The period from the founding of the Northern Song Dynasty to the fall of the Ming Dynasty (960–1644 CE) spanned over 700 years. Politically, unity was juxtaposed with division, stability alternated with upheaval, and ethnic wars were frequent. Economically, the Song, Yuan, and Ming Dynasties all prospered for a time; the prevalence of private ownership by landlords replaced the monopoly of eminent families while agriculture, industry, and commerce flourished. In terms of education, the imperial examination system was fully developed and the standing of the scholar class had risen even further. With respect to ideology and culture, in-depth progress was made in their diversification and integration with tradition, giving rise to an unprecedented vitality in academic thought and successive peaks in theoretical innovations. During this period, the relationship among the three teachings—Buddhism, Confucianism, and Daoism—reached a new stage of development. First, over the course of their interactions, Buddhism had previously achieved its theoretical peak in the form of Zen Buddhism and was followed by the theoretical peak of Confucianism in the form of the Neo-Confucianism of the Song and Ming Dynasties, comprising three major schools: Lixue (the School of Principle), Xinxue (the School of Mind), and Xinxue (the School of Qi). This, in turn, was succeeded by the theoretical peak of Daoism in the form of Making Inner Alchemy for Immortality of the Jin, Yuan, and Ming Dynasties, all of which significantly enriched the philosophical wisdom of the Chinese people. Second, the three teachings broke through the theory of “divergent paths but a convergent destination” and the functional model of “all things lead to goodness” between the Jin and Tang Dynasties. Instead, they entered a period of mutual infiltration and interpenetration, thus forming a tightly interwoven pattern of “I am in you, and you are in me” among all three teachings. Third, the central issues arising from the discussions among the three teachings had shifted from the relationship between heaven and humankind to topics concerning Xin (Mind) and Xing (Nature), while also highlighting the central role of the theory of Mind in academic research, which eventually developed into aZeitgeist or spirit of the age. Despite constant disputes and criticisms among scholars of the three teachings, the teachings themselves were in fact more similar than ever before in terms of their insights. Furthermore, the ideas of “three teachings, one family” and “division of labor and cooperation” were widespread and extremely popular.

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Authors and Affiliations

1. School of Philosophy and Religious Studies, Minzu University of China, Beijing, China

   Zhongjian Mou

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