2965. Access to thecoils2960,2965 is provided through avertical conduit2980 passing through the center of theplenum2910. Preferably, thecoils2960,2965 are driven in quadrature as in the case ofFIG. 28 to achieve an azimuthally circulating torroidal plasma current (i.e., a plasma current circulating within the plane of the wafer. The rotation frequency is the frequency of the applied RF power. Alternatively, thecoils2960,2965 may be driven separately at different frequencies.FIG. 30 is a top sectional view of the case ofFIG. 29.FIGS. 31A and 31B are front and side sectional views, respectively, corresponding toFIG. 30.
• The pair of mutuallyorthogonal coils2960,2965 may be replaced by any number n of separately driven coils with their winding axes disposed at 360/n degrees apart. For example,FIG. 32 illustrates the case where the twocoils2960,2965 are replace by threecoils3210,3220,3230 with winding axes placed at 120 degree intervals and driven by three respective RF supplies3240,3250,3260 through respectiveimpedance match circuits3241,3251,3261. In order to produce a rotating torroidal plasma current, the threewindings3210,3220,3230 are driven 120 degrees out of phase from acommon power source3310 as illustrated inFIG. 33. The cases ofFIGS. 32 and 33 are preferred over the case ofFIG. 29 having only two coils, since it is felt much of the mutual coupling between coils would be around rather than through thevertical conduit2980.
• FIG. 34 illustrates a case in which the three coils are outside of theenclosed region2950, while their inductances are coupled into theenclosed region2950 by respective verticalmagnetic cores3410 extending through theconduit2980. Eachcore3410 has one end extending above theconduit2980 around which a respective one of thecoils3210,3220,3230 is wound. The bottom of each core3410 is inside theenclosed region2950 and has a horizontal leg. The horizontal legs of the threecores3410 are oriented at 120 degree intervals to provide inductive coupling to the interior of theplenum2910 similar to that provided by the three coils inside the enclosed region as inFIG. 32.
• The advantage of the flattened rectangular tube enclosures of the cases ofFIGS. 18-28 is that the broad width and relatively low height of the tube enclosure forces the torroidal plasma current to be a wide thin belt of plasma that more readily covers the entire surface of a large diameter wafer. The entirety of the tube enclosure need not be of the maximum width. Instead the outer section of the tube enclosure farthest from the chamber interior may be necked down, as discussed above with reference to the case ofFIG. 20. In this case, it is preferable to provide focusingmagnets1870 at the transition corners between thewide portion1851 and thenarrow section1852 to force the plasma current exiting thenarrow portion1852 to spread entirely across the entire width of thewide section1851. If it is desired to maximize plasma ion density at the wafer surface, then it is preferred that the cross-sectional area of thenarrow portion1852 be at least nearly as great as the cross-sectional area of thewide portion1851. For example, thenarrow portion1852 may be a passageway whose height and width are about the same while thewide portion1851 may have a height that is less than its width.
• The various cases described herein with air-core coils (i.e., coils without a magnetic core) may instead employ magnetic-cores, which can be the open-magnetic-path type or the closed-magnetic-core type illustrated in the accompanying drawings. Furthermore, the various cases described herein having two or more torroidal paths driven with different RF frequencies may instead be driven with same frequency, and with the same or different phases.
• FIG. 35 is a version of the case ofFIG. 17 in which the mutually transverse hollow conduits are narrowed as in the case ofFIG. 20.
• FIG. 36 is a version of the case ofFIG. 24 but employing a pair ofmagnetic cores3610,3620 withrespective windings3630,3640 therearound for connection to respective RF power sources.
• FIG. 37 is a case corresponding to that ofFIG. 35 but having three instead of two reentrant conduits with a total of six reentrant ports to the chamber. Having a number of symmetrically disposed conduits and reentrant ports greater than two (as in the case ofFIG. 37) is believed to be particularly advantageous for processing wafers of diameter of 300 mm and greater.
• FIG. 38 is a case corresponding to that ofFIG. 38 but having three instead of two reentrant conduits with a total of six reentrant ports to the chamber.
• FIG. 39 is a case corresponding to that ofFIG. 35 in which the external conduits join together in acommon plenum3910.
• FIG. 40 is a case corresponding to that ofFIG. 36 in which the external conduits join together in acommon plenum4010.
• FIG. 41 is a case corresponding to that ofFIG. 37 in which the external conduits join together in acommon plenum4110.
• FIG. 42 is a case corresponding to that ofFIG. 38 in which the external conduits join together in acommon plenum4210.
• FIG. 43 is a case corresponding to that ofFIG. 17 in which the external conduits join together in acommon plenum4310.
• Advantageous Features:
• Constricting the torroidal plasma current in the vicinity of the wafer not only improves etch selectivity but at the same time increases the etch rate by increasing the plasma ion density. It is believed no prior reactor has increased etch selectivity by the same mechanism that increases etch rate or plasma ion density over the workpiece.
• Improving etch selectivity by constricting the torroidal plasma current in the vicinity of the wafer or workpiece can be achieved in the invention in any one of several ways. One way is to reduce the pedestal-to-ceiling or wafer-to-ceiling height. Another is to introduce a gas distribution plate or showerhead over the wafer that constricts the path of the torroidal plasma ion current. Another way is to increase the RF bias power applied to the wafer or workpiece. Any one or any combination of the foregoing ways of improving etch selectivity may be chosen by the skilled worker in carrying out the invention.
• Etch selectivity may be further improved in the invention by injecting the reactive process gases locally (i.e., near the wafer or workpiece) while injecting an inert diluent gas (e.g., Argon) remotely (i.e., into the conduit or plenum). This may be accomplished by providing a gas distribution plate or showerhead directly over and facing the workpiece support and introducing the reactive process gas exclusively (or at least predominantly) through the showerhead. Concurrently, the diluent gas is injected into the conduit well away from the process region overlying the wafer or workpiece. The torroidal plasma current thus becomes not only a source of plasma ions for reactive ion etching of materials on the wafer but, in addition, becomes an agent for sweeping away the reactive process gas species and their plasma-dissociated progeny before the plasma-induced dissociation process is carried out to the point of creating an undesirable amount of free fluorine. This reduction in the residence time of the reactive process gas species enhances the etch selectivity relative to photoresist and other materials, a significant advantage.
• Great flexibility is provided in the application of RF plasma source power to the torroidal plasma current. As discussed above, power is typically inductively coupled to the torroidal plasma current by an antenna. In many cases, the antenna predominantly is coupled to the external conduit or plenum by being close or next to it. For example, a coil antenna may extend alongside the conduit or plenum. However, in other cases the antenna is confined to the region enclosed between the conduit or plenum and the main reactor enclosure (e.g., the ceiling). In the latter case, the antenna may be considered to be “under” the conduit rather than alongside of it. Even greater flexibility is afford by cases having a magnetic core (or cores) extending through the enclosed region (between the conduit and the main chamber enclosure) and having an extension beyond the enclosed region, the antenna being wound around the core's extension. In this case the antenna is inductively coupled via the magnetic core and therefore need not be adjacent the torroidal plasma current in the conduit. In one such case, a closed magnetic core is employed and the antenna is wrapped around the section of the core that is furthest away from the torroidal plasma current or the conduit. Therefore, in effect, the antenna may be located almost anywhere, such as a location entirely remote from the plasma chamber, by remotely coupling it to the torroidal plasma current via a magnetic core.
• Finally, plasma distribution over the surface of a very large diameter wafer or workpiece is uniform. This is accomplished in one case by shaping the torroidal plasma current as a broad plasma belt having a width preferably exceeding that of the wafer. In another case, uniformity of plasma ion density across the wafer surface is achieved by providing two or more mutually transverse or orthogonal torroidal plasma currents that intersect in the process region over the wafer. The torroidal plasma currents flow in directions mutually offset from one another by 360/n. Each of the torroidal plasma currents may be shaped as a broad belt of plasma to cover a very large diameter wafer. Each one of the torroidal plasma currents may be powered by a separate coil antenna aligned along the direction of the one torroidal plasma current. In one preferred case, uniformity is enhanced by applying RF signals of different phases to the respective coil antennas so as to achieve a rotating torroidal plasma current in the process region overlying the wafer. In this preferred case, the optimum structure is one in which the torroidal plasma current flows in a circularly continuous plenum communicating with the main chamber portion through a circularly continuous annular opening in the ceiling or side wall. This latter feature allows the entire torroidal plasma current to rotate azimuthally in a continuous manner.
• Controlling Radial Distribution of Plasma Ion Density:
• FIG. 44 illustrates a plasma reactor similar to that illustrated inFIG. 17A having a pair of orthogonal external reentrant tubes150-1,150B2. RF power is coupled into the tubes by respective annular magnetic cores1015-1,1015-2 excited by respective RF-driven coils170-1,170-2, as described above with reference toFIG. 17A. However, inFIG. 44 the external tubes150-1,150-2 are rectangular as inFIG. 24 rather than being round in cross-sectional shape. Moreover, the horizontal section of the lower tube150-1 is not flat but rather has adip4410 at its middle. Thedip4410 permits the upper external tube150-2 to nest closer to thereactor ceiling110. This feature shortens the path length in the upper tube150-2, thereby reducing plasma losses in the upper tube150-2. In fact, the shape of thedip4410 may be selected to at least nearly equalize the path length through the upper and lower external tubes150-1,150-2. The reactor ofFIG. 44, like the reactors ofFIGS. 2 and 26, has agas distribution plate210 on the ceiling110 (or forming theceiling110 itself) and overlying thewafer120.
• Thedip4410 is limited in that a vertical space remains between the top surface of theceiling110 and abottom corner4422 formed on the lower tube150-1 at the apex of thedip4410. The vertical space accommodates anelectromagnet assembly4430 that enhances plasma ion density over the center of thewafer120. Theelectromagnet assembly4430 includes a narrow elongatecylindrical pole piece4440 formed of a magnetizable metal such as iron or steel (for example) and acoil4450 of insulated conductive wire (e.g., copper wire) wrapped around thepole piece4440. The cylindrical axis of thepole piece4440 coincides with the axis of symmetry of thecylindrical chamber100, so that the axis of thepole piece4440 intersects the center of thewafer120. Thecoil4450 may be wrapped directly on thepole piece4440 or, as illustrated inFIG. 45, may be wrapped around amandril4460 encircling thepole piece4440.FIG. 45 shows that thecoil4450 may be wrapped around a section4440-1 of thepole piece4440 that extends above theceiling110. The lower section4440-2 of thepole piece4440 that is inside theceiling110 terminates within thegas manifold220 of thegas distribution plate210.
• For efficiency, it is desirable to place the source of the plasma-confining magnetic field as close to the plasma as practical without disturbing gas flow within thegas distribution plate210. For this purpose, the portion of the lower pole piece section4440-2 that is inside thegas manifold220 is a very narrowcylindrical end piece4470 that terminates thepole piece4440. Theend piece4470 extends the magnetic field lines of thepole piece4440 near the bottom of the gas distribution plate to enhance the effect of the magnetic field on the plasma. The diameter of theend piece4470 is sufficiently reduced so that it does not appreciably interfere with gas flow within thegas manifold210. Moreover, such a reduced diameter brings the peak of the radial component of the magnetic field nearer the center axis.
• FIG. 46 illustrates one case of theend piece4470 having a tapered bottom4475 terminated in anipple4477.FIG. 47 illustrates a case of theend piece4470 in which thebottom4476 is flat.FIG. 48 illustrates a case of theend piece4470 in which thebottom4478 is round.
• In one implementation,pole piece4440 has a diameter of about 3.5 cm (such that the diameter of the approximately 60turn coil4450 is about 6 cm) and is about 12 cm long. Thepole piece4440 is extended about 2 cm (to a total of about 14 cm) with a smaller diameter extension of about 1 cm diameter. The bottom of the extension region of thepole piece4440 is about 1.5 cm from the top of the plasma region. The material composition ofpole piece4440 is selected to have sufficiently high permeability (e.g., μr >or =100) and high saturation flux density (e.g. Bsat >1000 gauss) to maximize the magnetic flux density in the region below thepole piece4440 with minimum magnetizing force and current. Note that because the magnetic path is “open” with pole piece4440 (not closed within the pole piece), the effective permeability is reduced relative to the material permeability. Depending on the length/diameter ratio of thepole piece4440, the μr “effective” is typically reduced to on the order of 10.
• Anoptional shield4479 of magnetic material such as iron shields plasma in the pair of tubes150-1,150-2 from the D.C. magnetic field of theelectromagnet assembly4430. Theshield4479 includes anoverhead plate4479aand acylindrical skirt4479b.
• In the case of thegas distribution plate210 illustrated inFIG. 45, atop plate4480 is divided into radially inner and outer sections4480a,4480b, each having many small gas flow holes4481 extending through it, the inner and outer sections having annular flanges4482-1,4482-2,4482-3,4482-4, forming vertical walls supporting the bottom surface of theceiling210 and forming therewith inner andouter gas manifolds4483a,4483bseparated by a wall formed by the annular flanges4482-2,4482-3. In one case, there is no wall between the inner and outer gas manifolds, so as to avoid any discontinuity in gas distribution within the chamber that such a wall may cause. Agas mixing layer4484 below thetop plate4480 diverts gas flow from a purely vertical flow direction and thereby induces multi-directional (or turbulent) gas flow that improves uniform mixing of gases of different molecular weights. Such diverting of the gas flow from a purely downward flow direction has the added benefit of suppressing high velocity gas flow effects, in which high velocity gas flow through gas distribution plate orifices directly over the wafer would form localized concentrations of process gas on the wafer surface that disrupt process uniformity. Suppression of high velocity gas flow effects enhances uniformity.
• Thegas mixing layer4484 may consist of metal or ceramic foam of the type well-known in the art. Or, as shown inFIG. 49, thegas mixture layer4484 may consist of plural perforation plates4484-1,4484-2 each having many small gas orifices drilled through it, the holes in one perforation plate being offset from the holes in the other perforation plate. Abottom plate4485 of thegas distribution plate210 has many sub-millimetergas injection holes4486 drilled through it with largecounterbored holes4487 at the top of thebottom plate4485. In one example, the sub-millimeter holes were between 10 and 30 mils in diameter, the counterbored holes were about 0.06 inch in diameter and thebottom plate4485 had a thickness of about 0.4 inch. Inner and outergas feed lines4490,4492 through theceiling110 furnish gas to the inner and outer top plates4480a,4480b, so that gas flow in radially inner and outer zones of the chamber may be controlled independently as a way of adjusting process uniformity.
• It is believed that the radial component of the D.C. magnetic field produced by theelectromagnet assembly4430 affects the radial distribution of plasma ion density, and that it is this radial component of the magnetic field that can be exploited to enhance plasma ion density near the center of the chamber. It is believed that such enhancement of plasma ion density over the wafer center arises from the interaction of the D.C. magnetic field radial component with the plasma sheath electric field at the wafer surface producing azimuthal plasma currents tending to confine plasma near the wafer center. In absence of the D.C. magnetic field, the phenomenon of a reduced plasma ion density at the center of the chamber extends over a very small circular zone confined closely to the center of thewafer120, because in general the reactor ofFIG. 44 tends to have an exceptionally uniform plasma ion density even in absence of a correcting magnetic field. Therefore, correction of the center-low plasma ion density distribution requires a D.C. magnetic field having a relatively large radial component very near the center of the chamber orwafer120. The small diameter of themagnetic pole piece4440 produces a magnetic field having a large radial component very close to the center of the wafer120 (or center of the chamber). In accordance with conventional practice, the center is the axis of symmetry of the cylindrical chamber at which the radius is zero.FIG. 51 illustrates the distribution of the magnetic field in an elevational view of the processing region over thewafer120 between thewafer120 and thegas distribution plate210. The vectors inFIG. 51 are normalized vectors representing the direction of the magnetic field at various locations.FIG. 52 illustrates the magnetic flux density of the radial component of the magnetic field as a function of radial location, one curve representing the radial field flux density near the bottom surface of thegas distribution plate210 and the other curve representing the radial field flux density near the surface of thewafer120. The peak of the flux density of the radial magnetic field component is very close to the center, namely at about a radius of only one inch both at the ceiling and at the wafer. Thus, the radial component of the magnetic field is tightly concentrated near the very small diameter region within which the plasma ion density tends to be lowest. Thus, the distribution of the radial component of the D.C. magnetic field produced by theelectromagnet assembly4430 generally coincides with the region of low plasma ion density near the center of the chamber.
• As mentioned above, it is felt that the radial component of the D.C. magnetic field interacts with the vertically oriented electric field of the plasma sheath near the wafer center to produce an azimuthally directed force that generally opposes radial travel of plasma. As a result, plasma near the center of the wafer is confined to enhance processing within that region.
• A basic approach of using theelectromagnet assembly4430 in an etch reactor is to find a D.C. current flow in the coil that produces the most uniform etch rate radial distribution across the wafer surface, typically by enhancing plasma ion density at the center. This is the likeliest approach in cases in which the wafer-to-ceiling gap is relatively small (e.g., one inch), since such a small gap typically results in a center-low etch rate distribution on the wafer. For reactors having a larger gap (e.g., two inches or more), the etch rate distribution may not be center low, so that a different D.C. current may be needed. Of course, theelectromagnet assembly4430 is not confined to applications requiring improved uniformity of plasma ion density across the wafer surface. Some applications of the electromagnet assembly may require an electromagnet coil current that renders the plasma ion density less uniform. Such applications may involve, for example, cases in which a field oxide thin film layer to be etched has a non-uniform thickness distribution, so that uniform results can be obtained only by providing nonuniform plasma ion density distribution that compensates for the nonuniform field oxide thickness distribution. In such a case, the D.C. current in the electromagnet assembly can be selected to provide the requisite nonuniform plasma ion distribution.
• As shown inFIG. 45, the plasma reactor may include a set ofintegrated rate monitors4111 that can observe the etch rate distribution across thewafer120 during the etch process. Eachmonitor4111 observes the interference fringes in light reflected from the bottom of contact holes while the holes are being etched. The light can be from a laser or may be the luminescence of the plasma. Such real time observation can make it possible to determine changes in etch rate distribution across the wafer that can be instantly compensated by changing the D.C. current applied to theelectromagnet assembly4430.
• FIG. 53 shows one way of independently controlling process gas flow to the inner and outergas feed lines4490,4492. InFIG. 53, one set ofgas flow controllers5310,5320,5330 connected to the innergas feed line4490 furnish, respectively, argon, oxygen and a fluoro-carbon gas, such as C4F6, to the innergas feed line4490. Another set ofgas flow controllers5340,5350,5360 furnish, respectively, argon, oxygen and a fluoro-carbon gas, such as C4F6, to the outergas feed line4492.FIG. 54 shows another way of independently controlling process gas flow to the inner and outergas feed lines4490,4492. InFIG. 54, a single set of gas flow controllers5410,5420,5430 furnishes process gases (e.g., argon, oxygen and a fluoro-carbon gas) to agas splitter5440. Thegas splitter5440 has a pair of gas or mass flow controllers (MFC's)5442,5444 connected, respectively, to the inner and outergas feed lines4490,4492. In addition, optionally another gas flow controller5446 supplies purge gas such as Argon or Neon to the outergas feed line4492.
