• Achen, C. H. (2002). Parental socialization and rational party identification.Political Behavior, 24(2), 151–170.

  Google Scholar 

• Ainley, J., Schulz, W., & Friedman, T. (Eds.). (2013).ICCS 2009 encyclopedia: Approaches to civic and citizenship education around the world. Amsterdam: International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement.https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED544631. Accessed 23 March 2020.

• Annenberg Public Policy Center of the University of Pennsylvania. (2019).Americans’ civics knowledge increases but still has a long way to go.https://www.annenbergpublicpolicycenter.org/americans-civics-knowledge-increases-2019-survey/. Accessed 16 July 2020.

• Australian Electoral Commission. (2019).How the Senate result is determined.https://www.aec.gov.au/voting/counting/senate_count.htm. Accessed 14 March 2020.

• Australian Electoral Commission. (2020a).The AEC’s role.https://www.aec.gov.au/About_AEC/. Accessed 1 March 2020.

• Australian Electoral Commission. (2020b).Teacher resources.https://education.aec.gov.au/teacher-resources/. Accessed 28 February 2020.

• Australian Electoral Commission. (2020c). Electoral communication.https://www.aec.gov.au/About_AEC/electoral-communication.htm Accessed 17 December 2020.

• Australian Electoral Commission. (2020d).National youth enrolment rate.https://www.aec.gov.au/Enrolling_to_vote/Enrolment_stats/performance/national-youth.htm. Accessed 21 March 2020.

• Australian Human Rights Commission. (2010).The right to vote is not enjoyed equally by all Australians.https://www.humanrights.gov.au/our-work/rights-and-freedoms/publications/right-vote-not-enjoyed-equally-all-australians. Accessed 19 March 2020.

• Balmas, M. (2014). When fake news becomes real: Combined exposure to multiple news sources and political attitudes of inefficacy, alienation, and cynicism.Communication Research, 41(3), 430–454.

  Google Scholar 

• Barabas, J., Jerit, J., Pollock, W., & Rainey, C. (2014). The question(s) of political knowledge.American Political Science Review, 108(4), 840–855.

  Google Scholar 

• Bennett, S. (2005). Compulsory voting in Australian national elections. Research Brief, Parliamentary Library, Parliament of Australia.https://parlinfo.aph.gov.au/parlInfo/download/library/prspub/06SH6/upload_binary/06sh63.pdf;fileType=application%2Fpdf#search=%22library/prspub/06sh6)%22. Accessed 17 December 2020.

• Bode, L. (2016). Political news in the news feed: Learning politics from social media.Mass Communication and Society, 19(1), 24–48.

  Google Scholar 

• Boonen, J., Falk Pedersen, E., & Hooghe, M. (2017). The effect of political sophistication and party identification on voter–party congruence: a comparative analysis of 30 countries.Journal of Elections, Public Opinion and Parties, 27(3), 311–329.

  Google Scholar 

• Cameron, S., & McAllister, I. (2019).Trends in Australian political opinion: Results from the Australian election study 1987–2019, Australian Election Study, ANU College of Arts and Social Sciences, Canberra.https://australianelectionstudy.org/wp-content/uploads/Trends-in-Australian-Political-Opinion-1987-2019.pdf. Accessed 16 July 2020.

• Carey, A. (2019, 20 September). Students win push to revamp civics and make politics lessons less dull.The Age.https://www.theage.com.au/national/victoria/students-win-push-to-revamp-civics-and-make-politics-lessons-less-dull-20190919-p52t3m.html. Accessed 22 March 2020.

• Centre for Information and Research on Civic Learning and Engagement (CIRCLE). (2013).All together Now: Collaboration and innovation for youth engagement: The report of the commission on youth voting and civic knowledge.https://circle.tufts.edu/sites/default/files/2020-1/all_together_now_commission_report_2013.pdf. Accessed on 16 July 2020.

• Chen, P. (2013).Australian politics in a digital age. Canberra: ANU Press.

  Google Scholar 

• Dalton, R. J. (2008). Citizenship Norms and the expansion of political participation.Political Studies, 56(1), 76–98.

