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My main research interests centre on the use of bone and other faunal materials in Stone Age societies and the degree to which an understanding of these items may better inform our appreciation of the diversity and complexity of ancient indigenous knowledge systems. My research has focused on bone taphonomy, use-wear and fracture mechanics as proxies for understanding tool function and how people in the past engaged with organic technology. At present I am engaged in several projects looking at bone tool function.
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Papers by Justin Bradfield

Research paper thumbnail of The technology and microwear of the bone tools from Broederstroom, an Early Iron Age site in the Magaliesberg, South Africa
Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa, 2024
This paper reports the results of a technological and microwear analysis of 110 pieces of worked ... moreThis paper reports the results of a technological and microwear analysis of 110 pieces of worked bone from the Early Iron Age site of Broederstroom in the Magaliesberg region of South Africa. The results are compared to previous studies of bone tools from the contemporary Later Stone Age sites of Kruger Cave and Jubilee Shelter in an attempt to understand whether the Broederstroom pieces were made locally by the farmers or acquired through trade with hunter-gatherers. Although the bone tool technology at Broederstroom does bear some similarities to the bone material at Kruger Cave, it is quite different from that at Jubilee Shelter. This technological distinction likely indicates that the bone tool industry at Broederstroom is a product of local farmer industry. The usewear results further point to a range of different activities practised by the farmers living at Broederstroom.
Research paper thumbnail of Potential biomarkers for southern African hunter-gatherer arrow poisons applied to ethno-historical and archaeological samples
Scientific Reports
The detection of complex poison recipes applied to ancient hunting weapons has the potential to p... moreThe detection of complex poison recipes applied to ancient hunting weapons has the potential to provide important insights into traditional pharmacological knowledge systems. Yet, recipes comprising many ingredients can be challenging to decipher, especially in older samples that have undergone biodegradation. We present the results of our attempt to analyze samples of poison collected from nineteenth and twentieth century arrowheads from southern Africa, and from a 1000-year-old archaeological bone point. The arrow poison residues and reference samples were analyzed by Attenuated Total Reflectance Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (ATR FTIR) and Gas Chromatography Mass Spectrometry (GC–MS). The ATR FTIR analysis is primarily able to separate between different arrow poison binder recipes. The extractives identified by GC–MS analysis consist of a multitude of components from both binders and active substances, confirming and adding to the results from the ATR FTIR analyses. We ...
Research paper thumbnail of An assessment of whether saturated sediment ablation on stationary bone can mimic bone tool use-wear from Earlier Stone Age contexts
An assessment of whether saturated sediment ablation on stationary bone can mimic bone tool use-wear from Earlier Stone Age contexts
Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports
Several taphonomic processes can alter the surface of archaeological bone in a manner that may ca... moreSeveral taphonomic processes can alter the surface of archaeological bone in a manner that may cause them to superficially resemble bone tools used as digging implements. Under close examination, however, the resultant microwear is usually quite distinct. While many experiments have been done to document the effects of fluvial processes on bone surface alteration, there are many mass soil movement process whose microwear effects have not yet been properly investigated and which could conceivably produce microwear similar to digging implements. One example, which pertains to the Cradle of Humankind landscape, is soil creep. We present the results of an experiment that assesses the resultant microwear on stationary bones occasioned by artificially accelerated soil creep processes. We show that the passage of saturated sediments over stationary bones produces rounding and pitting, and does not resemble microwear occasioned either by fluvial transport or experimental digging in sediments. Although there is room to test additional variables, we conclude that the purported bone tools from the Cradle of Humankind sites were not affected by soil creep processes, at least not to the extent that they caused surface alterations.
Research paper thumbnail of A 500-year-old medicine container discovered near Misgund, Eastern Cape, South Africa: Residue characterisation by GC-MS
South African Journal of Science
The chance discovery of a 500-year-old cattle-horn container in a painted rock shelter on the far... moreThe chance discovery of a 500-year-old cattle-horn container in a painted rock shelter on the farm La vie D’Antan in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa sheds new light on the antiquity of traditional medicines in the region. We report the micro-residue and GC-MS results of the solidified substance found inside the horn container. Several plant-based medicinal compounds were tentatively identified, of which mono-methyl inositol and lupeol are the most prevalent. Based on pharmacobotanical studies, we suggest the most probable ailments the medicine would have been used to treat and propose the most likely plants from which the ingredients were sourced. Apart from the rock art, whose contemporaneity has not been established, there is no associated archaeology from which to draw specific cultural associations. Although people clearly have been aware of the medicinal properties of plants for at least the last 200 000 years, this is, to our knowledge, the oldest evidence from south...