• One problem in processing a large diameter wafer is that the torroidal or reentrant plasma current must spread out evenly over the wide surface of the wafer. Thetubes150 typically are less wide than the process area. The need then is to broaden the plasma current to better cover a wide process area as it exits aport155 or160. As related problem is that the reactor ofFIG. 44 (or any of the reactors ofFIGS. 1-43) can experience a problem of non-uniform plasma ion density and consequent “hot spot” orsmall region5505 of very high plasma ion density near aport155 or160 of thereentrant tube150, as shown inFIG. 55A. Referring toFIGS. 55A-56B, these problems are addressed by the introduction of a plasmacurrent flow splitter5510 at the mouth of each port (e.g., theport155 as shown inFIG. 55A). Thesplitter5510 tends to force the plasma current to widen while at the same time reducing plasma ion density in the vicinity of theregion5505 where a hot spot might otherwise form. Thetube150 can have a widenedtermination section5520 at theport155, thetermination section5520 having a diameter nearly twice as great as that of the remaining portion of thetube150. The plasmacurrent flow splitter5510 ofFIG. 55A is triangular in shape, with one apex facing the interior of thetube150 so as to force the plasma current flowing into thechamber100 from thetube150 to spread out so as to better fill the larger diameter of thetermination section5520. This current-spreading result produced by thetriangular splitter5510 tends to widen the plasma current and reduces or eliminates the “hot spot” in theregion5505.
• The optimum shape of thesplitter5510 depends at least in part upon the separation distance S between the centers of opposingports155,160. If the splitter is too long in the direction of plasma flow (i.e., the vertical direction inFIG. 55A), then current flow along the divided path tends to be unbalanced, with all current flowing along one side of thesplitter5510. On the other hand, if thesplitter5510 is too short, the two paths recombine before the plasma current appreciably widens.
• For example, in a chamber for processing a 12-inch diameter wafer, the separation distance S can be about 20.5 inches, with a tube width w of 5 inches, a tube draft d of 1.75 inches and an expanded termination section width W of 8 inches. In this case, the juxtaposition of theport155 relative to the 12 inch wafer would be as shown in the plan view ofFIG. 56C. In this particular example, the height h of thesplitter5510 should be about 2.5 inches, with the angle of the splitter's apex5510abeing about 75 degrees, as shown inFIG. 57. In addition, the length L of thetermination section5520 should equal the height h of thesplitter5510.
• On the other hand, for a separation distance S of 16.5 inches, anoptimum splitter5510′ is illustrated inFIG. 58. The angle of the splitter apex in this case is preferably about 45 degrees, the triangular portion being terminated in a rectangular portion having a width of 1.2 inches and a length such that thesplitter5510′ has a height h of 2.5 inches. The height and apex angle of thesplitter5510 or5510′ must be sufficient to reduce plasma density in theregion5505 to prevent formation of a hot spot there. However, the height h must be limited in order to avoid depleting plasma ion density at the wafer center.
• FIGS. 59A and 59B illustrate splitters for solving the problem of plasma ion density non-uniformity near the entrance ports of areentrant tube2654 in which plasma current flow through each port is in a horizontal direction through thechamber side wall105, as in the reactor ofFIG. 26. Eachsplitter5910 has its apex5910afacing theport2680.
• FIGS. 60, 61 and62 illustrate an implementation like that ofFIG. 17A, except that thechamber side wall105 is rectangular or square and the vertically facing ports140-1,140-2,140-3 and140-4 through theceiling110 are located overrespective corners105a,105b, etc. of the rectangular orsquare side wall105. Afloor6020 in the plane of thewafer120 faces each port and, together with the corner-forming sections of therectangular side wall105, forces incoming plasma current to turn toward the processing region overlying thewafer120. In order to reduce or eliminate a hot spot in plasma ion density in theregion6030, a triangular plasmacurrent flow splitter6010 is placed near eachrespective corner105a,105b, etc., with its apex6010afacing that corner. In the implementation ofFIG. 61, thesplitter apex6010ais rounded, but in other implementations it may be less rounded or actually may be a sharp edge.FIG. 63 illustrates a portion of the same arrangement but in which theedge6010bof thesplitter6010 facing thewafer120 is located very close to thewafer120 and is arcuately shaped to be congruent with the circular edge of thewafer120. While thesplitter6010 ofFIG. 60 extends from thefloor6020 to theceiling110,FIG. 64 illustrates that the height of thesplitter6010 may be less, so as to allow some plasma current to pass over thesplitter6010.
• As will be discussed in greater detail below with respect to certain working examples, the total path length traversed by the reentrant plasma current affects plasma ion density at the wafer surface. This is because shorter path length places a higher proportion of the plasma within the processing region overlying the wafer, reduces path length-dependent losses of plasma ions and reduces surface area losses due to plasma interaction with the reentrant tube surface. Therefore, the shorter length tubes (corresponding to a shorter port separation distance S) are more efficient. On the other hand, a shorter separation distance S affords less opportunity for plasma current flow separated at its center by thetriangular splitter5510 to reenter the center region after passing thesplitter5510 and avoid a low plasma ion density at the wafer center. Thus, there would appear to be a tradeoff between the higher efficiency of a smaller port separation distance S and the risk of depressing plasma ion density at the wafer center in the effort to avoid a plasma hot spot near each reentrant tube port.
• This tradeoff is ameliorated or eliminated in the case ofFIGS. 65A, 65B and66, by using atriangular splitter6510 that extends at least nearly across the entire width W of thetermination section5520 of the port and is shaped to force plasma current flow away from theinner edge6610 of the port and toward theouter edge6620 of the port. This feature leaves the port separation distance S unchanged (so that it may be as short as desired), but in effect lengthens the plasma current path from the apex6510aof the splitter to the center of thewafer120. This affords a greater opportunity for the plasma current flow split by thesplitter6510 to rejoin at its center before reaching the wafer or center of the wafer. This feature better avoids depressing plasma ion density at the wafer center while suppressing formation of plasma hot spots at the reentrant tube ports.
• As illustrated inFIGS. 65A, 65B and66, eachsplitter6510 presents an isoceles triangular shape in elevation (FIG. 65B) and a rectangular shape from the top (FIG. 65A). The side view ofFIG. 66 reveals the sloping back surface6610cthat extends downwardly toward theouter edge6620 of the port. It is the sloping back surface6610cthat forces the plasma current toward theback edge6620 thereby effectively lengthening the path from the top of the apex6510ato the wafer center, which is the desired feature as set forth above. The rectangular opening of theport150 is narrowed in the radial direction (the short dimension) by the sloped wall or sloping back surface6610bfrom about 2″ at top to about ¾″ at the bottom. This pushes the inner port edge about 1-¼″ radially farther from the wafer (thus achieving the desired increase in effective port separation distance). In addition, theport150 has the fulltriangular splitter6510 in the azimuthal direction (the long or 8″ wide dimension of the opening150).
• The plasmacurrent splitter5510 or6510 may have coolant passages extending within it with coolant ports coupled to similar ports in the reactor body to regulate the temperature of the splitter. For this purpose, the plasmacurrent splitter5510 or6510 is formed of metal, since it easily cooled and is readily machined to form internal coolant passages. However, thesplitter5510 or6510 may instead be formed of another material such as quartz, for example.
• FIG. 67 illustrates another way of improving plasma uniformity in the torroidal source reactor ofFIG. 24 by introducing a set of fourannular electromagnets6710,6720,6730,6740 along the periphery of the reactor, the windings of each electromagnet being controlled by a magnetcurrent controller6750. The electric currents in the four electromagnets may be driven in any one of three modes: (1) in a first mode, a sinusoidal mode, the coils are driven at the same low frequency current in phase quadrature to produce a magnetic field that rotates about the axis of symmetry of the reactor at the low frequency of the source; (2) in a second mode, a configurable magnetic field mode, the fourelectromagnets6710,6720,6730,6740 are grouped into opposing pairs of adjacent electromagnets, and each pair is driven with a different D.C. current to produce a magnetic field gradient extending diagonally between the opposing pairs of adjacent electromagnets, and this grouping is rotated so that the magnetic field gradient is rotated to isotropically distribute its effects over the wafer; (3) in a third mode, the four electromagnets are all driven with the same D.C. current to produce a cusp-shaped magnetic field having an axis of symmetry coinciding generally with the axis of symmetry of the reactor chamber.
• As shown inFIG. 1, a pumping annulus is formed between the cylindricalwafer support pedestal115 and thecylindrical side wall105, gases being evacuated via the pumping annulus by thevacuum pump135. Plasma current flow between the opposing ports of eachreentrant tube150 can flow through this pumping annulus and thereby avoid flowing through the processing region between thewafer120 and thegas distribution plate210. Such diversion of plasma current flow around the process region can occur if the chamber pressure is relatively high and the wafer-to-ceiling gap is relatively small and/or the conductivity of the plasma is relatively low. To the extent this occurs, plasma ion density in the process region is reduced. This problem is solved as shown inFIGS. 68 and 69 by the introduction ofradial vanes6910,6920,6930,6940 blocking azimuthal plasma current flow through the pumping annulus. In one implementation, thevanes6910,6920,6930,6940 extend up to but not above the plane of thewafer120, to allow insertion and removal of thewafer120. However, in another implementation the vanes may retractably extend above the plane of the wafer to better confine the plasma current flow within the processing region overlying thewafer120. This may be accomplished by enabling thewafer support pedestal115 to move up and down relative to the vanes, for example. In either case, thevanes6910,6920,6930,6940 prevent plasma current flow through the pumping annulus, and, if the vanes can be moved above the plane of thewafer120, they also reduce plasma current flow through the upper region overlying the pumping annulus. By thus preventing diversion of plasma current flow away from the processing region overlying the wafer, not only is plasma ion density improved in that region but process stability is also improved.
• As mentioned previously herein, the magnetic core used to couple RF power to eachreentrant tube150 tends to crack or shatter at high RF power levels. It is believed this problem arises because magnetic flux is not distributed uniformly around the core. Generally, one winding around the core has a high current at high RF power levels. This winding can be, for example, a secondary winding that resonates the primary winding connected to the RF generator. The secondary winding is generally confined to a narrow band around the core, magnetic flux and heating being very high within this band and much lower elsewhere in the core. The magnetic core must have a suitable permeability (e.g., a permeability between about 10 and 200) to avoid self-resonance at high frequencies. A good magnetic core tends to be a poor heat conductor (low thermal conductivity) and be readily heated (high specific heat), and is therefore susceptible to localized heating. Since the heating is localized near the high current secondary winding and since the core tends to be brittle, it cracks or shatters at high RF power levels (e.g., 5 kiloWatts of continuous power).
• This problem is solved in the manner illustrated inFIGS. 70 through 74 by more uniformly distributing RF magnetic flux density around the annular core.FIG. 70 illustrates a typical one of themagnetic cores1015 ofFIG. 17A. Thecore1015 is formed of a high magnetic permeability material such as ferrite. The primary winding170 consists of about two turns of a thin copper band optionally connected through animpedance match device175 to theRF generator180. High current flow required for high magnetic flux in thecore1015 occurs in a resonant secondary winding7010 around thecore1015. Current flow in the secondary winding7010 is about an order of magnitude greater than current flow in the primary winding. In order to uniformly distribute magnetic flux around thecore1015, the secondary winding7010 is divided intoplural sections7010a,7010b,7010c, etc., that are evenly distributed around theannular core1015. The secondary windingsections7010a, etc., are connected in parallel. Such parallel connection is facilitated as illustrated inFIGS. 71A and 71B by a pair ofcircular copper buses7110,7120 extending around opposite sides of themagnetic core1015. Opposing ends of each of thesecondary windings7010a,7010b, etc., are connected to opposite ones of the twocopper buses7110,7120. Thecopper buses7110,7120 are sufficiently thick to provide an extremely high conductance and low inductance, so that the azimuthal location of any particular one of the secondary windingsections7010a,7010b, etc. makes little or no difference, so that all secondary winding sections function as if they were equidistant from the primary winding. In this way, magnetic coupling is uniformly distributed around theentire core1015.
• Because of the uniform distribution of magnetic flux achieved by the foregoing features, the primary winding may be placed at any suitable location, typically near a selected one of the plural distributed secondary winding sections7110a,7110b,7110c, etc. However, in one implementation, the primary winding is wrapped around or on a selected one of the plural distributed secondary winding sections7110a,7110b,7110c, etc.
• FIG. 72 is a representation of the distributed parallel inductances formed by the parallel secondary windingsections7010a,7010b, etc., andFIG. 73 shows the circular topology of these distributed inductances. In order to provide resonance at the frequency of theRF generator180, plural distributed capacitors7130 are connected in parallel across the twocopper buses7110,7120. Theplural capacitors7030 are distributed azimuthally around themagnetic core1015. Eachcapacitor7030 in one implementation was about 100 picoFarads. The equivalent circuit of the distributed inductances and capacitances associated with the secondary winding7010 is illustrated inFIG. 24.
• Referring toFIG. 71B, the secondary windingsections7010a,7010b, etc., can have the same number of turns. In the case ofFIG. 71B, there are six secondary windingsections7010a-7010f, each section having three windings. The skilled worker can readily select the number of secondary winding sections, the number of windings in each section and the capacitance of the distributedcapacitors7030 to achieve resonance at the frequency of theRF generator180. The copper band stock used to form the primary and secondary windings around thecore1015 can be, for example, 0.5 inch wide and 0.020 inch thick copper stripping. The twocopper buses7110,7120 are very thick (e.g., from 0.125 inch to 0.25 inch thick) and wide (e.g., 0.5 inch wide) so that they form extremely low resistance, low inductance current paths. Thecore1015 may consist of a pair of stacked 1 inch thick ferrite cores with a 10 inch outer diameter and an 8 inch inner diameter. Preferably, theferrite core1015 has a magnetic permeability μ=40. The foregoing details are provided by way of example only, and any or all of the foregoing values may require modification for different applications (e.g., where, for example, the frequency of the RF generator is modified).
• We have found that the feature of distributed inductances illustrated inFIGS. 71A and 71B solves the problem of breakage of the magnetic core experienced at sustained high RF power levels (e.g., 5 kiloWatts).
• FIG. 75 illustrates the equivalent circuit formed by the core and windings ofFIGS. 71A and 71B. In addition to the primary andsecondary windings170 and7010 around thecore1015,FIG. 75 illustrates the equivalent inductive and capacitive load presented by the plasma inductively coupled to thecore1015. The case ofFIGS. 70-75 is a transformer coupled circuit. The purpose of the secondary winding7010 is to provide high electric current flow around themagnetic core1015 for enhanced power coupling via the core. The secondary winding7010 achieves this by resonating at the frequency of the RF generator. Thus, the high current flow and power coupling via themagnetic core1015 occurs in the secondary winding7010, so that virtually all the heating of thecore1015 occurs at the secondary winding7010. By thus distributing the secondary winding7010 around the entire circumference of thecore1015, this heating is similarly distributed around the core to avoid localized heating and thereby prevent shattering the core at high RF power levels.
• The distributed winding feature ofFIGS. 71A and 71B can be used to implement other circuit topologies, such as the auto transformer circuit ofFIG. 76. In the auto transformer circuit ofFIG. 76, the winding7010 around thecore1015 is distributed (in the manner discussed above with reference toFIGS. 70-74) and has atap7610 connected through theimpedance match circuit175 to theRF generator180. The distributedcapacitors7030 provide resonance (in the manner discussed above). As inFIG. 70, thecore7010 is wrapped around thereentrant tube150 so that power is inductively coupled into the interior of thetube150. The circuit topologies ofFIGS. 75 and 76 are only two examples of the various topologies that can employ distributed windings around themagnetic core1015.
• In one implementation, theimpedance match circuits175a,175bemployed frequency tuning in which the frequency of eachRF generator180a,180bis controlled in a feedback circuit in such a way as to minimize reflected power and maximize forward or delivered power. In such an implementation, the frequency tuning ranges of each of thegenerators180a,180bare exclusive, so that their frequencies always differ, typically on the order of a 0.2 to 2 MHz difference. Moreover, their phase relationship is random. This frequency difference can improve stability. For example, instabilities can arise if the same frequency is used to excite plasma in both of the orthogonal tubes150-1,150-2. Such instabilities can cause the plasma current to flow through only three of the fourports155,160, for example. This instability may be related to the phase difference between the torroidal plasma currents in the tubes. One factor facilitating plasma stability is isolation between the two plasma currents of the pair of orthogonal tubes150-1,150-2. This isolation is provided mainly by the plasma sheaths of the two plasma currents. The D.C. break orgap152 of each of the reentrant tubes150-1,150-2 also enhances plasma stability.
• While the D.C. break orgap152 in each of the orthogonal tubes is illustrated inFIG. 44 as being well-above thechamber ceiling110, it may in fact be very close to or adjacent the ceiling. Such an arrangement is employed in the implementation ofFIG. 77, in which the case of FIG.55A is modified so that thetermination section5520 electrically floats so that its potential follows oscillations of the plasma potential. This solves a problem that can be referred to as a “hollow cathode” effect near each of theports155,160 that creates non-uniform plasma distribution. This effect may be referred to as an electron multiplication cavity effect. By permitting all of the conductive material near a port to follow the plasma potential oscillations, the hollow cathode effects are reduced or substantially eliminated. This is achieved by electrically isolating thetermination section5520 from the grounded chamber body by locating a D.C. break orgap152′ at the juncture between the reentranttube termination section5520 and the top or external surface of theceiling110. (Thegap152′ may be in addition to or in lieu of thegap152 ofFIG. 44.) Thegap152′ is filled with an insulativeannular ring7710, and thetermination section5520 ofFIG. 77 has ashoulder7720 resting on the top of theinsulative ring7710. Moreover, there is anannular vacuum gap7730 of about 0.3 to 3 mm width between theceiling110 and thetermination section5520. In one implementation, thetube150 and thetermination section5520 are integrally formed together as a single piece. Thetermination section5520 is preferably formed of metal so that internal coolant passages may be formed therein.
• FIGS. 44-77 illustrate cases in which the uniformity control magnet is above the processing region.FIG. 78 illustrates that themagnet pole4440 may be placed below the processing region, or under thewafer support pedestal115.
• Working Examples:
