Brachiopoda suntanimalia nonnisimarina, immobilia, quorumcorpus interorgana principalia lophophorum (coronam tentaculorum) habet etconcha e duabusvalvis inaequalibus consistente tegitur. Intaxinomiabiologica tamquamphylum habentur.[1] Brachiopoda hodierna pauca sunt, circa 100genera cum circa 400speciebus;[2] attamen numerus generum brachiopodorumfossilium plus quam 4200 est.[3]
Nomen brachiopodorum evocabulis Graecis βραχίων ‘brachium’ et πούς ‘pes’ compositum est, propter opinionem erroneam brachia lophophori extensibilia esse, iisque a brachiopodis tamquam pedibus ad gradiendum uti.[4] Hoc nomenAndreas Maria Constans Dumérilzoologus anno1805 introduxit.[5] Antea Brachiopoda interMollusca annumerabantur, ut puta apudLinnaeum.
Cum brachiopoda fossilia multo plura hodiernis sint, a palaeontologis praesertim investigantur, rarius autem a zoologis.[6] Brachiopodologi congressum primum anno 1985Brestiae celebraverunt; anno 2018 octavus congressus brachiopodologicusMediolani habitus est.[7]
Ad brachiopoda investiganda structurae eorum interiores, quae in fossilibus plerumque visui non apparent, revelandae sunt. Unde frequenter brachiopodorum conchae fossiles in substantia abrasiva a palaeontologis teruntur poliunturque, quo fit, ut structurae interiores conchae observari possint, sed in fine concha destruitur. Quod methodus sectionum serialium dicitur.[8][9]
Concha (seu testa[10]) brachiopodorum e duabus valvis consistit, ideo conchae Molluscorumbivalvium (seu Lamellibranchiatorum) vel nonnullorumArthropodorum (ut Ostracodorum vel Conchostracorum) similis est. Attamen apud Mollusca et Arthropoda ambae valvae symmetricae sunt respectu plani symmetriae inter eas siti (ideoque valva sinistra et dextra dicuntur); e contra, valvae conchae Brachiopodorum inaequales sunt, quarum una minor dorsalis vel brachialis dicitur, altera maior autem ventralis vel peduncularis. Planum symmetriae conchae brachiopodorum perpendiculare respectu plani inter valvas siti est.[11]
Conchae brachiopodorum plerumque parvae sunt; brachiopodum omnium maximum,Gigantoproductus dictum, temporeCarbonifera vivens, usque ad 37.5 cm tantum crescebat.[12] Conchae brachiopodorum tum ecarbonate calcii, tum e phosphate fiunt.[13]
Inter organa principalia brachiopodorum lophophorus, pallium et pedunculus habentur. Lophophorus corona tentaculorum est et semper cavum interius coelomaticum habet; advescendum animali servit, qui eo ad colligendas particulas parvas quae inaquamaris inveniuntur (exempli gratiadiatomeas) utitur. A pallio, totum corpus molle brachiopodi operiente, concha exhalatur.Pedunculus, qui non semper adest, trans foramen pedunculare e concha exiens, eandem in substrato stabilit.[12]
Brachiopoda,bryozoa, etphoronida lophophorum habent, quod cognationem eorum arctam demonstrat, unde haec tria phyla insuperphylumLophophoratorum iunguntur.[1]Yuganotheca, animalperiodi Cambriae ad Chengjiang in Sina inventum, proprietates brachiopodorum phoronidorumque simul exhibet.[14] Lophophorata subdivisio Lophotrochozoorum, Lophotrochozoa (ad quaeAnnelida et Mollusca pertinent) subdivisioProtostomiorum est.[1]
Brachiopoda antiquissima in stratis stadii secundiCambrii reperiuntur,[14] sunt ergo antiquiorestrilobitis nonnisi in stadio tertio apparentium.[15] Per totamaeram Palaeozoicam brachiopoda inter animalia in maris frequentissima inveniebantur. InDevoniooecosystemata brachiopodeta dicta aderant, tamquam prata marina a permultis brachiopodis obsita. InPermio brachiopoda quaedamscopulos aedificabant, ut hodieanthozoa. Postcatastrophen quae Palaeozoicum aMesozoico (scilicetPermium aTriassico) separat brachiopoda paulatim rariora facta sunt. In iisdem oecosystematibus, ubi in Palaeozoico brachiopoda molluscis bivalvibus frequentiora fuerunt, in Mesozoico etCaenozoico bivalvia plura quam brachiopoda sunt.[16]
↑1.01.11.2Giribet, G. & Edgecombe, G. D. (2020),The Invertebrate Tree of Life (Princeton–Oxford: Princeton University Press,ISBN 9780691170251).