  Google Scholar 

• Dalton, R. J., & Weldon, S. (2007). Partisanship and party system institutionalization.Party Politics, 13(2), 179–196.

  Google Scholar 

• de Vries, C. E., van der Brug, W., van Egmond, M. H., & van der Eijk, C. (2011). Individual and contextual variation in EU issue voting: The role of political information.Electoral Studies, 30(1), 16–28.

  Google Scholar 

• Delli Carpini, M. X., & Keeter, S. (1996).What Americans know about politics and why it matters. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.

  Google Scholar 

• Dinas, E. (2014). Why does the apple fall far from the tree? How early political socialization prompts parent-child dissimilarity.British Journal of Political Science, 44(4), 827–852.

  Google Scholar 

• Dostie-Goulet, E. (2009). Social networks and the development of political interest.Journal of Youth Studies, 12(4), 405–421.

  Google Scholar 

• Edwards, K., Saha, L. J., & Print, M. (2006).Youth electoral study. Report 3. Youth, the family, and learning about politics and voting. Canberra: Australian Electoral Commission.https://www.aec.gov.au/About_AEC/Publications/files/youth-study/youth_electoral_study_03.pdf. Accessed 10 March 2020.

• Fournier, P., Blais, A., Nadeau, R., Gidengil, E., & Nevitte, N. (2003). Issue importance and performance voting.Political Behavior, 25(1), 51–67.

  Google Scholar 

• Fraillon, J., Gebhardt, E., Nixon, J., Ockwell, L., Friedman, T., Robins, M., & McAndrew, M. (2017). National Assessment Program: Sample Assessment: Civics and Citizenship Report: Years 6 and 10. ACARA, Sydney.https://research.acer.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1033&context=civics. Accessed 15 March 2020.

• Galston, W. A. (2001). Political knowledge, political engagement, and civic education.Annual Review of Political Science, 4(1), 217–234.

  Google Scholar 

• Gauja, A., & Grömping, M. (2019). The expanding party universe: Patterns of partisan engagement in Australia and the United Kingdom.Party Politics. OnlineFirst.https://doi.org/10.1177/1354068818822251.

• Gibson, R. K., & McAllister, I. (2014). New media, elections and the political knowledge gap in Australia.Journal of Sociology, 51(2), 337–353.

  Google Scholar 

• Gidengil, E., & Zechmeister, E. (2016).The tough decision to remove political knowledge from the CSES Module 5, CSES.https://cses.org/2016/12/06/the-tough-decision-to-remove-political-knowledge-from-the-cses-module-5. Accessed 16 July 2020.

• Hansard Society. (2019) Audit of Political Engagement 16: The 2019 Report.https://assets.ctfassets.net/rdwvqctnt75b/7iQEHtrkIbLcrUkduGmo9b/cb429a657e97cad61e61853c05c8c4d1/Hansard-Society__Audit-of-Political-Engagement-16__2019-report.pdf. Accessed 19 March 2020.

• Harris, A., Wyn, J., & Younes, S. (2010). Beyond apathetic or activist youth: ‘ordinary’ young people and contemporary forms of participation.Young, 18(1), 9–32.

  Google Scholar 

• Henn, M., & Foard, N. (2014). Social differentiation in young people’s political participation: The impact of social and educational factors on youth political engagement in Britain.Journal of Youth Studies, 27(3), 360–380.

  Google Scholar 

• Hill, L., & Rutledge-Prior, S. (2016). Young people and intentional informal voting in Australia.Australian Journal of Political Science, 51(3), 400–417.

  Google Scholar 

• Hively, M. H., & Eveland Jr., W. P. (2009). Contextual antecedents and political consequences of adolescent political discussion, discussion elaboration, and network diversity.Political Communication, 26(1), 30–47.

  Google Scholar 

• Hoskins, B., D’Hombres, B., & Campbell, J. (2008). Does formal education have an impact on active citizenship behaviour?European Educational Research Journal,7(3), 386–402.

  Google Scholar 

• Jennings, M. (1996). Political knowledge over time and across generations.The Public Opinion Quarterly, 60(2), 228–252.