• An etch process was conducted on blanket oxide wafers at a chamber pressure of 40 mT, 4800 watts of 13.56 MHz RF bias power on the wafer pedestal and 1800 Watts of RF source power applied to eachreentrant tube150 at 11.5 MHz and 12.5 MHz, respectively. The magnetic field produced by theelectromagnet assembly4430 was set at the following levels in successive steps: (a) zero, (b) 6 Gauss and (c) 18 Gauss (where the more easily measured axial magnetic field component at the wafer center was observed rather than the more relevant radial component). The observed etch rate distribution on the wafer surface was measured, respectively, as (a) center low with a standard deviation of about 2% at zero Gauss, (b) slightly center fast with a standard deviation of about 1.2% at 6 Gauss, and (c) center fast with a standard deviation of 1.4%. These examples demonstrate the ability to provide nearly ideal compensation (step b) and the power to overcompensate (step c).
• To test the effective pressure range, the chamber pressure was increased to 160 mT and the electromagnet's field was increased in three steps from (a) zero Gauss, to (b) 28 Gauss and finally to (c) 35 Gauss (where the more easily measured axial magnetic field component at the wafer center was observed rather than the more relevant radial component). The observed etch rate was, respectively, (a) center slow with a standard deviation of about 2.4%, center fast with a standard deviation of about 2.9% and center fast with a standard deviation of about 3.3%. Obviously, the step from zero to 28 Gauss resulted in overcompensation, so that a somewhat smaller magnetic field would have been ideal, while the entire exercise demonstrated the ability of theelectromagnet assembly4430 to easily handle very high chamber pressure ranges. This test was severe because at higher chamber pressures the etch rate distribution tends to be more severely center low while, at the same time, the decreased collision distance or mean free path length of the higher chamber pressure makes it more difficult for a given magnetic field to effect plasma electrons or ions. This is because the magnetic field can have no effect at all unless the corresponding Larmour radius of the plasma electrons or ions (determined by the strength of the magnetic field and the mass of the electron or ion) does not exceed the plasma collision distance. As the collision distance decreases with increasing pressure, the magnetic field strength must be increased to reduce the Larmour radius proportionately. The foregoing examples demonstrate the power of the electromagnet assembly to generate a sufficiently strong magnetic field to meet the requirement of a small Larmour radius.
• Another set of etch processes were carried out on oxide wafers patterned with photoresist at 35 mT under similar conditions, and the current applied to theelectromagnet assembly4430 was increased in five steps from (a) 0 amperes, (b) 5 amperes, (c) 6 amperes, (d) 7 amperes and (e) 8 amperes. (In this test, a current of 5 amperes produces about 6 gauss measured axial magnetic field component at the wafer center.) At each step, the etch depths of high aspect ratio contact openings were measured at both the wafer center and the wafer periphery to test center-to-edge etch rate uniformity control. The measured center-to-edge etch rate differences were, respectively, (a) 13.9% center low, (b) 3.3% center low, (c) 0.3% center low, (d) 2.6% center high and (e) 16.3% center high. From the foregoing, it is seen that the ideal electromagnet current for best center-to-edge uniformity is readily ascertained and in this case was about 6 amperes.
• A set of etch processes were carried out on blanket oxide wafers to test the efficacy of the dual zonegas distribution plate210 ofFIG. 44. In a first step, the gas flow rates through the two zones were equal, in a second step the inner zone had a gas flow rate four times that of the outer zone and in a third step the outer zone had a gas flow rate four times that of the inner zone. In each of these steps, no current was applied to theelectromagnet assembly4430 so that the measurements taken would reflect only the effect of the dual zonegas distribution plate210. With gas flow rates of the two zones equal in the first step, the etch rate distribution was slightly center high with a standard deviation of about 2.3%. With the inner zone gas flow rate at four times that of the outer zone, the etch rate distribution was center fast with a standard deviation of about 4%. With the outer zone gas flow rate at four times that of the inner zone, the etch rate distribution was center slow with a standard deviation of about 3.4%. This showed that the dual zone differential gas flow rate feature of thegas distribution plate210 can be used to make some correction to the etch rate distribution. However, the gas flow rate control directly affects neutral species distribution only, since none of the incoming gas is (or should be) ionized. On the other hand, etch rate is directly affected by plasma ion distribution and is not as strongly affected by neutral distribution, at least not directly. Therefore, the etch rate distribution control afforded by the dual zone gas distribution plate, while exhibiting some effect, is necessarily less effective than the magnetic confinement of theelectromagnet assembly4430 which directly affects plasma electrons and thus ions.
• The dependency of theelectromagnet assembly4430 upon the reentrant torroidal plasma current was explored. First a series of etch processes was carried out on blanket oxide wafers with no power applied to the torroidal plasma source, the only power being 3 kiloWatts of RF bias power applied to the wafer pedestal. The electromagnet coil current was increased in four steps of (a) zero amperes, (b) 4 amperes, (c) 6 amperes and (d) 10 amperes. The etch rate distribution was observed in the foregoing steps as (a) center high with a standard deviation of 2.87%, (b) center high with a standard deviation of 3.27%, (c) center high with a standard deviation of 2.93% and (d) center high with a standard deviation of about 4%. Thus, only a small improvement in uniformity was realized for a relatively high D.C. current applied to theelectromagnet assembly4430. Next, a series of etch processes was carried out under similar conditions, except that 1800 Watts was applied to each of the orthogonal tubes150-1,150-2. The electromagnet coil current was increased in six steps of (a) zero amperes, (b) 2 amperes, (c) 3 amperes, (d) 4 amperes, (e) 5 amperes and (f) 6 amperes. The etch rate distribution was, respectively, (a) center low with a standard deviation of 1.2%, (b) center low with a standard deviation of 1.56%, (c) center high with a standard deviation of 1.73%, (d) center high with a standard deviation of 2.2%, (e) center high with a standard deviation of 2.85% and (f) center high with a standard deviation of 4.25%. Obviously the most uniform distribution lies somewhere between 2 and 3 amperes where the transition from center low to center high was made. Far greater changes in plasma distribution were made using much smaller coil current with much smaller changes in coil current. Thus, the presence of the reentrant torroidal plasma currents appears to enhance the effects of the magnetic field of theelectromagnet assembly4430. Such enhancement may extend from the increase in bias power that is possible when the torroidal plasma source is activated. In its absence, the plasma is less conductive and the plasma sheath is much thicker, so that the bias RF power applied to the wafer pedestal must necessarily be limited. When the torroidal plasma source is activated (e.g., at 1800 Watts for each of the two orthogonal tubes150-1,150-2) the plasma is more conductive, the plasma sheath is thinner and more bias power can be applied. As stated before herein, the effect of the D.C. magnetic field may be dependent upon the interaction between the D.C. magnetic field and the electric field of the plasma sheath, which in turn depends upon the RF bias power applied to the pedestal. Furthermore, the reentrant torroidal plasma currents may be attracted to the central plasma region due to the aforementioned postulated interaction between D.C. magnetic field and the electric field of the plasma sheath, further enhancing the plasma ion density in that region.
• The effects of the port-to-port separation distance S ofFIG. 55A were explored in another series of etch processes on blanket oxide wafers. The same etch process was carried out in reactors having separation distances S of 16.5 inches and 20.5 inches respectively. The etch rate in the one with smaller separation distance was 31% greater than in the one with the greater separation distance (i.e., 6993 vs 5332 Angstroms/minute) with 1800 Watts applied to each one of the orthogonal tubes150-1,150-2 with zero current applied to the electromagnet assembly4300 in each reactor.
• The effects of the port-to-port separation distance S ofFIGS. 55-56 were also explored in another series of etch processes on oxide wafers patterned with photoresist. With 3.7 amperes applied to the electromagnet assembly4300 having the smaller source (16.5 inch) separation distance S, the etch rate was 10450 Angstroms/minute vs 7858 Angstroms/minute using the larger source (20.5 inch) separation distance S. The effect of increasing power in the reactor having the greater (20.5 inches) separation distance S was explored. Specifically, the same etch process was carried out in that reactor with source power applied to each of the orthogonal tubes150-1,150-2 being 1800 Watts and then at 2700 Watts. The etch rate increased proportionately very little, i.e., from 7858 Angstroms/minute to 8520 Angstroms/minute. Thus, the effect of the port-to-port separation distance S on plasma ion density and etch rate cannot readily be compensated by changing plasma source power. This illustrates the importance of cases such as the case ofFIGS. 65A, 65B and66 in which a relatively short port-to-port separation distance S is accommodated while in effect lengthening the distance over which the plasma current is permitted to equilibrate after being split by thetriangular splitters5440.
• Thepole piece4440 has been disclosed a being either a permanent magnet or the core of an electromagnet surrounded by acoil4450. However, thepole piece4440 may be eliminated, leaving only thecoil4450 as an air coil inductor that produces a magnetic field having a similar orientation to that produced by thepole piece4440. Theair coil inductor4450 may thus replace thepole piece4440. Therefore, in more general terms, what is required to produce the requisite radial magnetic field is an elongate pole-defining member which may be either thepole piece4440 or anair coil inductor4450 without thepole piece4440 or the combination of the two. The diameter of the pole-defining member is relatively narrow to appropriately confine the peak of the radial magnetic field.
• Plasma Immersion Ion Implantation:
• Referring toFIG. 79, a plasma immersion ion implantation reactor in accordance with one aspect of the invention includes avacuum chamber8010 having aceiling8015 supported on anannular side wall8020. Awafer support pedestal8025 supports a semiconductor (e.g., silicon) wafer orworkpiece8030. Avacuum pump8035 is coupled to apumping annulus8040 defined between thepedestal8025 and theside wall8020. Abutterfly valve8037 regulates gas flow into the intake of thepump8035 and controls the chamber pressure. Agas supply8045 furnishes process gas containing a dopant impurity into thechamber8010 via a system of gas injection ports that includes theinjection port8048 shown in the drawing. For example, if thewafer8030 is a crystalline silicon wafer a portion of which is to be implanted with a p-type conductivity dopant impurity, then thegas supply8045 may furnish BF₃and/or B₂H₆gas into thechamber8010, where Boron is the dopant impurity species. Generally, the dopant-containing gas is a chemical consisting of the dopant impurity, such as boron (a p-type conductivity impurity in silicon) or phosphorus (an n-type conductivity impurity in silicon) and a volatile species such as fluorine and/or hydrogen. Thus, fluorides and/or hydrides of boron, phosphorous or other dopant species such as arsenic, antimony, etc., can be dopant gases. In a plasma containing a fluoride and/or hydride of a dopant gas such as BF₃, there is a distribution of various ion species, such as BF₂+, BF+, B+, F+, F− and others (such as inert additives). All types of species may be accelerated across the sheath and may implant into the wafer surface. The dopant atoms (e.g., boron or phosphorous atoms) typically dissociate from the volatile species atoms (e.g., fluorine or hydrogen atoms) upon impact with the wafer at sufficiently high energy. Although both the dopant ions and volatile species ions are accelerated into the wafer surface, some portion of the volatile species atoms tend to leave the wafer during the annealing process that follows the ion implantation step, leaving the dopant atoms implanted in the wafer.
• A plasma is generated from the dopant-containing gas within thechamber8010 by an inductive RF power applicator including anoverhead coil antenna8050 coupled to an RF plasmasource power generator8055 through animpedance match circuit8060. An RF bias voltage is applied to thewafer8030 by an RF plasmabias power generator8065 coupled to thewafer support pedestal8025 through animpedance match circuit8070. A radiallyouter coil antenna8052 may be driven independently by a second RF plasmasource power generator8057 through animpedance match circuit8062.
• The RF bias voltage on thewafer8030 accelerates ions from the plasma across the plasma sheath and into the wafer surface, where they are lodged in generally interstitial sites in the wafer crystal structure. The ion energy, ion mass, ion flux density and total dose may be sufficient to amorphize (damage) the structure of the wafer. The mass and kinetic energy of the dopant (e.g., boron) ions at the wafer surface and the structure of the surface itself determine the depth of the dopant ions below the wafer surface. This is controlled by the magnitude of the RF bias voltage applied to thewafer support pedestal8025. After the ion implantation process is carried out, the wafer is subjected to an anneal process that causes the implanted dopant atoms to move into substitutional atomic sites in the wafer crystal. The substrate surface may not be crystalline if it has been pre-amorphized prior to the plasma immersion ion implant process, or if the ion energy, ion mass, ion flux density and total dose of plasma immersion ion implant process itself is sufficient to amorphize the structure of the wafer. In such a case, the anneal process causes the amorphous (damaged) layer to recrystallize with the incorporation and activation of implanted dopant. The conductance of the implanted region of the semiconductor is determined by the junction depth and the volume concentration of the activated implanted dopant species after the subsequent anneal process. If, for example, a p-type conductivity dopant such as boron is implanted into a silicon crystal which has been previously doped with an n-type dopant impurity, then a p-n junction is formed along the boundaries of the newly implanted p-type conductivity region, the depth of the p-n junction being the activated implanted depth of the p-type dopant impurities after anneal. The junction depth is determined by the bias voltage on the wafer (and by the anneal process), which is controlled by the power level of the RF plasmabias power generator8065. The dopant concentration in the implanted region is determined by the dopant ion flux (“dose”) at the wafer surface during implantation and the duration of the ion flux. The dopant ion flux is determined by the magnitude of the RF power radiated by the inductiveRF power applicator8050, which is controlled by the RF plasmasource power generator8055. This arrangement enables independent control of the time of implant, the conductivity of the implanted region and the junction depth. Generally, the control parameters such as the power output levels of the biaspower RF generator8065 and the sourcepower RF generator8055 are chosen to minimize the implant time while meeting the target values for conductivity and junction depth. For more direct control of ion energy, the bias generator may have “voltage” rather than “power” as its output control variable.
• An advantage of the inductive RF plasmasource power applicator8050 is that the ion flux (the dopant dose rate) can be increased by increasing the power level of the RFsource power generator8055 without a concomitant increase in plasma potential. The bias voltage level is controlled by the RF bias power generator at a preselected value (selected for the desired implant depth) while the inductive RF source power is increased to increase the ion flux (the dopant dose rate) without significantly increasing the plasma potential. This feature minimizes contamination due to sputtering or etching of chamber surfaces. It further reduces the consumption of consumable components within the chamber that wear out over time due to plasma sputtering. Since the plasma potential is not necessarily increased with ion flux, the minimum implant energy is not limited (increased), thereby allowing the user to select a shallower junction depth than would otherwise have been possible. In contrast, it will be recalled that the microwave ECR plasma source was characterized by a relatively high minimum plasma potential, which therefore limited the minimum implant energy and therefore limited the minimum junction depth.
• An advantage of applying an RF bias voltage to the wafer (instead of a D.C. bias voltage) is that it is far more efficient (and therefore more productive) for ion implantation, provided the RF bias frequency is suitably chosen. This is illustrated inFIGS. 80A, 80B and80C.FIG. 80A illustrates a one-millisecond D.C. pulse applied to the wafer in conventional practice, whileFIG. 80B illustrates the resulting ion energy at the wafer surface. The D.C. pulse voltage ofFIG. 80A is near the target bias voltage at which ions become substitutional upon annealing at the desired implant junction depth.FIG. 80B shows how the ion energy decays from the initial value corresponding to the voltage of the pulse ofFIG. 80A, due to resistive-capacitive effects at the wafer surface. As a result, only about the first micro-second (or less) of the one-millisecond D.C. pulse ofFIG. 80A is actually useful, because it is only this micro-second portion of the pulse that produces ion energies capable of implanting ions that become substitutional (during annealing) at the desired junction depth. The initial (one microsecond) period of the D.C. pulse may be referred to as the RC time. During the remaining portion of the D.C. pulse, ions fail to attain sufficient energy to reach the desired depth or to become substitutional upon annealing, and may fail to penetrate the wafer surface so as to accumulate in a deposited film that resists further implantation. This problem cannot be solved by increasing the pulse voltage, since this would produce a large number of ions that would be implanted deeper than the desired junction depth. Thus, ions are implanted down to the desired junction depth during only about a tenth of a percent of the time. This increases the time required to reach the target implant density at the desired junction depth. The resulting spread in energy also reduces the abruptness of the junction. In contrast, each RF cycle in a 1 millisecond burst of a 1 MHz RF bias voltage illustrated inFIG. 80C has an RF cycle time not exceeding the so-called RC time ofFIG. 80B. As a result, resistive-capacitive effects encountered with a pulsed D.C. bias voltage are generally avoided with an RF bias voltage of a sufficient frequency. Therefore, ions are implanted down to the desired junction depth during a far greater percentage of the time of the 1 MHz RF bias voltage ofFIG. 80C. This reduces the amount of time required to reach a target implant density at the desired junction depth. Thus, the use of an RF bias voltage on the wafer results in far greater efficiency and productivity than a D.C. pulse voltage, depending upon the choice of RF frequency.
• The frequency of the RF bias is chosen to satisfy the following criteria: The RF bias frequency must be sufficiently high to have a negligible voltage drop across the pedestal (cathode) dielectric layers) and minimize sensitivity to dielectric films on the backside or front side of the wafer and minimize sensitivity to chamber wall surface conditions or deposition of plasma by-products. Moreover, the frequency must be sufficiently high to have a cycle time not significantly exceeding the initial period (e.g., one micro-second) before resistive-capacitive (RC) effects reduce ion energy more than 2% below the target energy, as discussed immediately above. Furthermore, the RF bias frequency must be sufficiently high to couple across insulating capacitances such as films on the wafer surface, dielectric layers on the wafer support pedestal, coatings on the chamber walls, or deposited films on the chamber walls. (An advantage of RF coupling of the bias voltage to the wafer is that such coupling does not rely upon ohmic contact and is less affected by changes or variations in the surface conditions existing between the wafer and the support pedestal.) However, the RF bias frequency should be sufficiently low so as to not generate significant plasma sheath oscillations (leaving that task to the plasma source power applicator). More importantly, the RF bias frequency should be sufficiently low for the ions to respond to the oscillations of the electric field in the plasma sheath overlying the wafer surface. The considerations underlying this last requirement are now discussed with reference toFIGS. 81A through 81D.