Research paper thumbnail of Selection preferences for animal species used in bone-tool-manufacturing strategies in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa
PLOS ONE
Animal symbolism is a prominent feature of many human societies globally. In some cases, these sy... moreAnimal symbolism is a prominent feature of many human societies globally. In some cases, these symbolic attributes manifest in the technological domain, influencing the decision to use the bones of certain animals and not others for tool manufacture. In southern Africa, animals feature prominently in the cosmogenic narratives of both hunter-gatherer and Bantu-speaking farmer groups. Whenever these two culturally distinct groups came into contact with each other there would be an assimilation of cosmogenic concepts of power and the adoption of certain symbolically important animals. In this paper, we report on which animals were selected to make bone tools during the first millennium AD contact period in KwaZulu-Natal Province, South Africa, and explore the extent to which this selection may have been influenced by the symbolic associations of specific animals. Our results show selective targeting of specific animals for tool manufacture at some sites, with a narrowing of the range o...
Research paper thumbnail of Scales of Analysis: the Usage of Appropriate Magnification in Use-Wear Studies
Arheologia
The interpretative potential of microscopic use-wear polishes is a factor of the scale of analysi... moreThe interpretative potential of microscopic use-wear polishes is a factor of the scale of analysis. Observational surface area decreases in inverse proportion to magnification. In this paper I present the results of polishes on bone tools that have developed from fricative contact with nine different materials. Microwear polish is viewed at five different magnifications. I show that 50x―200x magnification, or observational areas of 0.4―2.0 mm2, is the most appropriate scale of analysis of use-wear polishes regardless of whether one is conducting morphological identifications or relying on surface texture analysis software. The images presented here are meant to serve as an online reference collection to allow use-wear analysts to visualise how polish appearances change at different levels of magnification.
Research paper thumbnail of The remediation of Kruger Cave: a Later Stone Age and living heritage site in the western Magaliesberg
Southern African Field Archaeology
We report on a programme of work to remediate Kruger Cave, a Later Stone Age painted rock shelter... moreWe report on a programme of work to remediate Kruger Cave, a Later Stone Age painted rock shelter in the western Magaliesberg, South Africa. Kruger Cave, originally excavated in the 1980s and never backfilled or stabilised, has deteriorated through forty years of erosional and quotidian processes that have significantly reduced the extent of the archaeological deposit. The cave is currently occupied by a lay Christian pastor whose activities at the site place the remaining archaeological deposit at further risk. Remedial work was undertaken on what remains of the archaeology-bearing sediment. We also present the preliminary analysis from two small-scale excavations that aimed to document the site’s stratigraphy. We explore the ambivalence of Kruger Cave’s living heritage status within the context of current heritage management practices and discuss how our remedial work is designed to be responsive and respectful to both the archaeological and living heritage priorities.
Figure 1. Location of Kruger Cave and its entrance as it appears in 2022. The elevation map (heights in meters) is provided courtesy of Fernando Colino (using data from the NASA EOSDIS Land Processes Distributed Active Archive Centre [LP DAAC]). Aerial photograph provided courtesy of Vincent Carruthers. to protect the site at the conclusion of the 1983 excavation had proved ineffectual by 1986, having been, by that stage, partly torn down and removed (Alan Retief pers. comm. January 2020).
Figure 2. Chronological site photos. a) looking towards the rear of the cave in 1997; b) looking towards the rear of the cave in 2007 with the same boulder in the left foreground; c) the site in 2021 showing the makeshift partition erected by Pastor Voyi for privacy in the rear and Mason’s AC 10-12 excavation in the fore; d) Simon Hall standing in the AC 10-12 excavation in 1997. Below is our map showing the intact deposit in dark grey and slump deposit in light grey. The stabilised bulks are labelled I-V. A rectified version of Mason’s excavation grid is superimposed for reference (used throughout when referring to locations, i.e., excavations). Twin pentagons indicate our dropline markers, between which are the rear profiles of our two small excavations. Historical photographs supplied courtesy of Vincent Carruthers.