  Google Scholar 

• Joint Standing Committee on Electoral Matters (JSCEM). (2019).Status report. Canberra: Parliament of the Commonwealth of Australia.https://parlinfo.aph.gov.au/parlInfo/download/committees/reportjnt/024259/toc_pdf/Statusreport.pdf;fileType=application%2Fpdf. Accessed 15 March 2020.

• Kleinberg, M. S., & Lau, R. R. (2019). The importance of political knowledge for effective citizenship: differences between the broadcast and internet generations.Public Opinion Quarterly, 83(2), 338–362.

  Google Scholar 

• Knaus, C. (2019, December 6). Australia’s election watchdog lacks power to investigate who is paying for Facebook political ads.The Guardian.https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2019/dec/06/australias-election-watchdog-lacks-power-to-investigate-who-is-paying-for-facebook-political-ads. Accessed March 8 2020.

• Lau, R. R., Kleinberg, M. S., & Ditonto, T. M. (2018). Measuring voter decision strategies in political behavior and public opinion research.Public Opinion Quarterly, 82 (S1), 911–936.

  Google Scholar 

• Lau, R. R., & Redlawsk, D. P. (1997). Voting correctly.The American Political Science Review, 91(3), 585–598.

  Google Scholar 

• Laughland-Booÿ, J., Skrbiš, Z., & Ghazarian, Z. (2018). The voting strategies of young people: a conceptual framework. Australian Journal of Political Science, 53(2), 143–159.

  Google Scholar 

• Levinsen, K., & Yndigegn, C. (2015). Political discussions with family and friends: exploring the impact of political distance.The Sociological Review, 63(S2), 72–91.

  Google Scholar 

• Lijphart, A. (1997). Unequal participation: democracy’s unresolved dilemma presidential address, American Political Science Association, 1996.American Political Science Review, 91(1), 1–14.

  Google Scholar 

• Lowy Institute. (2019).Lowy Institute Poll 2019.https://www.lowyinstitute.org/publications/lowy-institute-poll-2019. Accessed 16 July 2020.

• Mackerras, M., & McAllister, I. (1999). Compulsory voting, party stability and electoral advantage in Australia.Electoral Studies, 18(2), 217–233.

  Google Scholar 

• Mann, E. (1924).House of Representatives Electoral (Compulsory Voting) Bill. Second Reading Speech.https://parlinfo.aph.gov.au/parlInfo/genpdf/hansard80/hansardr80/1924-07-24/0066/hansard_frag.pdf;fileType=application%2Fpdf. Accessed 21 March 2020.

• Maskivker, J. (2016). An epistemic justification for the obligation to vote.Critical Review, 28(2), 224–247.

  Google Scholar 

• McAllister, I. (1998). Civic education and political knowledge in Australia.Australian Journal of Political Science, 33(1), 7–23.

  Google Scholar 

• McAllister, I. (2016). Internet use, political knowledge and youth electoral participation in Australia.Journal of Youth Studies, 19(9), 1220–1236.

  Google Scholar 

• Memoli, V. (2011). How does political knowledge shape support for democracy? Some research based on the Italian case.Bulletin of Italian Politics, 3(1), 79–102.

  Google Scholar 

• Mihailidis, P., & Viotty, S. (2017). Spreadable spectacle in digital culture: civic expression, fake news, and the role of media literacies in ‘post-fact’ society.American Behavioral Scientist, 61(4), 441–454.

  Google Scholar 

• Milner, H. (2007). Political knowledge and participation among young Canadians and Americans.Institute for Research on Public Policy Working Paper Series, 2007–1.https://irpp.org/wp-content/uploads/assets/research/strengthening-canadian-democracy/political-knowledge-and-participation-among-young-canadians-and-americans/wp2007-01.pdf. Accessed 16 July 2020.

• Minchin, N. (1996). Compulsory voting and perceptions of Parliament.Legislative Studies, 10(2), 15–19.

  Google Scholar 

• Norton, P. (2012). Parliament and citizens in the United Kingdom.The Journal of Legislative Studies, 18(3–4), 403–418.

  Google Scholar 

• Ohme, J. (2019). When digital natives enter the electorate: political social media use among first-time voters and its effects on campaign participation.Journal of Information Technology & Politics, 16(2), 119–136.