↑Ye, F., Shi, G. R. & Bitner, M. A. (2021), "Global biogeography of living brachiopods: Bioregionalization patterns and possible controls,"PLoS ONE 16 (11): e0259004.
↑Curry, G.B. & Brunton, C.H.C. (2007), "Stratigraphic distribution of brachiopods" in Selden, P. (ed.),Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology, Part H, Brachiopoda (retractata), 6: 2901–3081 (Boulder–Lawrence: Geological Society of America & University of Kansas Press).
↑Muir-Wood, H.M., 1955.A history of the classification of the phylum Brachiopoda. British Museum (Natural History), London.
↑Duméril, A.-M. C. 1805.Zoologie analytique, ou méthode naturelle de classification des animaux, rendue plus facile à l’aide de tableaux synoptiques. Allais, Paris. [‘1806’; de anno editionis vide Gregory, 2010,Zoological Bibliography 1(1): 6–8.].
↑Carlson, S., 2016. The Evolution of Brachiopoda.Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences, 44: 409-438.
↑Halamski, A.T., 2019.Eighth International Brachiopod Congress Milan, Italy, 11th-14th September, 2018. http://paleopolis.rediris.es/BrachNet/REF/Pub/halamski-2019.html
↑Sollas, W.J., 1904. A method for the investigation of fossils by serial sections.Philospohical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Series B, 196: 259–265
↑Croft, W.N., 1950. A parallel grinding instrument for the investigation of fossils by serial sections.Journal of Paleontology, 24: 693–698.
↑Nilsson, S., 1827.Petrificata Suecana formationis cretaceae, descripta et iconibus illustrata. Pars prior, Vertebrata et Mollusca sistens. Officina Berlingiana, Londini Gothorum.
↑Roger, J., 1960. Brachiopodes fossiles. 1431–1499. In: Grassé, P.-P. (ed.),Traité de Zoologie. Tome V, fasc. 2. Masson, Paris.
↑Cusack, M., Walton, D. & Curry, G.B., 1997. Shell biochemistry. 243–266. In: Kaesler, R.L. (ed.),Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology, Part H, Brachiopoda (revised), Volume 1. Geological Society of America & University of Kansas Press, Boulder–Lawrence.
↑14.014.1Harper, D.A.T., Popov, L.E. & Holmer, L.E., 2017. Brachiopods: origin and early history.Palaeontology, 60 (5): 609-631.
↑Holmes, J. D. & Budd. G. E., 2022. Reassessing a cryptic history of early trilobite evolution.Communications Biology, 5: 1177. https://doi.org/10.1038/s42003-022-04146-6.
↑Gould, Stephen J. & Calloway, C. B., 1980. Clams and brachiopods—ships that pass in the night.Paleobiology, 6 (4): 383-96.
Kaesler, R., ed.1997–2006.Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology. Part H, Brachiopoda (revised). Vol. 1 (1997), vols 2–3 (2000), vol. 4 (2002), vol. 5 (2006). Geological Society of America & University of Kansas Press.
Rudwick, M. J. S.1970.Living and fossil brachiopods. Londinii: Hutchinson University Library.
Selden, P., ed.2007.Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology. Part H, Brachiopoda (revised). Vol. 6. Geological Society of America & University of Kansas Press.
