The Ming Dynasty—a transition period in the history of the relationship between Confucianism, Daoism, and Buddhism—is divided into two stages. These stages comprise the deeper theoretical fusion and the downward migration and increased integration of the three teachings. The fusion of the triad had been intensified up until the Qing Dynasty, as did the emergence of their new schools, yet there is a distinct lack of critical theoretical breakthroughs vis-à-vis the relation between the three teachings, and the trend of their convergence has been mainly preoccupied by the downward migration and expansion.

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9. 9.

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20. 20.

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28. 28.

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30. 30.

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31. 31.

    In the Qing Dynasty, when the orthodox position of Confucianism was stronger than before, to assert that Neo-Confucianism was not the same as ‘pure’ Confucianism was equal to asserting that Neo-Confucianism was false and wrong…The scholars of the Qing Dynasty started a “back-to-the-Han” movement, meaning by this a return to the commentaries that the scholars of the Han Dynasty had written on the early classics, which was named Hanxue or learning of the Han Dynasty in contrast to that of the Neo-Confucianism, namely Songxue. (cited from Feng Youlan,A Short History of Chinese Philosophy. Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 2017, p.477.)

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33. 33.

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34. 34.

    Selected Translations of Gong Zizhen’s Poems. Translated and annotated by Zhu Bangwei and Guan Daowei. Bashu Publishing House, 1994, p. 7.

35. 35.

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36. 36.

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37. 37.

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38. 38.

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39. 39.

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40. 40.

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41. 41.

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42. 42.

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43. 43.

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44. 44.

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45. 45.

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46. 46.

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47. 47.

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48. 48.

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49. 49.

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50. 50.

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51. 51.

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52. 52.

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53. 53.

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54. 54.

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55. 55.

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56. 56.

    Editorial office of the Zhonghua Book Company (Ed.).Collected Works of Weiyuan. Zhonghua Book Company, 1976, p. 258.

57. 57.

    Editorial office of the Zhonghua Book Company (Ed.).Collected Works of Weiyuan. Zhonghua Book Company, 1976, p. 261.

58. 58.

    Editorial office of the Zhonghua Book Company (Ed.).Collected Works of Weiyuan. Zhonghua Book Company, 1976, p. 261.

59. 59.

    Quoted from Mou Zhongjian.Chinese Daoist Religion. Guangdong People’s Publishing House, 1996, p. 161.

60. 60.

    Edited and revised by Meng Wentong.Ten Editorial Volumes of Daoist Works. Bashu Publishing House, 2001, p. 12,000, 1201.

61. 61.

    Quoted from Mou Zhongjian.Chinese Daoist Religion. Guangdong People’s Publishing House, 1996, p. 166.

62. 62.

    Quoted from Ma Tianxiang.The History of Chinese Zen Buddhism. Wuhan University Press, 2007, p. 414.

63. 63.

    (Qing Dynasty) Yang Wenhui.Complete Works of Yang Wenhui. Huangshan Publishing House, 2000, p. 624.

64. 64.

    Yu Songqing.A Study on the White Lotus Society in the Ming and Qing Dynasties. Sichuan People’s Publishing House, 1987, p. 33.

65. 65.

    Ma Xisha and Han Bingfang.A History of Chinese Folk Religions. Shanghai People’s Publishing House, 1992, p. 460.

66. 66.

    Gist of the Unification of Confucianism, Daoism and Buddhism, InOrthodoxy Theory on the Three teachings by Lin Zhaoen. Beijing Publishing House, 1998, p. 676.

67. 67.

    Quoted from Ma Xisha and Han Bingfang.A History of Chinese Folk Religions. Shanghai People’s Publishing House, 1992, p. 770.

68. 68.

    A fortune-telling ritual where various symbolic objects are placed before the one-year-old baby and their choice will foretell their future.

69. 69.

    (Tang Dynasty) Annotated by Kong Yingda.Annotations to the Book of Rites. InExpository Commentaries on the Thirteen Confucian Classics published in Song Dynasty. Reprinted in the 20th Year of Jiaqing Reign in the Qing Dynasty. p. 1385.

70. 70.

    Adopted from the translation of Sinologist Professor Sidney L. Sondergard.

71. 71.

    Zhu Weizheng (Ed.).Collected Chinese Works and Translations of Matteo Ricci. Fuda University Press, 20,001, p. 21.

72. 72.

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73. 73.

    (Ming Dynasty) Wang Daiyu.True Explanation of the Right Teachings, The Great Learning of Islam, Rare and True Answers. Revised by Yu Zhengui. Ningxia People’s Publishing House, 1987, p. 89.

74. 74.

    (Qing Dynasty) Ma Zhu.Muslim Guidance. Ningxia People’s Publishing House, 1988, p. 77. (After proofreading, this quotation is not fromTianfang Dianli [Rules and Rites in Islam]).

75. 75.

    (Qing Dynasty) Liu Zhi. Translated and Annotated by Na Wenbo.Translation and Annotations to Rules and Rites in Islam. Edited by Yunnan Compilation and Publication Planning Office of Ancient Books of Ethnic Minorities. Yunnan Ethnic Publishing House, 1990, p. 2.

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    (Qing Dynasty) Liu Zhi. Translated and Annotated by Na Wenbo.Translation and Annotations to Rules and Rites in Islam. Edited by Yunnan Compilation and Publication Planning Office of Ancient Books of Ethnic Minorities. Yunnan Ethnic Publishing House, 1990, p. 79.

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    Ma Qixi. Muslim Couplets of Ma Qixi. Complied and Printed by Xidaotang [Hall of the Western Way], 1992.

78. 78.

    (Qing Dynasty) Ma Dexin. Annotated by Yang Yongchang and Ma Jizu.The Essentials of the Four Classics. Qinghai People’s Publishing House, 1988, pp. 67, 68.

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    (Qing Dynasty) Ma Dexin. Annotated by Yang Yongchang and Ma Jizu.The Essentials of the Four Classics. Qinghai People’s Publishing House, 1988, p. 19.

Authors and Affiliations

1. School of Philosophy and Religious Studies, Minzu University of China, Beijing, China

   Zhongjian Mou

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