• FIG. 81A illustrates the plasma ion saturation current at the wafer surface as a function of D.C. bias voltage applied to the wafer, the current being greatest (skewed toward) the higher voltage region.FIG. 81B illustrates the oscillation of the RF voltage ofFIG. 80C. The asymmetry of the ion saturation current illustrated inFIG. 80A causes the ion energy distribution created by the RF bias voltage ofFIG. 80B to be skewed in like manner toward the higher energy region, as illustrated inFIG. 80C. The ion energy distribution is concentrated most around an energy corresponding to the peak-to-peak voltage of the RF bias on the wafer. But this is true only if the RF bias frequency is sufficiently low for ions to follow the oscillations of the electric field in the plasma sheath. This frequency is generally a low frequency around 100 kHz to 3 MHz, but depends on sheath thickness and charge-to-mass ratio of the ion. Sheath thickness is a function of plasma electron density at the sheath edge and sheath voltage. Referring toFIG. 81D, as this frequency is increased from the low frequency (denoted F1 inFIG. 81D) to a medium frequency (denoted F2 inFIG. 81D) and finally to a high frequency such as 13 MHz (denoted F3 inFIG. 81D), the ability of the ions to follow the plasma sheath electric field oscillation is diminished, so that the energy distribution is narrower. At the HF frequency (F3) ofFIG. 81D, the ions do not follow the sheath electric field oscillations, and instead achieve an energy corresponding to the average voltage of the RF bias voltage, i.e., about half the RF bias peak-to-peak voltage. As a result, the ion energy is cut in half as the RF bias frequency increases to an HF frequency (for a constant RF bias voltage). Furthermore, at the medium frequency, we have found that the plasma behavior is unstable in that it changes sporadically between the low frequency behavior (at which the ions have an energy corresponding to the peak-to-peak RF bias voltage) and the high frequency behavior (at which the ions have an energy corresponding to about half the peak-to-peak RF bias voltage). Therefore, by maintaining the RF bias frequency at a frequency that is sufficiently low (corresponding to the frequency F1 ofFIG. 81D) for the ions to follow the plasma sheath electric field oscillations, the RF bias peak-to-peak voltage required to meet a particular ion implant depth requirement is reduced by a factor of nearly two, relative to behavior at a medium frequency (F2) or a high frequency (F3). This is a significant advantage because such a reduction in the required RF bias voltage (e.g., by a factor of two) greatly reduces the risk of high voltage arcing in the wafer support pedestal and the risk of damaging thin film structures on the wafer. This is particularly important because in at least a particular plasma immersion ion implantation source described later in this specification, ion energies match those obtained in a conventional ion beam implanter, provided the plasma RF bias voltage is twice the acceleration voltage of the conventional ion beam implanter. Thus, at a high frequency plasma RF bias voltage, where ion energies tend to be half those obtained at low frequency, the required plasma RF bias voltage is four times the acceleration voltage of the conventional ion beam implanter for a given ion energy level. Therefore, it is important in a plasma immersion ion implantation reactor to exploit the advantages of a low frequency RF bias voltage, to avoid the necessity of excessive RF bias voltages.
• Good results are therefore attained by restricting the RF bias power frequency to a low frequency range between 10 kHz and 10 MHz. Better results are obtained by limiting the RF bias power frequency to a narrower range of 50 kHz to 5 MHz. The best results are obtained in the even narrower bias power frequency range of 100 kHz to 3 MHz. We have found optimum results at about 2 MHz plus or minus 5%.
• Both the RFsource power generator8055 and the RFbias power generator8065 may apply continuous RF power to theinductive power applicator8050 and thewafer pedestal8025 respectively. However, either or both of thegenerators8055,8065 may be operated in burst modes controlled by acontroller8075. Thecontroller8075 may also control thegenerator8057 in a burst mode as well if theouter coil antenna8052 is present. Operation in an implementation not including theouter coil antenna8057 will now be described. The RF signals produced by each of thegenerators8055,8065 may be pulse modulated to produce continuous wave (CW) RF power in bursts lasting, for example, one millisecond with a repetition rate on the order of 0.5 kHz, for example. Either one or both of theRF power generators8055,8065 may be operated in this manner. If both are operated in such a burst mode simultaneously, then they may be operated in a push-pull mode, or in an in-synchronism mode, or in a symmetrical mode or in a non-symmetrical mode, as will now be described.
• A push-pull mode is illustrated in the contemporaneous time domain waveforms ofFIGS. 82A and 82B, illustrating the RF power waveforms of therespective RF generators8055 and8065, in which the bursts of RF energy from the twogenerators8055,8065 occur during alternate time windows.FIGS. 82A and 82B illustrate the RF power waveforms of thegenerators8055 and8065, respectively, or vice versa.
• An in-synchronism mode is illustrated in the contemporaneous time domain waveforms ofFIGS. 82C and 82D, in which the bursts of RF energy from the twogenerators8055,8065 are simultaneous. They may not be necessarily in phase, however, particularly where the twogenerators8055,8065 produce different RF frequencies. For example, the RF plasmasource power generator8055 may have a frequency of about 13 MHz while the RF plasmabias power generator8065 may have a frequency of about 2 MHz.FIGS. 82C and 82D illustrate the RF power waveforms of thegenerators8055 and8065, respectively, or vice versa.
• In the foregoing examples, the pulse widths and pulse repetition rates of the twoRF generators8055,8065 may be at least nearly the same. However, if they are different, then the temporal relationship between the bursts of the twogenerators8055,8065 must be selected. In the example of the contemporaneous time domain waveforms ofFIGS. 82E and 82F, one of thegenerators8055,8065 produces shorter RF bursts illustrated inFIG. 82F while the other produces longer RF bursts illustrated inFIG. 82E. In this example, the bursts of the twogenerators8055,8065 are symmetrically arranged, with the shorter bursts ofFIG. 82F centered with respect to the corresponding longer bursts ofFIG. 82E.FIGS. 82E and 82F illustrate the RF power waveforms of thegenerators8055 and8065, respectively, or vice versa.
• In another example, illustrated in the contemporaneous time domain waveforms ofFIGS. 82G and 82H, the shorter bursts (FIG. 82H) are not centered relative to the corresponding longer bursts (FIG. 82G), so that they are asymmetrically arranged. Specifically, in this example the shorter RF bursts ofFIG. 82H coincide with the later portions of corresponding ones of the long bursts ofFIG. 82G. Alternatively, as indicated in dashed line inFIG. 82H, the short RF bursts ofFIG. 82H may instead coincide with the earlier portions of corresponding ones of the long RF bursts ofFIG. 82G.FIGS. 82G and 82H illustrate the RF power waveforms of thegenerators8055 and8065, respectively, or vice versa.
• The inductive RFsource power applicator8050 ofFIG. 79 tends to exhibit a rapid increase in dissociation of fluorine-containing species in the plasma as plasma source power (and ion flux) is increased, causing undue etching of semiconductor films on the wafer during the implantation process. Such etching is undesirable. A plasma immersion ion implantation reactor that tends to avoid this problem is illustrated inFIG. 83A. The plasma immersion ion implantation reactor ofFIG. 83A has a capacitive source power applicator constituting a conductive (metal) orsemiconducting ceiling8015′ electrically insulated from the groundedside wall8020 by an insulatingring8017. Alternatively, the ceiling may be metal, conductive, or semiconducting and be coating by an insulating, conducting or semiconducting layer. The RF plasmasource power generator8055 drives theceiling8015′ through theimpedance match circuit8060 in the manner of a capacitive plate. Plasma is generated by oscillations in the plasma sheath produced by the RF power capacitively coupled from theceiling8015′. In order to enhance such plasma generation, the frequency of the plasma RFsource power generator8055 is relatively high, for example within the very high frequency (VHF) range or 30 MHz and above. Thewafer pedestal8025 may serve as a counter electrode to theceiling8015′. Theceiling8015′ may serve as a counter electrode to the RF bias voltage applied to thewafer pedestal8025. Alternatively, the chamber wall may serve as a counter electrode to either or both wafer bias and ceiling bias voltages. In one implementation, the dopant-containing gas is fed through theceiling8015′ through pluralgas injection orifices8048′.
• The capacitively coupled plasma ion immersion implantation reactor ofFIG. 83A enjoys the advantages of the inductively coupled reactor ofFIG. 79 in that both types of reactors permit the independent adjustment of ion flux (by adjusting power level of the plasma source power generator8055) and of the ion energy or implant depth (by adjusting the power level of the plasma bias power generator8065). In addition, when plasma source power or ion flux is increased, the capacitively coupled plasma ion immersion reactor ofFIG. 83A exhibits a smaller increase in dissociation of fluorine-containing species in the gas fed from thedopant gas supply8045 and a smaller increase in reaction by-products which would otherwise lead to excessive etch or deposition problems. The advantage is that ion flux may be increased more freely without causing an unacceptable level of etching or deposition during ion implantation.
• The higher frequency RF power of the plasmasource power generator8055 controls plasma density and therefore ion flux at the wafer surface, but does not greatly affect sheath voltage or ion energy. The lower frequency RF power of thebias power generator8065 controls the sheath voltage and therefore the ion implantation energy and (junction) depth and does not contribute greatly to ion generation or ion flux. The higher the frequency of the plasma source power generator, the less source power is wasted in heating ions in the plasma sheath, so that more of the power is used to generate plasma ions through oscillations of the plasma sheath or by heating electrons in the bulk plasma. The lower frequency of the RFbias power generator8065 is less than 10 MHz while the higher frequency of the RF plasmasource power generator8055 is greater than 10 MHz. More preferably, the lower frequency is less than 5 MHz while the higher frequency is greater than 15 MHz. Even better results are obtained with the lower frequency being less than 3 MHz and the higher frequency exceeding 30 MHz or even 50 MHz. In some cases the source power frequency may be as high as 160 MHz or over 200 MHz. The greater the separation in frequency between the higher and lower frequencies of the source andbias power generators8055,8065, respectively, the more the plasma ion implant flux and the plasma ion implant energy can be separately controlled by the twogenerators8055,8065.
• In the variation illustrated inFIG. 83B, the RF plasmasource power generator8055 is coupled to the wafer pedestal rather than being coupled to theceiling8015′. An advantage of this feature is that theceiling8015′ is consumed (by plasma sputtering or etching) at a much lower rate than in the reactor ofFIG. 83A, resulting in less wear and less metallic contamination of the plasma. A disadvantage is that isolation between the twoRF generators8055,8065 from each other is inferior compared to the reactor ofFIG. 83A, as they are both connected to the same electrode, so that control of ion flux and ion energy is not as independent as in the reactor ofFIG. 83A.
• In either of the reactors ofFIGS. 83A or83B, thecontroller8075 can operate in the manner described above with reference toFIGS. 82A through 82H, in which the respective RF power waveforms applied to theceiling8015′ and thepedestal8025 are in a push-pull mode (FIGS. 82A and B), or an in-synchronism mode (FIGS. 82C and D), or a symmetric mode (FIGS. 802E and F) or a non-symmetric mode (FIGS. 82G and H).
• FIGS. 83A and 83B show that the RFsource power generator8055 can drive theceiling8015′ (FIG. 83A) with theside wall8020 and/or thewafer support pedestal8025 connected to the RF return terminal of thegenerator8055, or, in the alternative, the RFsource power generator8055 can drive thewafer support pedestal8025 with theceiling8015′ and/or thesidewall8020 connected to the RF return terminal of thegenerator8055. Thus, the RF source power generator is connected across thewafer support pedestal8025 and thesidewall8020 or theceiling8015′ (or both). The polarity of the connections to thesource power generator8055 may be reversed, so that it drives theside wall8020 and/orceiling8015′ with thepedestal8025 being connected to the RF return terminal of thegenerator8055.
• As set forth above, the plasma immersion ion implantation inductively coupled reactor ofFIG. 79 has distinct advantages, including (a) the capability of a large ion flux/high plasma ion density, (b) independently controlled ion energy, and (c) low minimum ion energy (plasma potential). The plasma immersion ion implantation capacitively coupled reactor ofFIG. 83A has the additional advantage of having more controllable dissociation of process gases and reactive byproducts as ion flux is increased, than the inductively coupled reactor ofFIG. 79. However, the capacitively coupled reactor ofFIG. 83A has a higher minimum ion energy/plasma potential than the inductively coupled reactor ofFIG. 79. Thus, these two types of reactors provide distinct advantages, but neither provides all of the advantages.
• A plasma immersion ion implantation reactor that provides all of the foregoing advantages, including low minimum ion energy and low process gas dissociation, is illustrated inFIG. 84. InFIG. 84, the inductively or capacitively coupled plasma sources ofFIG. 79 or83A are replaced by a torroidal plasma source of the type disclosed above inFIGS. 1-78. In the basic configuration ofFIG. 84, the torroidal plasma source includes a reentranthollow conduit8150 over theceiling8015, corresponding to theconduit150 ofFIG. 1. Theconduit8150 ofFIG. 84 has oneopen end8150asealed around afirst opening8155 in theceiling8015 and an oppositeopen end8150bsealed around asecond opening8160 in theceiling8015. The two openings orports8155,8160 are located in the ceiling over opposite sides of thewafer support pedestal8025. WhileFIG. 84 illustrates theopenings8155,8160 being in the ceiling, the openings could instead be in the base or floor of the chamber, as inFIG. 12, or in the side wall of the chamber, as inFIG. 26, so that theconduit8150 may pass over or under the chamber. RF plasma source power is coupled from theRF generator8055 through the optionalimpedance match circuit8060 to the reentrant conduit by an RF plasmasource power applicator8110. Various types of source power applicators for a reentrant hollow conduit are disclosed inFIGS. 1-78, any one of which may be employed in the plasma immersion ion implantation reactor ofFIG. 84. In the implementation illustrated inFIG. 84, the RF plasmasource power applicator8110 is similar to that illustrated inFIG. 13, in which a magneticallypermeable core8115 having a torus shape surrounds an annular portion of theconduit8150. TheRF generator8055 is coupled through the optional impedance match circuit to a conductive winding8120 around themagnetic core8115. Anoptional tuning capacitor8122 may be connected across the winding8120. TheRF generator8055 may be frequency-tuned to maintain an impedance match, so that theimpedance match circuit8060 may not be necessary.
• The reactor chamber includes theprocess region8140 between thewafer support pedestal8025 and theceiling8015. Thegas supply8045 furnishes dopant gases into thereactor chamber8140 throughgas injection orifices8048 in theceiling8015. Plasma circulates (oscillates) through thereentrant conduit8150 and across theprocess region8140 in response to the RF source power coupled by thesource power applicator8110. As in the reactor ofFIG. 13, thereentrant conduit8150 is formed of a conductive material and has a narrow gap orannular break8152 filled with aninsulator8154. The dopant gases furnished by thegas supply8045 contain a species that is either a donor (N-type) or acceptor (P-type) impurity when substituted into the semiconductor crystal structure of thewafer8030. For example, if the wafer is a silicon crystal, then an N-type dopant impurity may be arsenic or phosphorous, for example, while a P-type dopant impurity may be boron, for example. The dopant gas furnished by thegas supply8045 is a chemical combination of the dopant impurity with an at least partially volatile species, such as fluorine for example. For example, if a P-type conductivity region is to be formed by ion implantation, then the dopant gas may be a combination of boron and fluorine, such as BF₃, for example. Or, for example, the dopant gas be a hydride, such as B₂H₆. Phosphorous doping may be accomplished using a fluoride such as PF₃or PF₅or a hydride such as PH₃. Arsenic doping may be accomplished using a fluoride such as AsF₅or a hydride such as AsH₃.
• The RF bias power generator provides an RF bias voltage, with the RF bias frequency selected as described above with reference toFIG. 81D. Good results are attained by restricting the RF bias power frequency to a low frequency range between 10 kHz and 10 MHz. Better results are obtained by limiting the RF bias power frequency to a narrower range of 50 kHz to 5 MHz. The best results are obtained in the even narrower bias power frequency range of 100 kHz to 3 MHz. We have found optimum results at about 2 MHz plus or minus 5%.
• In the reactor ofFIG. 84, both the RFsource power generator8055 and the RFbias power generator8065 may apply continuous RF power to theinductive power applicator8110 and thewafer pedestal8025 respectively. However, either or both of thegenerators8055,8065 may be operated in burst modes controlled by acontroller8075. The RF signals produced by each of thegenerators8055,8065 may be pulse modulated to produce continuous wave (CW) RF power in bursts lasting, for example, one millisecond with a repetition rate on the order of 0.5 kHz, for example. Either one or both of theRF power generators8055,8065 may be operated in this manner. If both are operated in such a burst mode simultaneously, then they may be operated in a push-pull mode, or in an in-synchronism mode, or in a symmetrical mode or in a non-symmetrical mode, as will now be described for the reactor ofFIG. 84.
• A push-pull mode is illustrated in the contemporaneous time domain waveforms ofFIGS. 82A and 82B, illustrating the RF power waveforms of therespective RF generators8055 and8065, in which the bursts of RF energy from the twogenerators8055,8065 occur during alternate time windows.FIGS. 82A and 82B illustrate the RF power waveforms of thegenerators8055 and8065, respectively, or vice versa.
• An in-synchronism mode is illustrated in the contemporaneous time domain waveforms ofFIGS. 82C and 82D, in which the bursts of RF energy from the twogenerators8055,8065 are simultaneous. They may not be necessarily in phase, however, particularly where the twogenerators8055,8065 produce different RF frequencies. For example, the RF plasmasource power generator8055 may have a frequency of about 13 MHz while the RF plasmabias power generator8065 may have a frequency of about 2 MHz.FIGS. 82C and 82D illustrate the RF power waveforms of thegenerators8055 and8065, respectively, or vice versa.
• In the foregoing examples, the pulse widths and pulse repetition rates of the twoRF generators8055,8065 may be at least nearly the same. However, if they are different, then the temporal relationship between the bursts of the twogenerators8055,8065 must be selected. In the example of the contemporaneous time domain waveforms ofFIGS. 82E and 82F, one of thegenerators8055,8065 produces shorter RF bursts illustrated inFIG. 82F while the other produces longer RF bursts illustrated inFIG. 82E. In this example, the bursts of the twogenerators8055,8065 are symmetrically arranged, with the shorter bursts ofFIG. 82F centered with respect to the corresponding longer bursts ofFIG. 82E.FIGS. 82E and 82F illustrate the RF power waveforms of thegenerators8055 and8065, respectively, or vice versa.
• In another example, illustrated in the contemporaneous time domain waveforms ofFIGS. 82G and 82H, the shorter bursts (FIG. 82H) are not centered relative to the corresponding longer bursts (FIG. 82G), so that they are asymmetrically arranged. Specifically, in this example the shorter RF bursts ofFIG. 82H coincide with the later portions of corresponding ones of the long bursts ofFIG. 82G. Alternatively, as indicated in dashed line inFIG. 82H, the short RF bursts ofFIG. 82H may instead coincide with the earlier portions of corresponding ones of the long RF bursts ofFIG. 82G.FIGS. 82G and 82H illustrate the RF power waveforms of thegenerators8055 and8065, respectively, or vice versa.
• The torroidal plasma immersion ion implantation reactor ofFIG. 84 can be operated with a pulsed D.C. bias voltage instead of an RF bias voltage. In this case, thebias power generator8065 would be D.C. source rather than an RF source. Thus, in the different operational modes ofFIGS. 82A through 82H discussed above, the pulsed RF bias voltage may be replaced by a pulsed D.C. bias voltage of the same pulse width, with only thesource power generator8055 producing an RF power burst.
• FIG. 85 illustrates a modification of the plasma immersion ion implantation reactor ofFIG. 84 having a secondreentrant conduit8151 crossing the firstreentrant conduit8150, in a manner similar to the reactor ofFIG. 44. Plasma power is coupled to thesecond conduit8151 from a second RF plasmasource power generator8056 through a secondoptional match circuit8061 to a secondsource power applicator8111 that includes a second magneticallypermeable core8116 and a second core winding8121 driven by the second RFsource power generator8056. Process gas from thegas supply8045 may be introduced into the chamber by a gas distribution plate or showerhead incorporated in the ceiling8015 (as in thegas distribution plate210 ofFIG. 44). However, the plasma immersion ion implantation reactor ofFIG. 85 is greatly simplified by using a small number ofprocess gas injectors8048 in theceiling8015 or in theside wall8020 or elsewhere, such as in the base of the chamber (not shown) coupled to the dopant gas supply, rather than a showerhead. Moreover, the gap between theceiling8015 and thewafer pedestal8025 may be relatively large (e.g., two to six inches) and a gas distribution plate eliminated in favor of discrete gas injectors ordiffuser8048 in theceiling8015 or gas injectors or diffusers8049 in theside wall8020 because there is no need to generate plasma close to the wafer surface. The gas injectors or diffusers8049 may be joined in a ring8049 on theside wall8020. Generally, the higher the maximum implant depth and ion energy requirement, the greater the gap between ceiling and wafer that is required. For example, for a peak-to-peak RF bias voltage of 10 kV, a gap of 4 inches is preferable over a 2 inch gap for best plasma uniformity across a wide range of gas species and plasma electron densities. The term diffuser is employed in the conventional sense as referring to a type of gas distribution device having a wide angle of gas flow distribution emanating from the device.