  Google Scholar 

• Park, C. S. (2019). Learning politics from social media: interconnection of social media use for political news and political issue and process knowledge.Communication Studies, 70(3), 253–276.

  Google Scholar 

• Park, C. S., & Kaye, B. K. (2018). News engagement on social media and democratic citizenship: direct and moderating roles of curatorial news use in political involvement.Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 95(4), 1103–1127.

  Google Scholar 

• Parvin, P. (2018). Representing the people: British democracy in an age of political ignorance.Political Studies Review, 16(4), 265–278.

  Google Scholar 

• Pennycook, G., Cannon, T. D., & Rand, D. G. (2018). Prior exposure increases perceived accuracy of fake news.Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 147(12), 1865–1880.

  Google Scholar 

• Peterson, A., & Bentley, B. (2017). A case for cautious optimism? Active citizenship and the Australian civics and citizenship curriculum.Asia Pacific Journal of Education, 37(1), 42–54,

  Google Scholar 

• Popkin, S. L., & Dimock, M. A. (1999). Political knowledge and citizen competence. In S. L Elkin & K. E Soltan (Eds.),Citizen competence and democratic institutions (pp. 117–146). Pennsylvania: The Pennsylvania State University Press.

  Google Scholar 

• Print, M. (2007). Citizenship education and youth participation in democracy.British Journal of Educational Studies, 55(3), 325–345.

  Google Scholar 

• Rapeli, L. (2014). What should the citizen know about politics? Two approaches to the measurement of political knowledge.Democratic Theory, 1(1), 58–93.

  Google Scholar 

• Sambrook, R. (2016, November 11). Why the media got it so wrong on Trump and Brexit.The Conversation.https://theconversation.com/why-the-media-got-it-so-wrong-on-trump-and-brexit-68542. Accessed 27 February 2020.

• Sheppard, J. (2015). Compulsory voting and political knowledge: Testing a ‘compelled engagement’ hypothesis.Electoral Studies, 40, 300–307.

  Google Scholar 

• Singh, S., & Thornton, J. (2013). Compulsory voting and the dynamics of partisan identification.European Journal of Political Research, 52(2), 188–211.

  Google Scholar 

• Smith, R., Kildea, P., Gauja, A. & Keenan, M. (2015). The challenge of informed voting in the 21^st Century.https://law.unimelb.edu.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0009/1555956/TheChallengeofInformedVotingFinalReport2.pdf. Accessed 23 March 2020.

• Stockemer, D., & Rocher, F. (2017). Age, political knowledge and electoral turnout: A case study of Canada.Commonwealth & Comparative Politics, 55(1), 41–62.

  Google Scholar 

• Tasmanian Parliamentary Library. (2005).Legislative council elections.http://www.parliament.tas.gov.au/tpl/Backg/LCElections.htm. Accessed 24 March 2020.

• Tranter, B. (2007). Political knowledge and its partisan consequences.Australian Journal of Political Science, 42(1), 73–88.

  Google Scholar 

• Tudball, L. (2011). Civics and citizenship education in Australia: Developing authentic and engaging pedagogies to empower young citizens. In K. J. Kennedy, W. O. Lee & D. L. Grossman (Eds.),Citizenship pedagogies in Asia and the Pacific.CERC Studies in Comparative Education, vol 28. (pp. 269–290). Netherlands: Springer.

  Google Scholar 

• United Nations. (1989).Convention on the rights of the child.https://www.ohchr.org/en/professionalinterest/pages/crc.aspx. Accessed 25 March 2020.

• Walter, J., & Ghazarian, Z. (2018). Defying expectations: what leader insurgencies reveal about media and party incapacity in the time of ‘audience democracy’.Media International Australia, 167(1), 13–26.

  Google Scholar 

• White, J., & Ypi, L. (2011). On partisan political justification.American Political Science Review, 105(2), 381–396.

  Google Scholar 

• Young, S. (2003). A century of political communication in Australia, 1901–2001.Journal of Australian Studies, 27(78), 97–110.

  Google Scholar 

Download references