Figure 3. Top row: excavation and profile images of FG22. Note the step of intact bulk above, and set back from, the surface of our excavation. Bottom row: excavation and profile images of BC8. BE ACUVULLOTLS LY UODCUITLECILE SEFULLS TUPI PP Upeees Prior to stabilisation, we selected two areas, in the fore and rear of the cave, near to where Mason had obtained some of his radiocarbon dates and that had clearly visible and intact stratigraphic profiles. Following Mason’s grid reference, we chose squares BC8 and FG22 as being representative of all three chronological lenses. To obtain clean stratigraphic profiles we removed the slump material to bedrock and then excavated back a ~30x50 cm area. The rear profile wall of each excavation is shown as a pair of pentagons on the map in Figure 2. When removing the slump material in front of FG22 from the area indicated by Mason to be in his excavation trench, we discovered in situ deposit. We therefore proceeded with careful excavation of this deposit back to the edge of the exposed bulk and down to bedrock but were consequently unable to incorporate the exposed bulk into our excavation. The top layer (VDGB) of FG22 therefore lies below the 6452-5331 BC dates obtained from adjacent squares and most likely represents only the oldest dated lens. Figure 3 shows our two small excavations and the ‘step’ of exposed, intact deposit above our excavation. Figures 4 and 5 present the stratigraphic profiles of each section.
Figure 5. Profile drawings of FG22. Figure 4. Profile drawings of BC8.
Figure 6. A typical sample of lithic material found lying on the slopes below Kruger Cave. from warthog (sensu Espinoza & Mann 1992; Locke 2008). The most intact warthog tooth has remnants of ochre paint near the tip (Fig. 9g). The ochre paint appears identical to that which was applied to the 6000 BP poisoned arrowhead recovered by Mason (for a colour photograph of this artefact see Bradfield & Choyke 2016: figure 3).
Figure 7. Lithics recovered in situ. a) a piece of chalcedony from the BC8 slump material retouched into a tear- drop shaped piece, possibly an arrow insert; b) a scraper from BC DGB; c) a dolerite adze recovered from the FG slump; d & e) D-shaped scrapers from FG Brwn I. All the pieces of carapace that we found are of a similar size, suggesting that people were deliberately targeting baby tortoises. Also in this layer, we found a dermal plate of a species of catfish (Fig. 11; cf. Ebstein et al. 2015). This is the first identification of this taxon at the site, although catfish are known from other riparian sites (e.g., Plug et al. 2010).
Figure 8. Butchery marks on bones from a) BC VDGB IV; b) FG VDB I; c) FG VDB I; d) FG Brwn I; e) FG Brwn II; f) FG slump.
Figure 9. Worked bone and ivory. a) ring-snapped and edge abraded shaft from BC slump; b) a rare hexagonally faceted whittled bone shaft from BC slump; c) abraded piece of bone with perforation from BC VDGB I; d) ivory flake from BC VDB I; e) bone shaft with two sets of parallel incised decorations from FG LB f) tip of a bone point from FG slump; g) warthog ivory tooth with ochre paint remnant near tip from FG slump, encircled.
Figure 10. Ostrich eggshell beads from Kruger Cave (a-c=BC8; d-g=FG22). a) VDGB IV; b) VDB II; c) DGB II; d) VDGB J; e) LB; f) Brwn I; g) slump.
Figure 11. Articulated tortoise carapace and catfish dermal bone recovered from FG22 Blck II.
‘igure 12. Perforated and near-perforated freshwater mussel shell. The broken abraded piece comes from BC LG II; the other two come from BC VDB.
Figure 13. Botanical remains. a) chewed bark from FG slump; b) unidentified seed from BC VDGB I; c) Strychnos sp. seed from BC LBG II; d) unidentified seeds from BC LBG I; e) Strychnos sp. exocarp with putative decoration from FG slump; f) Mimusops sp. seed from FG Blck II; g) unidentified seed from FG Blck IL.