• FIG. 86 is a plan view of the interior surface of theceiling8015, showing one arrangement of thegas injection orifices8048, in which there is one central orifice8048-1 in the center of theceiling8015 and four radially outer orifices8048-2 through8048-5 uniformly spaced at an outer radius.FIG. 87 illustrates how thedopant gas supply8045 may be implemented as a gas distribution panel. The gas distribution panel orsupply8045 ofFIG. 87 has separate gas reservoirs8210-1 through8210-11 containing different dopant-containing gases including fluorides of boron, hydrides of boron, fluorides of phosphorous and hydrides of phosphorous. In addition, there are gas reservoirs for other gases used in co-implantation (hydrogen and helium), material enhancement (nitrogen), surface passivation or co-implantation (fluorides of silicon or germanium or carbon). In addition, the center orifice8048-1 may be coupled to a reservoir oxygen gas, for use in photoresist removal and/or chamber cleaning. Acontrol panel8220 includesvalves8222 controlling gas flow from the respective reservoirs8210 to the gas injection orifices. Preferably, the gases are mixed at or near the orifices, although agas manifold8230 may be provided to distribute the selected gases among the outer gas injection orifices8048-2 through8048-5. Alternatively, process gas may be injected at one or more locations in thesidewall8020, using the nozzles8049 ofFIG. 85 or diffusers.FIG. 85 shows gas injectors8049 located around the chamber sidewalls8020 which inject gas radially inward. Gas may be injected parallel to the ceiling and/or wafer, or may be injected with some component toward ceiling and/or wafer. For some applications, it is advantageous to utilize multiple separate gas plenums, each with its own nozzle array. This can permit the use of chemistries which should not be combined except under vacuum, or may permit having several gas zones for neutral uniformity tuning. For this purpose, referring again toFIG. 85, afirst ring8049ajoining a first set ofside wall injectors8049cserves as a first plenum, while asecond ring8049bjoining a second separate set ofside wall injectors8049dserves as a second plenum. The two rings orplenums8049a,8049bare supplied by separate respective sets ofvalves8222 of the gas panel ofFIG. 87FIG. 88 illustrates a modification of the plasma immersion ion implantation reactor ofFIG. 85 in which acentral electromagnet assembly8430 is mounted over the center of theceiling8015. Like theelectromagnet assembly4430 ofFIG. 44, theelectromagnet assembly8430 ofFIG. 88 controls plasma ion density uniformity and includes a narrow elongatecylindrical pole piece8440 formed of a magnetizable material such as iron or steel and acoil8450 of insulated conductive wire wrapped around thepole piece8440. A magneticcurrent controller8442 supplies an electrical current to thecoil8450. Thecontroller8442 controls the current through thecoil8450 so as to optimize uniformity of plasma ion density (ion flux) across the wafer surface.
• FIGS. 89A and 89B are side and top views, respectively, illustrating a further modification incorporating a radiallyouter electromagnet assembly8460. Theouter electromagnet assembly8460 is in the shape of a torus and overlies an annular outer region of theceiling8015 near the circumferential edge of theceiling8015 and adjacent the ports pairs150,160 of theconduits8150,8151. Referring to the cross-sectional view ofFIG. 90A, theouter electromagnet assembly8460 includes acoil8462 consisting of plural windings of a single conductor connected to thecurrent controller8442. In order to concentrate the magnetic field of theouter electromagnet assembly8460 within theprocess region8140, an overlyingmagnetic cover8464 surrounding the sides and top of thecoil8462 but not the bottom of thecoil8462. Themagnetic cover8464 permits the magnetic field of thecoil8462 to extend downwardly below the ceiling into theprocess region8140. Uniformity of the ion density and radial plasma flux distribution at the wafer surface is optimized by independently adjusting the currents in the inner andouter electromagnet assemblies8430,8460.
• In order to avoid forming regions of very high plasma ion concentration near theports150,160 of the twoconduits8150,8151,individual plates8466 of magnetically permeable material (e.g., iron or steel) are placed under theouter electromagnet assembly8460 adjacent respective ones of theports150,160. The circumferential extent of eachplate8466 is approximately equal to the width of eachindividual port150,160.FIGS. 90A, 90B and90C are cross-sectional views taken along lines90-90 ofFIG. 89B. The distance between theplate8466 and the bottom edge of themagnetic cover8464 may be adjusted to control the amount of magnetic field coupled into portion of the process region near each individual one of theports150,160. InFIG. 90A, theplate8466 is in contact with the bottom edges of thecover8464, so that the magnetic field near the corresponding port (150,160) is almost completely confined within the enclosure defined by thecover8464 and theplate8466. InFIG. 90B, theplate8466 is slightly displaced from the bottom edge of thecover8464, creating a small gap therebetween that allows a small magnetic field to enter theprocess region8140 near the corresponding port (150,160). InFIG. 90C, there is a large gap between theplate8466 and thecover8464, permitting a larger magnetic field to exist in the process region near the corresponding port (150,160).
• FIG. 91 illustrates how the RF plasmabias power generator8065 may be coupled to thewafer support pedestal8025. Aninductor8510 and avariable capacitor8520 are connected in parallel between one side of aseries capacitor8530 and ground, the other side of theseries capacitor8530 being connected to thewafer support pedestal8025. The output of thebias power generator8065 is connected to a tap8560 of theinductor8510. The position of the tap8560 and the capacitance of thevariable capacitor8520 are selected to provide an impedance match between thebias power generator8065 and the plasma load at thewafer pedestal8065. Thevariable capacitor8520 may be controlled by asystem controller8525 to optimize matching. In this case, the circuit including the parallel inductor andcapacitor8510,8520 serves as an impedance match circuit. In order to follow variations in the plasma load impedance during processing, frequency tuning of thebias power generator8065 may be employed, although this may not be necessary. The position of the tap8560 may be selectable either manually or by thesystem controller8525 to optimize matching. Alternatively, a capacitor (not shown) may be connected between the tap position and ground or between RF bias generator and tap point as an alternative matching circuit topology. This optional capacitor may be controlled by thesystem controller8525 to optimize matching.
• One problem in selecting the bias voltage level is that large ion energy can be reached only with a high bias voltage level, which typically requires high power. High power contributes to the plasma flux (ion density or dose rate), and can cause too high a dose rate, making it difficult to control the conductivity of the implanted region. One way of controlling the dose rate at such a high power is to pulse the RF bias power. However, controlling the pulse rate and pulse width of repetitive pulses so as to achieve the required dose rate and conductivity is difficult. Part of the problem is that ion implantation at the desired junction depth is achieved only after the bias voltage has risen sufficiently (at the beginning of a pulse or RF burst) to reach a threshold voltage corresponding to the desired junction depth and ion energy. The solution to this problem is to avoid repetitive pulsing of the bias power, and instead use a single pulse of sufficient duration to complete ion implantation at the desired junction depth and conductivity in the implanted region. This is illustrated in the time domain waveform ofFIG. 92. A timer can be employed to guarantee that the RF burst or pulse lasts the required duration (Ttimer). However, the timer must not begin until the sheath voltage has reached the threshold voltage (Vthreshold) at which ion implantation occurs at the required depth. Thus,FIG. 92 shows that the sheath voltage grows at the beginning of bias power RF burst (Ton) until it reaches Vthreshold after several cycles. At that point, the timer begins, and ends the RF burst at the expiration of Ttimer, i.e., at Toff. The problem, therefore, is how to ascertain the time at which the sheath voltage reaches Vthreshold, i.e., when to begin Ttimer.
• Another problem is how to ascertain the requisite power level of thebias power generator8065 at which Vthreshold is produced across the sheath.
• FIG. 93 illustrates a control circuit for determining the bias generator power level that produces the desired sheath voltage and for determining when the target sheath voltage has been reached for beginning the RF burst timer. In the following description, the target bias voltage corresponding to a desired junction depth, has already been determined. In addition, the threshold voltage for implantation has also been determined, and the threshold voltage may be synonymous with the target bias voltage. Finally, the duration time for applying RF bias power at the target bias voltage has already been determined. The RF biaspower generator8065 is controlled by atimer8670 that begins counting sometime after the beginning of an RF burst and times out after a predetermined duration. Athreshold comparator8672 compares the peak-to-peak voltage as detected at thewafer pedestal8025 by apeak detector8674 with the desiredthreshold voltage8676. Thetimer8670 is enabled only when it receives an affirmative signal from anoptical detector8678 indicating that plasma is ignited within the reactor chamber. If theoptical detector8678 sends an affirmative signal, then thetimer8670 begins counting as soon as thecomparator8672 determines that the peak-to-peak bias voltage has reached the desired threshold. When thetimer8670 times out (after the predetermined duration), it turns off the output of the bias power generator, thus terminating the current burst of RF bias power. Thetimer8670 and thethreshold comparator8672 constitute atimer control loop8680.
• The power level of thebias power generator8065 is controlled by avoltage control loop8682. A process controller8684 (or the process designer) determines the desired or “target” bias peak-to-peak voltage. This may be synonymous with the threshold voltage of8676. Asubtractor8686 computes an error value as the difference between the actual peak bias voltage measured by thedetector8674 and the target bias voltage. A proportionalintegral conditioner8688 multiplies this error value by a constant of proportionality, k, and integrates the error value with prior samples. The result is an estimated correction to the power level of thebias power generator8065 that will bring the measured bias voltage closer to the target bias voltage. This estimate is superimposed on the current power level, and the result is an estimated power level command that is applied to the power set input of thebias power generator8065. This estimate is only valid while plasma is ignited (i.e., during an RF burst). For times between RF bursts, the bias power level is controlled in accordance with a look-up table8690 that correlates target peak-to-peak bias voltages with estimated bias power levels. The look-up table receives the target bias voltage from theprocess controller8684 and in response outputs an estimated bias power level. A pair ofswitches8694,8696 are enabled in complementary fashion by the output of the plasma ignitionoptical detector8678. Thus, theswitch8694 receives the output of thesensor8678 while theswitch8696 receives the inverted output of thesensor8678. Thus, during an RF burst, when plasma is ignited in the chamber, the output of the proportionalintegral conditioner8688 is applied to the power set input of thebias generator8065 via theswitch8694. Between RF bursts, or when no plasma is ignited in the chamber, the output of the look-up table8690 is applied via theswitch8696 to the power set input of thebias power generator8065. The output of the look up table8690 may be considered as a gross estimate that serves to initialize the RF bias power level at the beginning of each RF burst, while the output of the integral proportional conditioner is a more accurate estimate based upon actual measurement that serves to correct the bias power level during the RF burst.
• One problem in the plasma immersion ion implantation reactor ofFIG. 89A is that most ion implantation processes must be carried out with precise fine control over chamber pressure. This requires a relatively gradual change in chamber pressure over a given rotation of thecontrol valve8037 from its closed position. On the other hand, some processes, including chamber cleaning, require a very high gas flow rate (e.g., of cleaning gases) and a concomitantly high evacuation rate by thepump8035. This requires that thevacuum control valve8037 have a large area. The problem is that with such a large area, a vacuum control valve does not provide the gradual change in pressure for a given rotation from its closed position that is necessary for fine control of chamber pressure during ion implantation. In fact, with a large area opening and flap, the change in chamber pressure is very rapid as the flap is rotated from its closed position, so that fine control of pressure within a very low pressure range, where the flap must be nearly closed, is very difficult. This problem is solved with the vacuum control valve ofFIGS. 94, 95 and96. The valve includes aflat housing9410 having acircular opening9412 through it. Arotatable flap9420 having a disk shape is supported within thecircular opening9412 by ahinge9422 attached to thehousing9410. In its closed position, theflap9420 is co-planar with theflat housing9410. In order to prevent leakage of plasma through the valve, the gap G between therotatable flap9420 and thehousing9410 is narrow while the thickness T of theflap9420 andhousing9410 is large, much greater than the gap G. For example, the ratio of the thickness T to the gap G is about 10:1. This feature provides the advantage of frictionless operation. In order to provide gradual control of chamber pressure at a very low pressure range (i.e., when theflap9420 is near its closed position), conically-shapedopenings9430 are provided in theinterior surface9440 of thehousing9410 defining the edge of theopening9412. Some of theopenings9430 have different axial locations (along the axis of the opening9412) than others of theopenings9430. In its closed position, theflap9420 permits virtually zero gas leakage, because theopenings9430 are not exposed. As theflap9420 begins to rotate from its closed position (i.e., in which theflap9420 is co-planar with the housing9410), small portions of at least some of theopenings9430 begin to be exposed, and therefore allow a small amount of gas flow through the valve. As theflap9420 continues to rotate, it exposes larger portions of theopenings9430. Moreover, it begins to expose others of theopenings9430 not exposed during the earlier phase of its rotation due to the different axial locations of different sets of theopenings9430, so that the gas flows through more of theopenings9430 in proportion to the rotation of theflap9420. Thus, rotation of theflap9430 from its fully closed (co-planar) position causes a continuous but relatively gradual increase in gas flow through theopenings9430 until thebottom edge9420aof theflap9420 reaches thetop surface9410aof thehousing9410. At this point, all of theopenings9430 are completely exposed so that gas flow through theopenings9430 is maximum and cannot increase further. Thus, a continuous gradual increase in gas flow is achieved (and therefore one that is readily controlled with a great deal of accuracy) as theflap9420 rotates from its fully closed position to the point at which theflap bottom edge9420ais aligned with thehousing top surface9410a. Within this range of flap rotational position, fine gradual adjustment of a small total chamber pressure is provided. Further rotation of theflap9420 creates an annular gap between the periphery of theflap9420 and the periphery of the largecircular opening9412, through which gas flow increases as theflap9420 continues to rotate.
• Theplural openings9430 in the openinginterior surface9440 are semi-circular openings that are tapered so as to increase in diameter toward thetop housing surface9410a. The taperedsemi-circular openings9430 thus define semi-conical shapes. However, other suitable shapes may be employed, such as semi-cylindrical, for example. However, one advantage of the semi-conical shape is that the rate of increase of gas flow with rotational flap position may be enhanced as the rotation progresses so that the rate continues to increase in a fairly smooth manner after the transition point at which theflap bottom edge9420apasses thehousing top surface9410a.
• Depending upon the desired junction depth, the RF bias voltage applied to thewafer support pedestal8025 may be relatively small (e.g., 500 volts) for a shallow junction or relatively large (e.g., 5,000 volts) for a deep junction. Some applications may require an RF bias voltage of over 10,000 volts. Such large voltages can cause arcing within thewafer support pedestal8025. Such arcing distorts process conditions in the reactor. In order to enable thewafer support pedestal8025 to withstand bias voltages as high a 10,000 volts, for example, without arcing, voids within thewafer support pedestal8025 are filled with a dielectric filler material having a high breakdown voltage, such as Rexolite®, a product manufactured by C-Lec Plastics, Inc. As illustrated inFIG. 97, thewafer support pedestal8025 consists of a groundedaluminum base plate9710, an aluminumelectrostatic chuck plate9720 and acylindrical side wall9730.Dielectric filler material9735 fills voids between theside wall9730 and theelectrostatic chuck plate9720.Dielectric filler material9737 fills voids between theelectrostatic chuck plate9720 and thebase plate9710. Acoaxial RF conductor9739 carrying the RF bias power from the RF generator8065 (not shown inFIG. 97) is terminated in a narrow cylindricalconductive center plug9740 that fits tightly within a matchingconductive receptacle9742 of theelectrostatic chuck plate9720. A wafer lift pin9744 (one of three) extends through thepedestal8025. Thelift pin9744 is tightly held within theelectrostatic chuck plate9720 by a surroundingblanket9746 of the dielectric filler material. A void9748 that accommodates aguide9750 of thelift pin9744 is located entirely within thebase plate9710 so as to minimize the risk of arcing within thevoid9748. Referring toFIG. 98, bolt9754 (one of several) holding thebase plate9710 and theelectrostatic chuck plate9720 together is completely encapsulated to eliminate any voids around thebolt9754, withdielectric layers9756,9758 surrounding exposed portions of thebolt9754. The foregoing features have been found to enable the wafer support pedestal to withstand an RF bias voltage of over 10,000 volts without experiencing arcing.
• FIG. 99 illustrates an ion implantation system including a plasma immersionion implantation reactor9910 of the type illustrated inFIG. 79, 83A,83B,84,85,88,89A or93. Anindependent source9920 of chamber-cleaning radicals or gases (such as fluorine-containing gases or fluorine-containing radicals like NF₃and/or other cleaning gases such as hydrogen-containing gases (e.g., H₂or compounds of hydrogen) to produce hydrogen-containing radicals or oxygen-containing gases (e.g., O₂) is coupled to theimplant reactor9910 for use during chamber cleaning operations. Apost-implant anneal chamber9930 and anion beam implanter9940 are also included in the system ofFIG. 99. In addition, anoptical metrology chamber9950 may also be included. Furthermore, aphotoresist pyrolization chamber9952 may be included in the system for removal of the photoresist mask subsequently after implant and prior to anneal. Alternatively, this may be accomplished within the plasmaimmersion implantation reactor9910 using the RF plasma source power and optional bias power with oxygen gas, and/or by using the independent self-cleaning source with oxygen gas.
• The system ofFIG. 99 may also include a wetclean chamber9956 for carrying out wafer cleaning. The wetclean chamber9956 may employ such well known wet cleaning species as HF, for example. The wetclean chamber9956 may be employed for pre-implantation or post-implantation cleaning of the wafer. The pre-implantation cleaning use of the wetclean chamber9956 may be for removing a thin native oxide that can accumulate on the wafer between processing operations. The post-implantation cleaning use of the wetclean chamber9956 may be for removing photoresist from the wafer in lieu of thephotoresist strip chamber9952. The system ofFIG. 99 may further include a second, (third, fourth or more) plasma immersionion implantation reactor9958 of the type illustrated inFIG. 79, 83A,83B,84,85,88,89A or93. In one example, thefirst PIII reactor9910 may be configured to ion implant a first species while thesecond PIII reactor9958 may be configured to implant a second species, so that a single PIII reactor need not be re-configured to implant the two species in each wafer. Furthermore, the first and second species may be dopant impurities for opposite semiconductor conductivity types (e.g., boron and phosphorus), in which case thesecond PIII reactor9958 may be employed in lieu of thebeam implantation tool9940. Or, two N-type dopants (phosphorous and arsenic) may be implanted in addition to a P-type dopant (boron), in which case boron implantation is carried out by thefirst PIII reactor9910, arsenic implantation is carried out in theion beam tool9940 and phosphorus implantation is carried out in thesecond PIII reactor9958, for example. In another example, the 2 (or more) PIII reactors may be configured to implant the same species so as to increase the throughput of the system.
