Efficient clearance of apoptotic cells is required to control homeostasis in normal and pathological circumstances, and inappropriate clearance of cell corpses may lead to autoimmune diseases and inflammation. The multiplicity of phagocytotic mechanisms points to the relevance of removing apoptotic cells. A variety of surface molecules present in either the apoptotic bodies or phagocytes help in attachment and initiation of engulfment. Nonetheless, uncontrolled phagocytosis of apoptotic cells and other particles may lead to tissue injury; therefore, negative signals are important in balancing phagocytotic activity. This review aims at a systematic examination of positive and negative signals that modulate the uptake of apoptotic bodies and the signaling mechanisms involved in the clearance of apoptotic cells.

1. C. J. G. de Almeida

   Present address: Department of Molecular Pharmacology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, 1300 Morris Park Avenue, Bronx, New York, 10461, USA

Authors and Affiliations

1. Instituto de Biofísica da UFRJ, CCS, bloco G, Cidade Universitária, 21949-900, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

   C. J. G. de Almeida & R. Linden

Corresponding author

Correspondence toR. Linden.

Received 13 November 2004; received after revision 5 March 2005; accepted 8 March 2005

Reprints and permissions