Figure 14. Decorated rim pot sherds recovered from the BC slump. [Thirteen pieces of pottery were recovered from our excavation (Table 3). These included three rim sherds, of which two are decorated (Fig. 4), and two painted and burnished pieces. The rim sherds all >ome from the BC slump and match the motifs illustrated by Mason (1988: figure 59). The painted and yurnished pieces come from BC LBG and BC VDGB IV and display a polished red hue on one or both sides respectively. Mason attributed the incised motifs to Kaditshwene Phase people, which correlates o Huffman’s (2007) Uitkomst facies, although to us the decorative style seems more akin to facies within the Kalundu tradition than to w duffman 2007: 173). Mason noted the a lespite its abundance in the surrounding hat Huffman has illustrated as exemplars of Uitkomst (cf. bsence of Bupye (Huffman’s Buispoort) pottery in the cave, countryside. We too did not recover anything that resembled 3uispoort, although painting and burnishing is a feature common to this facies (see Huffman 2007).
igure 15. Rock paintings at Kruger Cave with digital photographs shown on the left-hand side and DStretcl colour augmented images on the right. efflorescence flow. We were able to identify several red blotches through DStretch, which may be the degraded missing images that Pager recorded, or they may be mineral discolourations in the rock. Except for four images, all the missing paintings are from a 5 m densely clustered stretch near the base of the NE wall. Pager noted the generally poor preservation of the images consequent upon the effects of lichen growth and dust.
Figure 16. Additional rock paintings at Kruger Cave. Digital photographs shown on the left-hand side and DStretch colour augmented images on the right.
present at the time or because he simply did not regard it as relevant is impossible to say.
Figure 18. Stabilised bulks of intact archaeological deposit. Corresponding to the map in Figure 2, a) shows bulk A; b) showing bulk A in foreground and bulk B in the background; c) showing bulk B; d) showing bulk C; e) showing bulk D situated in the rear of the cave; and f) showing bulk E.
Table 1. Sample weights per stratigraphic layer. All values are in grammes. Note that * indicates that weight is skewed due to the presence of a large hammerstone. Whereas any tortoise bones are included in the ‘bone’ column, tortoise carapace and plastron has been given its own column in the table. Similar to Mason’s excavations we found a low ratio of stone artefacts to excavated deposit. Unmodified flakes dominate t! he lithic technology category, while cores are relatively scarce (Table 2). Bladelet and split pebble cores are the most common throughout the deposit. The retouched tool category is dominated by scrapers. Along the outskirts of Kruger Cave many hammers ones and Oakhurst-style D-shaped scrapers made from dolerite and hornfels can be found lying on the surface (Fig. 6). These items recur in chalcedony, typical of the fina our sample, Johann Binneman (1987), working on a small sample from Mason’s excavation, he FG22 deposit, whereas BC8 contains smaller scrapers on quartz and Later Stone Age (Fig. 7). Although we have not performed us e-wear on found that wood-working wear was evident on scrapers with hinge and step flaked edges, whereas scrapers with abraded convex edges tended o display wear consistent with hide scraping.
Table 2. Main lithic categories per layer. Column names are as follows (C=core, HS=hammerstone, RF=rejuvenation flake, F=flake, Bl=bladelet, CP=convergent point, A=adze, BP=backed piece, S=scrape RP=retouched piece). In addition to bone, four pieces of ivory were found, some of which have been knapped (Fig. 9d). Based on gross morphology and provisional histology at the break facets, three of the four ivory pieces come
Table 3. Showing cultural categories. The presence of burnishing (*), decoration (**) and perforation (#) per level is indicated, not necessarily the number of examples. Botanical remains consisted primarily of charred seeds, twigs and chewed bark, and occurred throughout the deposit of both excavations (Table 1). At least six types of seed were noted. Although a full taxonomic identification of the seeds is pending, they ap pear to represent the same species identified by Friede (1987), with Mimusops sp., Strychnos sp. and Sclerocarya sp. being the most common (Fig. 13). Several pieces of Strychnos exocarp were recovered pieces appears to have a decorative line carved into it (Fig. from the FG slump material. One of these 13e). T his line has smooth, straight edges and does not resemble the pathological or taphonomic damage prevalent on most other pieces. Instead, its overall size, morphology and depth resemble the decorati sold today (Sotran: dekorativ n.d.). Unfortunately, our at empts ive carvings on Strychnos fruit that are still o refit the pieces of exocarp were largely unsuccessful, probably indicating that the remains are from several fruits. Nothing similar was reported by Mason. Chewed bark was recovered from the FG slump, FG LB and BC VDGB III (Fig. 13a). Many similar pieces were found in Mason’s excava Acacia natalia (sic). This plant taxon has subsequently been rec 2014). ion and are identified by Friede (1987) as assified as Vachellia karroo (Dyer