• A wafer transferrobotic handler9945 transfers wafers between the plasmaion implant reactor9910, theanneal chamber9930, theion beam implanter9940, thephotoresist pyrolization chamber9952, theoptical metrology chamber9950, the wetclean chamber9956 and thesecond PIII reactor9958. If the entire system ofFIG. 99 is provided on a single tool or frame, thehandler9945 is a part of that tool and is supported on the same frame. However, if some of the components of the system ofFIG. 99 are on separate tools located in separate places in a factory, then thehandler9945 is comprised of individual handlers within each tool or frame and a factory interface that transports wafers between tools within the factory, in the well-known manner. Thus, some or all of the components of the system ofFIG. 99 may be provided on a single tool with itsown wafer handler9945. Alternatively, some or all of the components of the system ofFIG. 99 may be provided on respective tools, in which case thewafer handler9945 includes the factory interface.
• Theprocess controller8075 can receive measurements of a previously implanted wafer from theoptical metrology chamber9950, and adjust the implant process in theplasma implant reactor9910 for later wafers. Theprocess controller8075 can use established data mining techniques for process correction and control. The inclusion of theion beam implanter9940 permits the system to perform all of the ion implantation steps required in semiconductor fabrication, including implantation of light elements (such as boron or phosphorous) by the plasmaion implant reactor9910 and implantation of heavier elements (such as arsenic) by theion beam implanter9940. The system ofFIG. 99 may be simplified. For example, a first version consists of only the chamber cleaningradical source9920, thePIII reactor9910 and theprocess controller8075. A second version includes the foregoing elements of the first version and, in addition, theoptical metrology tool9950. A third version includes the foregoing elements of the second version and, in addition, theion beam implanter9940 and/or thesecond PIII reactor9958. A fourth version includes the foregoing elements of the third version and, in addition, theanneal chamber9930.
• Ion Implantation Performance Of The Torroidal Source:
• The plasma immersion ion implantation (PIII) reactor ofFIG. 85 realizes many advantages not found heretofore in a single reactor. Specifically, the PIII reactor ofFIG. 85 has low minimum ion implant energy (because it has a low plasma potential), low contamination (because the recirculating plasma generally does not need to interact with chamber surfaces to provide a ground return), very good control over unwanted etching (because it exhibits low fluorine dissociation), and excellent control over ion implant flux (because it exhibits a nearly linear response of plasma electron density to source power).
• The advantage of excellent control over ion implant flux is illustrated in the graph ofFIG. 100, in which electron density is plotted as a function of source power level for the torroidal source PIII reactor ofFIG. 85 and for an inductively coupled PIII reactor of the type illustrated inFIG. 79. Electron density is an indicator of plasma ion density and therefore of the ion implant flux or implant dose to the wafer. The inductively coupled source of the PIII reactor ofFIG. 79 tends to have a highly non-linear response of electron density to applied source power, exhibiting a sudden increase in electron density at a threshold power level, PICP, below which the slope (response) is negligible and above which the slope (response) is so steep that electron density (and therefore ion implant flux or dose) is nearly impossible to control to any fine degree. In contrast the torroidal source PIII reactor ofFIG. 85 has a generally linear and gradual response of electron density to source power level above a threshold power level PTH, so that ion implant flux (dose) is readily controlled to within a very fine accuracy even at very high source power level. It should be noted here that the plasma source power level of the torroidal source PIII reactor ofFIG. 85 is a function of the two differentsource power generators8055,8056 coupled to the respectivereentrant conduits8150,8151. The source power frequency may be about 13.56 MHz, although the frequency of each of the twosource power generators8055,8056 are offset from this frequency (13.56 MHz) by +100 kHz and −100 kHz, respectively, so that the two torroidal plasma current paths established by thesources8110 and8111 are decoupled from one another by being de-tuned from one another by about 200 kHz. However, their power levels may be generally about the same. Operating frequencies are not limited to the regime described here, and another RF frequency and frequency offset may be selected for the pair of RFsource power generators8055,5056.
• The advantage of low fluorine dissociation of the PIII reactor ofFIG. 85 is important in preventing unwanted etching that can occur when a fluorine-containing dopant gas, such as BF3, is employed. The problem is that if the BF3 plasma by-products are dissociated into the simpler fluorine compounds, including free fluorine, the etch rate increases uncontrollably. This problem is solved in the PIII reactor ofFIG. 85 by limiting the fluorine dissociation even at high power levels and high plasma density. This advantage is illustrated in the graph ofFIG. 101, in which free fluorine density (an indicator of fluorine dissociation) is plotted as a function of source power for the PIII reactor ofFIG. 85 and for the inductively coupled reactor ofFIG. 79 for the sake of comparison. The inductively coupled reactor ofFIG. 79 exhibits an extremely sudden increase in free fluorine density above a particular source power level, PDIS, above which the dissociation increases at a very high rate of change, and is therefore difficult to control. In contrast, the PIII reactor ofFIG. 85 exhibits generally linear and nearly negligible (very gradual) increase in free fluorine density above a threshold source power PTH. As a result, there is very little unwanted etching during ion implantation with fluorine-containing dopant gases in the torroidal source PIII reactor ofFIG. 85. The etching is further minimized if the temperature of the wafer is held to a low temperature, such as below 100 degrees C., or more preferably below 60 degrees C., or most preferably below 20 degrees C. For this purpose, thewafer pedestal8025 may be an electrostatic chuck that holds and releases the wafer electrostatically with thermalcontrol cooling apparatus8025aand/orheating apparatus8025bthat control the temperature of a semiconductor wafer or workpiece held on the top surface of thewafer support pedestal8025. Some small residual etching (such as may be realized with the torroidal source PIII reactor ofFIG. 85) is acceptable and may actually prevent the deposition of unwanted films on the wafer during ion implantation. During ion implantation, some plasma by-products may deposit as films on the wafer surface during ion implantation. This is particularly true in cases where the implantation process is carried out at a very low ion energy (low bias voltage) and particularly with a dopant gas consisting of a hydride of the dopant species (e.g., a hydride of boron or a hydride of phosphorous). In order to further reduce unwanted depositions that normally occur with hydride dopants (e.g., B₂H₆, PH₃), one aspect of the process is to add hydrogen and/or helium to the dopant gas to eliminate the deposition on the surface of the wafer. However, the requisite etch rate to compete with such an unwanted deposition is very low, such as that exhibited by the torroidal source PIII reactor ofFIG. 85.
• The advantage of a low minimum ion implant energy increases the range of junction depths of which the PIII reactor ofFIG. 85 is capable (by reducing the lower limit of that range). This advantage is illustrated in the graph ofFIG. 102, in which plasma potential is plotted as a function of plasma source power for the torroidal source PIII reactor ofFIG. 85 and for the capacitively coupled PIII reactor ofFIG. 83A, for the sake of comparison. The plasma potential is the potential on ions at the wafer surface due to the plasma electric field in the absence of any bias voltage on the wafer, and therefore is an indicator of the minimum energy at which ions can be implanted.FIG. 102 shows that the plasma potential increases indefinitely as the source power is increased in the capacitively coupled PIII reactor ofFIG. 83A, so that in this reactor the minimum implant energy is greatly increased (the implant energy/depth range is reduced) at high plasma density or ion implant flux levels. In contrast, above a threshold power PTH, the torroidal source PIII reactor ofFIG. 85 exhibits a very gradual (nearly imperceptible) increase in plasma potential as source power is increased, so that the plasma potential is very low even at high plasma source power or ion density (high ion implant flux). Therefore, the range of plasma ion energy (ion implant depth) is much larger in the PIII reactor ofFIG. 85 because the minimum energy remains very low even at high ion flux levels.
• The plasma potential in the capacitively coupled PIII reactor ofFIG. 83A can be reduced by increasing the source power frequency. However, this becomes more difficult as the junction depth and corresponding ion energy is reduced. For example, to reach a plasma potential that is less than 500 eV (for a 0.5 kV Boron implant energy), the source power frequency would need to be increased well into the VHF range and possibly above the VHF range. In contrast, the source power frequency of the torroidal source PIII reactor ofFIG. 85 can be in the HF range (e.g., 13 MHz) while providing a low plasma potential.
• A further advantage of the torroidal source PIII reactor ofFIG. 85 over the capacitively coupled source PIII reactor ofFIG. 83A is that the torroidal source PIII reactor has a thinner plasma sheath in which proportionately fewer inelastic collisions of ions occur that tend to skew the ion implant energy distribution. This thinner sheath may be nearly collisionless. In contrast, the capacitively coupled source PIII reactor ofFIG. 83A generates plasma ions in the sheath by an HF or VHF RF source that tends to produce a much thicker sheath. The thicker sheath produces far more collisions that significantly skew ion energy distribution. The result is that the ion implanted junction profile is far less abrupt. This problem is more acute at lower ion energies (shallower implanted junctions) where the skew in energy produced by the collisions in the thicker sheath represent a far greater fraction of the total ion energy. The torroidal source PIII reactor ofFIG. 85 therefore has more precise control over ion implant energy and is capable of producing implanted junctions with greater abruptness, particularly for the more shallow junctions that are needed for the more advanced (smaller feature size) technologies.
• A related advantage of the torroidal source PIII reactor ofFIG. 85 is that it can be operated at much lower chamber pressures than the capacitively coupled PIII reactor ofFIG. 83A. The capacitively coupled PIII reactor ofFIG. 83A requires a thicker sheath to generate plasma ions in the sheath, which in turn requires higher chamber pressures (e.g., 10-100 mT). The torroidal source PIII reactor ofFIG. 85 does not need to generate plasma near the sheath with bias power and for many applications therefore is best operated with a thinner (nearly collisionless) sheath, so that chamber pressures can be very low (e.g., 1-3 mT). This has the advantage of a wider ion implantation process window in the torroidal source PIII reactor. However, as will be discussed with reference to doping of a three dimensional structure such as a polysilicon gate having both a top surface and vertical side walls, velocity scattering of dopant ions in the sheath enables ions to implant not only the top surface of the polysilicon gate but also implant its side walls. Such a process may be referred to as conformal ion implanting. Conformal ion implanting has the advantage of doping the gate more isotropically and reducing carrier depletion at the gate-to-thin oxide interface, as will be discussed below. Therefore, some sheath thickness is desirable in order to scatter a fraction of the dopant ions away from a purely vertical trajectory so that the scattered fraction implants into the side walls of the polysilicon gate. (In contrast, in an ion beam implanter, such scattering is not a feature, so that only the gate top surface is implanted.) Another advantage of a plasma sheath of finite thickness (and therefore finite collisional cross-section) is that some very slight scattering of all the ions from a purely vertical trajectory (i.e., a deflection of only a few degrees) may be desirable in some cases to avoid implanting along an axis of the wafer crystal, which could lead to channeling or an implant that is too deep or a less abrupt junction profile. Also, scattering of the ions leads to placement of dopants under the polysilicon gate. This can be very useful in optimizing CMOS device performance by controlling the dopant overlap under the poly Si gate and Source drain extension areas, as will be discussed later in this specification in more detail.
• The low contamination exhibited by the torroidal source PIII reactor ofFIG. 85 is due primarily to the tendency of the plasma to not interact with chamber surfaces and instead oscillate or circulate in the torroidal paths that are generally parallel to the chamber surfaces rather than being towards those surfaces. Specifically, the pair torroidal paths followed by the plasma current are parallel to the surfaces of therespect reentrant conduits8150,8151 ofFIG. 85 and parallel to the interior surface of theceiling8015 and of thewafer support pedestal8025. In contrast, the plasma source power generates electric fields within the capacitively coupled PIII reactor ofFIG. 83A that are oriented directly toward the ceiling and toward the chamber walls.
• In the torroidal source PIII reactor ofFIG. 85, the only significant electric field oriented directly toward a chamber surface is produced by the bias voltage applied to thewafer support pedestal8025, but this electric field does not significantly generate plasma in the embodiment ofFIG. 85. While the bias voltage can be a D.C. (or pulsed D.C.) bias voltage, in the embodiment ofFIG. 85 the bias voltage is an RF voltage. The frequency of the RF bias voltage can be sufficiently low so that the plasma sheath at the wafer surface does not participate significantly in plasma generation. Thus, plasma generation in the torroidal source PIII reactor ofFIG. 85 produces only plasma currents that are generally parallel to the interior chamber surfaces, and thus less likely to interact with chamber surfaces and produce contamination.
• Further reduction of metal contamination of ion implantation processes is achieved by first depositing a passivation layer on all chamber surfaces prior to performing the ion implantation process. The passivation layer may be a silicon-containing layer such as silicon dioxide, silicon nitride, silicon, silicon carbide, silicon hydride, silicon fluoride, boron or phosphorous or arsenic doped silicon, boron or phosphorous or arsenic doped silicon carbide, boron or phosphorous or arsenic doped silicon oxide. Alternatively, the passivation may be a fluorocarbon or hydrocarbon or hydrofluorocarbon film. Compounds of germanium may also be used for passivation. Alternatively, the passivation layer may be a dopant-containing layer such as boron, phosphorous, arsenic or antimony formed by decomposition of a compound of the dopant precursor gas, such as BF₃, B₂H₆, PF₃, PF₅, PH₃, AsF₃, of AsH₃. It may be advantageous to form a passivation layer with a source gas or source gas mixture using gas(es)similar to that or those that are to be used in the subsequent plasma immersion implantation process step. (This may reduce unwanted etching of the passivation layer by the subsequent implant process step.) Alternatively, it may be advantageous to combine the fluoride and the hydride of a particular gas to minimize the fluorine and/or hydrogen incorporated in the passivation layer, for example, BF₃+B₂H₆, PH₃+PF₃, AsF₃+AsH₃, SiF₄+SiH₄, or GeF₄+GeH₄.
• While the RF bias frequency of the torroidal source PIII reactor ofFIG. 85 is sufficiently low to not affect plasma generation by the plasmasource power applicators8110,8111, it is also sufficiently low to permit the ions in the plasma sheath to follow the sheath oscillations and thereby acquire a kinetic energy of up to the equivalent to the full peak-to-peak voltage of the RF bias power applied to the sheath, depending upon pressure and sheath thickness. This reduces the amount of RF bias power required to produce a particular ion energy or implant depth. On the other hand, the RF bias frequency is sufficiently high to avoid significant voltage drops across dielectric layers on thewafer support pedestal8025, on chamber interior walls and on the wafer itself. This is particularly important in ion implantation of very shallow junctions, in which the RF bias voltage is correspondingly small, such as about 150 volts for a 100 Angstrom junction depth (for example). An RF voltage drop of 50 volts out of a total of 150 volts across the sheath (for example) would be unacceptable, as this would be a third of the total sheath voltage. The RF bias frequency is therefore sufficiently high to reduce the capacitive reactance across dielectric layers so as to limit the voltage drop across such a layer to less than on the order of 10% of the total RF bias voltage. A frequency sufficiently high meet this latter requirement while being sufficiently low for the ions to follow the sheath oscillations is in the range of 100 kHz to 10 MHz, and more optimally in the range of 500 kHz to 5 MHz, and most optimally about 2 MHz. One advantage of reducing capacitive voltage drops across the wafer pedestal is that the sheath voltage can be more accurately estimated from the voltage applied to the pedestal. Such capacitive voltage drops can be across dielectric layers on the front or back of the wafer, on the top of the wafer pedestal and (in the case of an electrostatic chuck) the dielectric layer at the top of the chuck.
• Ion implantation results produced by the torroidal source PIII reactor ofFIG. 85 compare favorably with those obtained with a conventional beam implanter operated in drift mode, which is much slower than the PIII reactor. Referring toFIG. 103, the curves “A” and “a” are plots of dopant (boron) volume concentration in the wafer crystal as a function of depth for boron equivalent energies of 0.5 keV. (As will be discussed below, to achieve the same ion energy as the beam implanter, the bias voltage in the PIII reactor must be twice the acceleration voltage of the beam implanter.) Even though the PIII reactor (curve “A”) is four times faster than the beam implanter (curve “B”), the implant profile is nearly the same, with the same junction abruptness of about 3 nanometers (change in junction depth) per decade (of dopant volume concentration) and junction depth (about 100 Angstroms). Curves “B” and “b” compare the PIII reactor results (“B”) with those of a conventional beam implanter (“b”) at boron equivalent energies of 2 keV, showing that the junction abruptness and the junction depth (about 300 Angstroms) is the same in both cases. Curves “C” and “c” compare the PIII reactor results (“C”) with those of a conventional beam implanter (“c”) at boron equivalent energies of 3.5 keV, showing that the junction depth (about 500 Angstroms) is the same in both cases.
• FIG. 103 compares the PIII reactor performance with the conventional beam implanter operated in drift mode (in which the beam voltage corresponds to the desired junction depth). Drift mode is very slow because the beam flux is low at such low beam energies. This can be addressed by using a much higher beam voltage and then decelerating the beam down to the correct energy before it impacts the wafer. The deceleration process is not complete, and therefore leaves an energy “contamination” tail (curve “A” of FIG. ,104) which can be reduced by rapid thermal annealing to a better implant profile with greater abruptness (curve “B” ofFIG. 104). Greater activated implanted dopant concentration, however, can be achieved using a dynamic surface annealing process employing localized melting or nearly melting temperatures for very short durations. The dynamic surface annealing process does not reduce energy contamination tails, such as the energy contamination tail of curve “C” ofFIG. 105. In comparison, the torroidal source PIII reactor ofFIG. 85 needs no deceleration process since the bias voltage corresponds to the desired implant depth, and therefore has no energy contamination tail (curve “D” ofFIG. 105). Therefore, the PIII reactor can be used with the dynamic surface anneal process to form very abrupt ultra shallow junction profile, while the conventional beam implanter operating in deceleration mode cannot. The dynamic surface annealing process consists of locally heating regions of the wafer surface to nearly (e.g., within 100 to 50 degrees of) its melting temperature for very short durations (e.g., nano-seconds to tens of milliseconds) by scanning a laser beam or a group of laser beams across the wafer surface.
