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Abstract
Understanding the patterns, causes, and consequences of spatial heterogeneity for ecosystem function remains a research frontier in both landscape and ecosystem ecology (Lovett et al. 2005; Chapin et al. 2012). The term,ecosystem, was introduced by Tansley (1935) to describe the characteristic and persistent interactions of organisms (plants, animals, and microbes) with their abiotic environment (e.g., water, temperature, radiation) within well-defined landscape boundaries (Likens 1995). Although ecosystems may appear to be discrete (e.g., ponds and watersheds), they do not exist in isolation. Interactions among ecosystems occur as a function of the heterogeneity of the landscape.Ecosystem ecology focuses on the flow of energy and matter between organisms and their environment, thus emphasizing pools (i.e., amounts or stocks), fluxes (i.e., rates), and the factors that control pools and fluxes. The spatial dimensions of ecosystem ecology may encompass bounded systems like watersheds, complex landscapes of diverse habitats, or even the biosphere itself; temporally, ecosystem science may cross scales ranging from seconds to millennia (Carpenter and Turner 1998). Ecosystem process rates vary across landscapes at multiple scales, and this variation can be difficult to quantify, explain, and predict. Transfers of matter and energy among patches (i.e., losses from donor ecosystems and subsidies to recipient ecosystems) are often important to long-term ecosystem sustainability (Polis and Hurd 1995; Naiman 1996; Carpenter et al. 1999; Chapin et al. 2012).
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Authors and Affiliations
Department of Zoology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
Monica G. Turner
Center for Environmental Science, University of Maryland, Frostburg, MD, USA
Robert H. Gardner
- Monica G. Turner
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- Robert H. Gardner
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Further Reading
Further Reading
Buffam I, Turner MG, Desai A, Hanson PJ, Rusak J, Lottig N, Carpenter SR (2011) Integrating aquatic and terrestrial components to construct a complete carbon budget for a north temperate lake district. Glob Chang Biol 17:1193–1211
Bump JK, Peterson RO, Vucetich JA (2009) Wolves modulate soil nutrient heterogeneity and foliar nitrogen by configuring the distribution of ungulate carcasses. Ecology 90:3159–3167
Emanuel RE, Riveros-Iregui DA, McGlynn BL, Epstein HE (2011) On the spatial heterogeneity of net ecosystem productivity in complex landscapes. Ecosphere 2(7). Article 86
Gergel SE (2005) Spatial and non-spatial factors: when do they affect landscape indicators of watershed loading? Landsc Ecol 20:177–189
Groffman PM, Butterbach-Bahl K, Fulweiler RW, Gold AJ, Morse JL, Stander EK, Tague C, Tonitto C, Vidon P (2009) Challenges to incorporating spatially and temporally explicit phenomena (hotspots and hot moments) in denitrification models. Biogeochemistry 93:49–77
Lovett GM, Jones CG, Turner MG, Weathers KC (eds) (2005) Ecosystem function in heterogeneous landscapes. Springer, New York
Nielsen A, Trolle D, Sondergaard M, Lauridsen TL, Bierring R, Olesen JE, Jeppesen E (2012) Watershed land use effects on lake water quality in Denmark. Ecol Appl 22:1187–1200
Strayer DL, Ewing HA, Bigelow S (2003) What kind of spatial and temporal details are required in models of heterogeneous systems? Oikos 102:654–662
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Turner, M.G., Gardner, R.H. (2015). Ecosystem Processes in Heterogeneous Landscapes. In: Landscape Ecology in Theory and Practice. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-2794-4_8
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