Research paper thumbnail of Field and Technical Report AN EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION INTO THE ORIGIN OF INCISED LINES ON A 4000-YEAR-OLD ENGRAVING FROM WONDERWERK CAVE, NORTHERN CAPE PROVINCE
Field and Technical Report AN EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION INTO THE ORIGIN OF INCISED LINES ON A 4000-YEAR-OLD ENGRAVING FROM WONDERWERK CAVE, NORTHERN CAPE PROVINCE
Research paper thumbnail of Taphonomic Study of a Modern Baboon Sleeping Site at Misgrot, South Africa: Implications for Large-Bodied Primate Taphonomy in Karstic Deposits
Taphonomic Study of a Modern Baboon Sleeping Site at Misgrot, South Africa: Implications for Large-Bodied Primate Taphonomy in Karstic Deposits
Journal of Paleolithic Archaeology, 2021
Primate taphonomy in cave deposits is complex, and the taphonomic signatures of different accumul... morePrimate taphonomy in cave deposits is complex, and the taphonomic signatures of different accumulation scenarios present some degree of equifinality, rendering their identification in the fossil record challenging. Here, we describe an assemblage of 30 modern chacma baboons, including nine partially mummified individuals, which died inside a cave chamber at Misgrot, South Africa. The mortality profile is attritional, favouring immature and older individuals. We describe skeletal part representation, body postures for the most complete mummies and preserved articulations. Bone surface modifications suggest limited impact by biotic agents besides small rodents and invertebrates. Several specimens were affected by heat-induced damage, most likely resulting from natural combustion of bat guano, abundant on the cave floor. Misgrot has a similar geology and similar dimensions to some Plio-Pleistocene primate-bearing cave deposits from the UNESCO World Heritage Cradle of Humankind area. Implications of the taphonomic features of the Misgrot baboon remains are discussed in the context of some of these fossil assemblages, including the recently discovered Homo naledi assemblages.
Research paper thumbnail of Southern African arrow poison recipes, their ingredients and implications for Stone Age archaeology
Southern African Humanities, 2015
Biochemical analyses of residues preserved on ethno-historical and archaeological artefacts incre... moreBiochemical analyses of residues preserved on ethno-historical and archaeological artefacts increase our understanding of past indigenous knowledge systems. The interpretation of biochemical traces is, however, difficult. Problems that can hamper credible interpretations of ethno-historical or archaeological residues include incomplete knowledge about local natural products, limited published data about product applications, and overestimation of the abilities of the analytical techniques to make specific identifications. In an initial attempt to address some of the challenges, we discuss arrow poison as a case in point, and we provide complete, updated inventories of known southern African poison ingedients and recipes, suspected poisons, and the current state of knowledge about these toxins and their effects. We also suggest that discoveries of ancient arrow poison, and the technical steps involved in early toxicology, have the potential to indicate levels of human cognition.
Research paper thumbnail of Further evidence for bow hunting and its implications more than 60 000 years ago: Results of a use-trace analysis of the bone point from Klasies River Main site, South Africa
Quaternary Science Reviews, 2020
The bone point (SAM 42160) from >60 ka deposits at Klasies River Main Site, South Africa, is reas... moreThe bone point (SAM 42160) from >60 ka deposits at Klasies River Main Site, South Africa, is reassessed. We clarify the stratigraphic integrity of SAM 42160 and confirm its Middle Stone Age provenience. We find evidence that indicates the point was hafted and partially coated in an adhesive substance. Internal fractures are consistent with stresses occasioned by high-velocity, longitudinal impact. SAM 42160, like its roughly contemporaneous counterpart, farther north at Sibudu Cave, likely functioned as a hafted arrowhead. We highlight a growing body of evidence for bow hunting at this early period and explore bow-and-arrow technology might imply about the cognition of people in the Middle Stone Age who were able to conceive, construct and use it.