• FIG. 106 illustrates how much greater a dopant concentration can be attained with the dynamic surface annealing process. Curve “A” ofFIG. 106 illustrates the wafer resistivity in Ohms per square as a function of junction depth using a beam implanter and a rapid thermal anneal of the wafer at 1050 degrees C. The concentration of dopant reached 10E20 per cubic centimeter. Curve “B” ofFIG. 106 illustrates the wafer resistivity in Ohms per square as a function of junction depth using the torroidal source PIII reactor ofFIG. 85 and a dynamic surface anneal process after implanting at a temperature of 1300 degrees C. The concentration of the dopant reached 5×10²⁰following the dynamic surface annealing, or about five times that achieved with rapid thermal annealing.FIG. 107 illustrates how little the implanted dopant profile changes during dynamic surface annealing. Curve “A” ofFIG. 107 is the dopant distribution prior to annealing while curve “B” ofFIG. 107 is the dopant distribution after annealing. The dynamic surface annealing process causes the dopant to diffuse less than 10 Å, while it does not adversely affect the junction abruptness, which is less than 3.5 nm/decade. This tendency of the dynamic surface annealing process to minimize dopant diffusion facilitates the formation of extremely shallow junctions. More shallow junctions are required (as source-to-drain channel lengths are decreased in higher speed devices) in order to avoid source-to-drain leakage currents. On the other hand, the shallower junction require much higher active dopant concentrations (to avoid increased resistance) that can best be realized with dynamic surface annealing. As discussed elsewhere in this specification, junction depth can be reduced by carrying out a wafer amorphization step in which the wafer is bombarded with ions (such as silicon or germanium ions) to create lattice defects in the semiconductor crystal of the wafer. We have implanted and annealed junctions having a high dopant concentration corresponding to a low resistivity (500 Ohms per square), an extremely shallow junction depth (185 Å) and a very steep abruptness (less than 4 nm/decade). In some cases, the depth of the amorphizing or ion bombardment process may extend below the dopant implant junction depth. For example, amorphization using SiF4 gas and a 10 kV peak-to-peak bias voltage in the PIII reactor ofFIG. 85 forms an amorphized layer to a depth of about 150 Angstroms, while dopant (boron) ions accelerated across a 1000 peak-to-peak volt sheath (bias) voltage implant to a depth of only about 100 Angstroms.
• FIG. 108 illustrates the bias voltage for the torroidal source PIII reactor (left hand ordinate) and the beam voltage for the ion beam implanter (right hand ordinate) as a function of junction depth. The PIII reactor and the beam implanter produce virtually identical results provided the PIII reactor bias voltage is twice the beam voltage.
• Working Examples:
• A principal application of a PIII reactor is the formation of PN junctions in semiconductor crystals.FIGS. 109 and 110 illustrate different stages in the deposition of dopant impurities in the fabrication of a P-channel metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor (MOSFET). Referring first toFIG. 109, aregion9960 of a semiconductor (e.g., silicon) wafer may be doped with an N-type conductivity impurity, such as arsenic or phosphorus, theregion9960 being labeled “n” in the drawing ofFIG. 109 to denote its conductivity type. A very thinsilicon dioxide layer9962 is deposited on the surface of the wafer including over n-type region9960. Apolycrystalline silicon gate9964 is formed over thethin oxide layer9962 from a blanket polysilicon layer that has been doped with boron in the PIII reactor. After formation of thegate9964, p-type dopant is implanted in the PIII reactor to form source anddrain extensions9972 and9973.Spacer layers9966 of a dielectric material such as silicon dioxide and/or silicon nitride (for example) are formed along two oppositevertical sides9964a,9964bof thegate9964. Using the PIII reactor ofFIG. 85 with a process gas consisting of BF3 or B2H6 (for example), boron is implanted over the entire N-type region9960. The spacer layers mask their underlying regions from the boron, so that P-type conductivity source and draincontact regions9968,9969 are formed on either side of thegate9964, as shown inFIG. 110. This step is carried out with a boron-containing species energy in the range of 2 to 10 kVpp on the RF bias voltage (controlled by the RFbias power generator8065 ofFIG. 85). In accordance with the example ofFIG. 108, the RF bias voltage on thewafer pedestal8025 in the PIII reactor ofFIG. 85 is twice the desired boron energy. The implantation is carried out for a sufficient time and at a sufficient ion flux or ion density (controlled by the RFsource power generators8055,8056 ofFIG. 85) to achieve a surface concentration of boron exceeding 5×10¹⁵atoms per square centimeter. The concentration of boron in thegate9964 is then increased to 1×10¹⁶atoms per square centimeter by masking the source anddrain contacts9968,9969 (by depositing a layer of photoresist thereover, for example) and carrying out a further (supplementary) implantation step of boron until the concentration of boron in thegate9964 reaches the desired level (1×10¹⁶atoms/cubic centimeter). The source anddrain contacts9968,9969 are not raised to the higher dopant concentration (as is the gate9964) because the higher dopant concentration may be incompatible with formation of a metal silicide layer (during a later step) over eachcontact9968,9969. However, thegate9964 must be raised to this higher dopant concentration level in order to reduce carrier depletion in thegate9964 near the interface between thegate9964 and the thinsilicon dioxide layer9962. Such carrier depletion in the gate would impede the switching speed of the transistor. The dopant profile in the gate must be highly abrupt in order attain a high dopant concentration in thegate9964 near thethin oxide layer9962 without implanting dopant into the underlyingthin oxide layer9962 or into the source-to-drain channel underlying thethin oxide layer9962. Another measure that can be taken to further enhance gate performance and device speed is to raise the dielectric constant of the thinsilicon dioxide layer9962 by implanting nitrogen in the thinsilicon dioxide layer9962 so that (upon annealing) nitrogen atoms replace oxygen atoms in thelayer9962, as will be described later in this specification. A further measure for enhancing gate performance is conformal implanting in which dopant ions that have been deflected from their vertical trajectory by collisions in the plasma sheath over the wafer surface are able to implant into the vertical side walls of thegate9964. This further increases the dopant concentration in thegate9964 near the interface with thethin oxide layer9962, and provide a more uniform and isotropic dopant distribution within the gate. A yet further measure for enhancing gate performance for gates of N-channel devices implanted with arsenic is to implant phosphorus during the supplementary implant step using the PIII reactor. The phosphorus is lighter than arsenic and so diffuses more readily throughout the semiconductor crystal, to provide less abrupt junction profile in the source drain contact areas.
• The depth of the ion implantation of the source anddrain contacts9968,9969 may be in the range of 400 to 800 Å. If thegate9964 is thinner than that, then thegate9964 must be implanted in a separate implantation step to a lesser depth to avoid implanting any dopant in thethin oxide layer9962 below thegate9964. In order to avoid depletion in the region of thegate9964 adjacent thethin oxide layer9962, the implantation of the gate must extend as close to the gate/oxide interface as possible without entering thethin oxide layer9962. Therefore, the implant profile of the gate must have the highest possible abruptness (e.g., 3 nm/decade or less) and a higher dopant dose (i.e., 1×10¹⁶atoms/cm²).
• Referring now toFIG. 110, source anddrain extensions9972,9973 are typically formed before depositing and forming the spacer layers9966 ofFIG. 109. The extensions layers are formed by carrying out a more shallow and light implant of boron over theentire region9960. Typically, the junction depth of the source and drain extensions is only about 100 to 300 Angstroms and the implant dose is less than 5×10¹⁵atoms/square centimeter. This implant step, therefore, has little effect on the dopant profiles in thegate9964 or in the source anddrain contacts9968,9969, so that these areas need not be masked during the implantation of the source anddrain extensions9972,9973. However, if masking is desired, then it may be carried out with photoresist. The source and drain extensions are implanted at an equivalent boron energy of 0.5 kV, requiring a 1.0 kVpp RF bias voltage on thewafer pedestal8025 ofFIG. 85.
• The same structures illustrated inFIGS. 109 and 110 are formed in the fabrication of an N-channel MOSFET. However, theregion9960 is initially doped with a P-type conductivity such as boron and is therefore a P-type conductivity region. And, the implantation of thegate9964 and of the source anddrain contacts9968,9969 (illustrated inFIG. 109) is carried out in a beam implanter (rather than in a PIll reactor) with an N-type conductivity impurity dopant such as arsenic. Furthermore, the supplementary implantation of thegate9964 that raises its dopant dose concentration to 1×10¹⁶atoms/cm²is carried out in the PIII reactor with phosphorus (rather than arsenic) using a phosphorus-containing process gas. Phosphorus is preferred for this latter implantation step because it diffuses more uniformly than arsenic, and therefore enhances the quality of the N-type dopant profile in thegates9964 of the N-channel devices. The ion beam voltage is in the range of 15-30 kV for the arsenic implant step (simultaneous implanting of the N-channel source anddrain contacts9968,9969 and of the N-channel gates9964), and is applied for a sufficient time to reach a dopant surface concentration exceeding 5×10¹⁵atoms per cubic centimeter. The supplementary gate implant of phosphorus is carried out at an ion beam voltage in the range of only 2-5 kV for a sufficient time to raise the dopant surface concentration in the N-channel gates to 1×10¹⁶atoms/cubic cm.
• The implantation steps involving phosphorus and boron are advantageously carried out in the PIII reactor rather than an ion beam implanter because the ion energies of these light elements are so low that ion flux in a beam implanter would be very low and the implant times would be inordinately high (e.g., half and hour per wafer). In the PIII reactor, the source power can be 800 Watts at 13.56 MHz (with the 200 kHz offset between the two torroidal plasma currents as described above), the implant step being carried out for only 5 to 40 seconds per wafer.
• The sequence of ion implantation steps depicted inFIGS. 109 and 110 may be modified, in that the light shallow source and drain extension implant step ofFIG. 110 may be carried out before or after formation of the,spacer layer9966 and subsequent heavy implantation of thecontacts9968,9969 andgate9964. When extension implants are done after thespacer layer9966 is formed, thespacer layer9966 must be removed before the extension implants are performed.
• One example of a process for fabricating complementary MOSFETS (CMOS FETs) is illustrated inFIG. 111. In the first step (block9980), the P-well and N-well regions of the CMOS device are implanted in separate steps. Then, a blanket thin gate oxide layer and an overlying blanket polysilicon gate layer are formed over the entire wafer (block9981 ofFIG. 111). The P-well regions are masked and the N-well regions are left exposed (block9982). The portions of the polysilicon gate layer lying in the N-well regions are then implanted with boron in a PIII reactor (block9983). The P-channel gates (9964 inFIG. 109) are then photolithographically defined and etched, to expose portions of the silicon wafer (block9984). Source anddrain extensions9972,9973 ofFIG. 109 self-aligned with thegate9964 are then formed by ion implantation of boron using the PIII reactor (block9985). A so-called “halo” implant step is then performed to implant an N-type dopant under the edges of each P-channel gate9964 (block9986). This is done by implanting arsenic using an ion beam tilted at about 30 degrees from a vertical direction relative to the wafer surface and rotating the wafer. Alternatively, this step may be accomplished by implanting phosphorus in the PIII reactor using a chamber pressure and bias voltage conducive to a large sheath thickness to promote collisions in the sheath that divert the boron ions from a vertical trajectory. Then, the spacer layers9986 are formed over thesource drain extensions9972,9973 (block9987) and boron is then implanted at a higher energy to form the deep source drain contacts9969 (block9988), resulting in the structure ofFIG. 110. The reverse ofstep9982 is then performed by masking the N-well regions (i.e., the P-channel devices) and exposing the P-well regions (block9992). Thereafter steps9993 through9998 are performed that correspond tosteps9983 through9988 that have already been described, except that they are carried out in the P-well regions rather than in the N-well regions, the dopant is Arsenic rather than Boron, and a beam line ion implanter is employed rather than a PIII reactor. And, for the N-channel device halo implant of block9996 (corresponding to the P-channel device halo implant ofblock9986 described above), the dopant is a P-type dopant such as boron. In the case of the N-channel devices implanted insteps9993 through9998, a further implant step is performed, namely a supplemental implant step (block9999) to increase the dose in the polysilicon gate as discussed above in this specification. In the supplemental implantation step ofblock9999, phosphorus is the N-type dopant impurity and is implanted using a PIII reactor rather than a beam implanter (although a beam implanter could be employed instead).
• As noted above, the process may be reversed so that thegate9964 and source anddrain contacts9968,9969 are implanted before the source anddrain extensions9972,9973.
• After all ion implantations have been carried out, the wafer is subjected to an annealing process such as spike annealing using rapid thermal processing (RTP) and/or the dynamic surface annealing (DSA) process discussed earlier in this specification. Such an annealing process causes the implanted dopant ions, most of which came to rest in interstitial locations in the crystal lattice, to move to atomic sites, i.e., be substituted for silicon atoms originally occupying those sites. More than one annealing step can be used to form the pmos and nmos devices and these steps can be inserted in the process flow as appropriate from activation and diffusion point of view.
• The foregoing ion implantation processes involving the lighter atomic elements (e.g., boron and phosphorus) are carried out using a PIII reactor in the modes described previously. For example, the bias power frequency is selected to maximize ion energy while simultaneously providing low impedance coupling across dielectric layers. How this is accomplished is described above in this specification.
• The ion implantation processes described above are enhanced by other processes. Specifically, in order to prevent channeling and in order to enhance the fraction of implanted ions that become substitutional upon annealing, the semiconductor wafer crystal may be subjected to an ion bombardment process that partially amorphizes the crystal by creating crystal defects. The ions employed should be compatible with the wafer material, and may be formed in the PIII reactor in a plasma generated from one or more of the following gases: silicon fluoride, silicon hydride, germanium fluoride, germanium hydride, Xenon, Argon, or carbon fluoride (ie. tetrafluoromethane, octafluorocyclobutane, etc) or carbon hydride (ie. methane, acetylene, etc) or carbon hydride/fluoride (ie. tetrafluoroethane, difluoroethylene, etc) gases. One advantage of the PIII reactor is that its implant processes are not mass selective (unlike an ion beam implanter). Therefore, during ion implantation of a dopant impurity such boron, any other element may also be implanted simultaneously, regardless of ion mass in the PIII reactor. Therefore, unlike an ion beam implanter, the PIII reactor is capable of simultaneously implanting a dopant impurity while carrying out an amorphizing process. This may be accomplished using a BF3 gas (to provide the dopant ions) mixed with an SiF4 gas (to provided the amorphizing bombardment ion species). Such a simultaneous ion implantation process is referred to as a co-implant process. The amorphization process may also be carried out sequentially with the doping process. In addition to amorphization, simultaneous implants of dopant and non-dopant atoms such as Fluorine, Germanium, Carbon or other elements are done to change the chemistry of the Silicon wafer. This change in chemistry can help in increasing dopant activation and reducing dopant diffusion.
• Another process that can be carried out in the PIII reactor is a surface enhancement process in which certain ions are implanted in order to replace other elements in the crystal. One example of such a surface enhancement process is nitrodization. In this process, the dielectric constant of the thinsilicon dioxide layer9962 is increased (in order to increase device speed) by replacing a significant fraction of the oxygen atoms in the silicon dioxide film with nitrogen atoms. This is accomplished in the PIII reactor by generating a plasma from a nitrogen-containing gas, such as ammonia, and implanting the nitrogen atoms into thesilicon dioxide layer9962. This step may be performed at any time, including before, during and/or after the implantation of the dopant impurity species. If the nitrodization process is performed at least partially simultaneously with the dopant ion implant step, then the nitrodization process is a co-implant process. Since the ion implantation process of the PIII reactor is not mass selective, the co-implant process may be carried out with any suitable species without requiring that it atomic weight be the same as or related to the atomic weight of the dopant implant species. Thus, for example, the dopant species, boron, and the surface enhancement species, nitrogen, have quite different atomic weights, and yet they are implanted simultaneously in the PIII reactor. Typically nitrodization is performed without implanting dopant atoms.
• A further process related to ion implantation is surface passivation. In this process, the interior surfaces of the reactor chamber, including the walls and ceiling, are coated with a silicon-containing passivation material (such as silicon dioxide or silicon nitride or silicon hydride) prior to the introduction of a production wafer. The passivation layer prevents the plasma from interacting with or sputtering any metal surfaces within the plasma reactor. The deposition the passivation layer is carried out by igniting a plasma within the reactor from a silicon containing gas such as silane mixed with oxygen, for example. This passivation step, combined with the low-contamination torroidal source PIII reactor ofFIG. 85, has yielded extremely low metal contamination of a silicon wafer during ion implantation, about 100 times lower than that typically obtained in a conventional beam implanter.
• Upon completion of the ion implantation process, the passivation layer is removed, using a suitable etchant gas such as NF3 which may be combined with a suitable ion bombardment gas source such as argon oxygen, or hydrogen. During this cleaning step, the chamber surfaces may be heated to 60 degrees C. or higher to enhance the cleaning process. A new passivation layer is deposited before the next ion implantation step.
• Alternatively, a new passivation layer may be deposited before implanting a sequence of wafers, and following the processing of the sequence, the passivation layer and other depositions may be removed using a cleaning gas.
• FIG. 112 is a flow diagram showing the different options of combining the foregoing ion implantation-related processes with the dopant implantation processes ofFIG. 111. A first step is cleaning the chamber to remove contamination or to remove a previously deposited passivation layer (block9001 ofFIG. 112). Next, a passivation layer of silicon dioxide, for example, is deposited over the interior surfaces of the chamber (block9002) prior to the introduction of the wafer to be processed. Next, the wafer is introduced into the PIII reactor chamber and may be subjected to a cleaning or etching process to remove thin oxidation layers that may have accumulated on the exposed semiconductor surfaces in the brief interim since the wafer was last processed (block9003). A pre-implant wafer amorphizing process may be carried out (block9004) by ion-bombarding exposed surfaces of the wafer with silicon ions, for example. A pre-implant surface enhancement process may also be carried out (block9005) by implanting a species such as nitrogen into silicon dioxide films. The dopant implantation process may then be carried out (block9006). This step is an individual one of the boron or phosphorus implant steps illustrated in the general process flow diagram ofFIG. 111. During the dopant implant process ofblock9006, other ions in addition to the dopant ions may be implanted simultaneously in a co-implant process (block9007). Such a co-implant process (9007) may be an amorphizing process, a light etch process that prevents accumulation of plasma by-products on the wafer surface, enhancing dopant activation and reducing dopant diffusion, or surface enhancement process. After completion of the dopant ion implant process (9006) and any co-implant process (9007), various post implant processes may be carried out. Such post implant processes may include a surface enhancement process (block9008). Upon completion of all implant steps (including the step of block9008), an implant anneal process is carried out (block9012) after removing any photo-resist mask layers on the wafer in the preceding wafer clean step ofblock9009. This anneal process can be a dynamic surface anneal in which a laser beam (or several laser beams) are scanned across the wafer surface to locally heat the surface to nearly melting temperature (about 1300 degrees C.) or to melting temperature, each local area being heated for an extremely short period of time (e.g., on the order of nanoseconds to tens of milliseconds ). Other post implant processes carried out after the anneal step ofblock9112 may include a wafer cleaning process (block9009) to remove layers of plasma by-products deposited during the ion implantation process, deposition of a temporary passivation coating on the wafer to stabilize the wafer surface (block9010) and a chamber cleaning process (block9011), carried out after removal of the wafer from the PIII reactor chamber, for removing a previously deposited passivation layer from the chamber interior surfaces.
• While the invention has been described in detail by specific reference to preferred embodiments, it is understood that variations and modifications thereof may be made without departing from the true spirit and scope of the invention.

Claims (24)

1. A system for processing a workpiece, comprising:

(A) a plasma immersion ion implantation reactor, comprising:

(1) an enclosure comprising a side wall and a ceiling and defining a chamber;

(2) a workpiece support pedestal within the chamber having a workpiece support surface facing said ceiling and defining a process region extending generally across said wafer support pedestal;

(3) gas distribution apparatus for introducing a process gas containing a first species to be ion implanted into a layer of said workpiece;

(4) an inductively coupled source power applicator;

(5) an RF plasma source power generator coupled to said inductively coupled source power applicator for inductively coupling RF source power into said process zone;

(6) an RF bias generator having an RF bias frequency and coupled to said workpiece support pedestal for applying an RF bias to said workpiece;

(B) a second wafer processing apparatus;

(C) wafer transfer apparatus for transferring said workpiece between said plasma immersion ion implantation reactor and said second wafer processing apparatus.

2. The system ofclaim 1 wherein said second wafer processing apparatus comprises a cleaning species source plasma reactor comprising:

(1) a source of cleaning species precursor gases;

(2) a passage coupling said cleaning species source plasma reactor to said plasma immersion ion implantation reactor.

3. The system ofclaim 2 wherein said cleaning species precursor gases comprise a fluorine-containing species.

4. The system ofclaim 2 wherein said cleaning species precursor gases comprise a hydrogen-containing species.

5. The system ofclaim 1 wherein said second wafer processing apparatus comprises:

an optical metrology chamber for obtaining a measurement of ion implantation in a workpiece;

a process controller coupled to receive measurements from said optical metrology chamber for controlling said plasma immersion ion implantation reactor.

6. The system ofclaim 1 wherein said second wafer processing apparatus comprises:

an ion beam implantation apparatus for ion implanting a second species into said layer of said workpiece.

7. The system ofclaim 6 wherein said layer is a semiconductor material, and said first and second species are dopant impurities of opposite conductivity types relative to said semiconductor material.

8. The system ofclaim 1 wherein said second wafer processing apparatus comprises:

a second plasma immersion ion implantation reactor for ion implanting a second species into said layer of said workpiece.

9. The system ofclaim 8 wherein said layer is a semiconductor material, and said first and second species are dopant impurities of opposite conductivity types relative to said semiconductor material.

10. The system ofclaim 1 wherein said second wafer processing apparatus comprises an anneal chamber.

11. The system ofclaim 1 wherein said second wafer processing apparatus comprises:

a photoresist strip chamber.

12. The system ofclaim 1 wherein said second wafer processing apparatus comprises a wet clean chamber.

13. The reactor ofclaim 1 wherein said RF bias frequency is sufficiently low to enable ions traversing the plasma sheath to attain an energy corresponding to a peak-to-peak voltage of said bias power generator.

14. The reactor ofclaim 13 wherein said RF bias frequency is sufficiently high to limit RF voltage drops across dielectric layers on said workpiece support pedestal to less than a predeterminded fraction of plasma sheath voltage near said workpiece support.

15. The reactor ofclaim 14 wherein said predetermined fraction corresponds to about 10%.

16. The apparatus ofclaim 1 wherein said RF bias generator has a bias RF frequency that is sufficiently low for ions in a plasma sheath near said workpiece to follow electric field oscillations across said sheath at said bias frequency.

17. The apparatus ofclaim 16 wherein said bias RF frequency is sufficiently high so that RF voltage drops across dielectric layers on said workpiece do not exceed a predetermined fraction of the RF bias voltage applied to said workpiece support.

18. The apparatus ofclaim 17 wherein said predetermined fraction corresponds to about 10%.

19. The apparatus ofclaim 1 wherein said RF bias generator has a bias frequency between 10 kHz and 10 MHz.

20. The apparatus ofclaim 1 wherein said RF bias generator has a bias frequency between 50 kHz and 5 MHz.

21. The apparatus ofclaim 1 wherein said bias generator has a bias frequency between 100 kHz and 3 MHz.

22. The apparatus ofclaim 1 wherein said bias generator has a bias frequency of about 2 MHz to within about 5%.

23. A system for processing a workpiece, comprising a plurality of plasma immersion ion implantation reactors, each of said plasma immersion ion implantation reactors comprising:

(1) an enclosure comprising a side wall and a ceiling and defining a chamber;

(2) a workpiece support pedestal within the chamber having a workpiece support surface facing said ceiling and defining a process region extending generally across said wafer support pedestal;

(3) gas distribution apparatus for introducing a process gas containing a first species to be ion implanted into a surface layer of said workpiece;

(4) an inductively coupled source power applicator;

(5) an RF plasma source power generator coupled to said inductively coupled source power applicator for inductively coupling RF source power into said process zone;

(6) an RF bias generator having an RF bias frequency and coupled to said workpiece support pedestal for applying an RF bias to said workpiece.

24. The system ofclaim 23 further comprising a wafer handling apparatus coupled to each of said plurality of plasma immersion ion implantation reactors.

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