Research paper thumbnail of Bone hoes from the Middle Iron Age, Limpopo Province, South Africa
Quaternary International, 2018
This paper presents the first recognised evidence of bone hoes in South Africa. Two bovine scapul... moreThis paper presents the first recognised evidence of bone hoes in South Africa. Two bovine scapulae and a portion of a long bone show use-trace evidence that supports our interpretation as ground-working implements. The scapulae were probably hafted onto wooden handles using a combination of plant fibres and sinew, whereas the tool made from the long bone appears not to have been hafted. Bone hoes represent a short-lived technological innovation, although the reasons to account for this remain speculative. The recognition of these agricultural implements poses interesting questions about the extent and variety of bone working among Iron Age agriculturalists in the Limpopo Valley during the 10th e 13th centuries AD, and potentially also about the nature of women's work in these communities.
Research paper thumbnail of Identifying the animal species used to manufacture bone arrowheads in South Africa
Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences, 2018
The identification to species of completely worked bone tools is impossible using standard skelet... moreThe identification to species of completely worked bone tools is impossible using standard skeletal morphological markers. Worked bone studies therefore have focused on questions about manufacture and use, rather than on issues of raw material selection strategies. Zooarchaeology by Mass Spectrometry (ZooMS) is a technique that uses unique collagen biomarkers to fingerprint and identify species of origin from small amounts of bone or ivory. We present the first ZooMS analysis of bone arrowheads from southern Africa. Our findings show that a narrower selection of species was selected for tool manufacture than for food, while, at some sites, certain antelope species were selected for tools that are not present in the unmodified faunal remains. We examine what this selectivity might suggest about mechanical suitability and symbolic associations of the species chosen to make tools. We conclude that mechanical suitability was probably of primary concern and that probable symbolic connotations that were attached to certain species did not translate to the technological sphere to the same extent that they did in other parts of the world.
Research paper thumbnail of A functional investigation of southern Cape Later Stone Age artefacts resembling aerophones
Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports, 2019
This paper describes possible sound-producing artefacts from two Later Stone Age deposits in the ... moreThis paper describes possible sound-producing artefacts from two Later Stone Age deposits in the southern Cape, South Africa. Implements previously described as a 'wirra wirra' or 'pendant' from Klasies River main site (KRM), a 'woer woer' or 'bullroarer' and four 'pendants' from Matjes River (MR) are analysed and their sound producing qualities assessed through an actualistic research programme. For comparative purposes, a replica of an ethnographic 'spinning disk' was also spun and its sound recorded. All of the implements, except the MR 'woer woer' produced a sustained, pulsed, whirring sound when spun. Minor adjustments to the MR 5135 replica resulted in successful sound production. The frequency range of the KRM replica and ethnographic KK058 implement produced a frequency variation of between 52 Hz and 200 Hz. The frequency range of the pendant replicas varied from 55.55 to 250 Hz, comparable to other bullroarers. Spinning produces use-wear predominantly on the left laterals of the perforations, whereas pendant use produces use-wear along the upper sector of the perforation, thus allowing us to distinguish these two uses based on the placement of use-wear. We conclude that one of the bone artefacts previously thought to be a pendant, MR 40, most likely functioned as an instrument to produce sound. This investigation thus experimentally confirms that earlier hypotheses that the 'wirra wirra' from KRM and the 'bullroarer' from MR were aerophones are judicious. In addition we demonstrate for the first time that some archaeological pendants, such as MR 40, may have been used as free aerophones or bullroarers.
Research paper thumbnail of Identifying animal taxa used to manufacture bone tools during the Middle Stone Age at Sibudu, South Africa: Results of a CT-rendered histological analysis
PLOS ONE, 2018
This paper presents the histological characterisation of a selection of worked bone artefacts fro... moreThis paper presents the histological characterisation of a selection of worked bone artefacts from Middle Stone Age layers at Sibudu cave, South Africa. Histographic rendering is achieved using high-resolution Computed Tomography, which is non-destructive and facilitates three-dimensional histologic analysis. Excellent congruency in image quality was achieved with previous studies using this method. The results show that most of the artefact fragments contain mostly primary lamellar tissue, which is the bone tissue best adapted to withstand impact stresses. This indicates that bone with greater elastic properties was chosen. Histological characterisation allows the identification of animal taxa. Based on the sample analysed in this paper, Perissodactyla bone was used predominantly in the older layers at the site. Artiodactyla are represented throughout but appear far more frequently in the later (post-Howiesons Poort onwards) layers. Some of the Artiodactyla specimens have high proportions of Haversian tissue, reducing elasticity. The higher percentages of Haversian tissue in the post-Howiesons Poort artefacts relative to Holocene examples from southern Africa suggests that people may have started experimenting with bone from different animal taxa at this time and had not yet learned to eliminate the mechanically weaker secondary tissue. Apart from mechanical considerations, possible cultural constraints governing raw material selection is also explored.
Research paper thumbnail of New Excavations at Border Cave, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa
Journal of Field Archaeology, 2018
New excavations at Border Cave use high-resolution techniques, including FT-IR, for sediment samp... moreNew excavations at Border Cave use high-resolution techniques, including FT-IR, for sediment samples and thin sections of micromorphology blocks from stratigraphy. These show that sediments have different moisture regimes, both spatially and chronologically. The site preserves desiccated grass bedding in multiple layers and they, along with seeds, rhizomes, and charcoal, provide a profile of palaeo-vegetation through time. A bushveld vegetation community is implied before 100,000 years ago. The density of lithics varies considerably through time, with high frequencies occurring before 100,000 years ago where a putative MSA 1/Pietersburg Industry was recovered. The highest percentage frequencies of blades and blade fragments were found here. In Members 1 BS and 1 WA, called Early Later Stone Age by Beaumont, we recovered large flakes from multifacial cores. Local rhyolite was the most common rock used for making stone tools, but siliceous minerals were popular in the upper members.
Research paper thumbnail of Potential for identifying plant-based toxins on San hunter-gatherer arrowheads
South African Journal of Science, 2017
The antiquity of the use of hunting poisons has received much attention in recent years. In this ... moreThe antiquity of the use of hunting poisons has received much attention in recent years. In this paper we present the results of a pilot study designed to detect the presence of organic compounds, typically of less than 1200 Da, from poisonous plants that may have been used as hunting poisons in the past. We used ultra-performance liquid chromatography connected to a Synapt G2 high-resolution MS-QTOF mass spectrometer (UPLC-QTOF-MS) to provisionally identify plant-based toxins present in (1) extracts of fresh plant material, (2) a blind control recipe consisting of three plant ingredients and (3) a Hei||om arrow poison of unknown ingredients. Although not all expected toxic compounds were identified, those that were identified compared favourably with those reported in the literature and confirmed through databases, specifically the Dictionary of Natural Products and ChemSpider. MS/MS fragmentation patterns and accurate mass were used for tentative identification of compounds becaus...
Research paper thumbnail of The last of the LSA on the Makgabeng plateau
The last of the LSA on the Makgabeng plateau
Research paper thumbnail of Verifying the potential of micro-focus X-ray computed tomography in the study of ancient bone tool function
Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports, 2016
The results of 22 micro-focus X-ray computer tomography (micro-CT) scans of one-hundred-year-old ... moreThe results of 22 micro-focus X-ray computer tomography (micro-CT) scans of one-hundred-year-old bone arrowheads and link-shafts are presented. These data build on previous experimental research that sought to establish a new use-trace method for identifying archaeological bone arrowheads where surface damage is lacking. The results presented here confirm the potential of micro-CT for imaging bone micro-structure but highlight the variable conditions under which micro-cracks and fatigue fractures may develop. Micro-cracks associated with impact crushing occur more often than those associated with bending forces, but cannot be used in isolation to ascribe hunting function. Link-shafts are more likely to develop micro-structural damage unrelated to hunting activities. In order for micro-structural damage to be informative about the nature of use, a 'tool' must have been frequently used in order for sufficient damage to accrue.
Research paper thumbnail of The technology and microwear of the bone tools from Broederstroom, an Early Iron Age site in the Magaliesberg, South Africa
Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa, 2024
This paper reports the results of a technological and microwear analysis of 110 pieces of worked ... moreThis paper reports the results of a technological and microwear analysis of 110 pieces of worked bone from the Early Iron Age site of Broederstroom in the Magaliesberg region of South Africa. The results are compared to previous studies of bone tools from the contemporary Later Stone Age sites of Kruger Cave and Jubilee Shelter in an attempt to understand whether the Broederstroom pieces were made locally by the farmers or acquired through trade with hunter-gatherers. Although the bone tool technology at Broederstroom does bear some similarities to the bone material at Kruger Cave, it is quite different from that at Jubilee Shelter. This technological distinction likely indicates that the bone tool industry at Broederstroom is a product of local farmer industry. The usewear results further point to a range of different activities practised by the farmers living at Broederstroom.
Research paper thumbnail of Potential biomarkers for southern African hunter-gatherer arrow poisons applied to ethno-historical and archaeological samples
Scientific Reports
The detection of complex poison recipes applied to ancient hunting weapons has the potential to p... moreThe detection of complex poison recipes applied to ancient hunting weapons has the potential to provide important insights into traditional pharmacological knowledge systems. Yet, recipes comprising many ingredients can be challenging to decipher, especially in older samples that have undergone biodegradation. We present the results of our attempt to analyze samples of poison collected from nineteenth and twentieth century arrowheads from southern Africa, and from a 1000-year-old archaeological bone point. The arrow poison residues and reference samples were analyzed by Attenuated Total Reflectance Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (ATR FTIR) and Gas Chromatography Mass Spectrometry (GC–MS). The ATR FTIR analysis is primarily able to separate between different arrow poison binder recipes. The extractives identified by GC–MS analysis consist of a multitude of components from both binders and active substances, confirming and adding to the results from the ATR FTIR analyses. We ...
Research paper thumbnail of An assessment of whether saturated sediment ablation on stationary bone can mimic bone tool use-wear from Earlier Stone Age contexts
An assessment of whether saturated sediment ablation on stationary bone can mimic bone tool use-wear from Earlier Stone Age contexts
Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports
Several taphonomic processes can alter the surface of archaeological bone in a manner that may ca... moreSeveral taphonomic processes can alter the surface of archaeological bone in a manner that may cause them to superficially resemble bone tools used as digging implements. Under close examination, however, the resultant microwear is usually quite distinct. While many experiments have been done to document the effects of fluvial processes on bone surface alteration, there are many mass soil movement process whose microwear effects have not yet been properly investigated and which could conceivably produce microwear similar to digging implements. One example, which pertains to the Cradle of Humankind landscape, is soil creep. We present the results of an experiment that assesses the resultant microwear on stationary bones occasioned by artificially accelerated soil creep processes. We show that the passage of saturated sediments over stationary bones produces rounding and pitting, and does not resemble microwear occasioned either by fluvial transport or experimental digging in sediments. Although there is room to test additional variables, we conclude that the purported bone tools from the Cradle of Humankind sites were not affected by soil creep processes, at least not to the extent that they caused surface alterations.
Research paper thumbnail of A 500-year-old medicine container discovered near Misgund, Eastern Cape, South Africa: Residue characterisation by GC-MS
South African Journal of Science
The chance discovery of a 500-year-old cattle-horn container in a painted rock shelter on the far... moreThe chance discovery of a 500-year-old cattle-horn container in a painted rock shelter on the farm La vie D’Antan in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa sheds new light on the antiquity of traditional medicines in the region. We report the micro-residue and GC-MS results of the solidified substance found inside the horn container. Several plant-based medicinal compounds were tentatively identified, of which mono-methyl inositol and lupeol are the most prevalent. Based on pharmacobotanical studies, we suggest the most probable ailments the medicine would have been used to treat and propose the most likely plants from which the ingredients were sourced. Apart from the rock art, whose contemporaneity has not been established, there is no associated archaeology from which to draw specific cultural associations. Although people clearly have been aware of the medicinal properties of plants for at least the last 200 000 years, this is, to our knowledge, the oldest evidence from south...
Research paper thumbnail of Selection preferences for animal species used in bone-tool-manufacturing strategies in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa
PLOS ONE
Animal symbolism is a prominent feature of many human societies globally. In some cases, these sy... moreAnimal symbolism is a prominent feature of many human societies globally. In some cases, these symbolic attributes manifest in the technological domain, influencing the decision to use the bones of certain animals and not others for tool manufacture. In southern Africa, animals feature prominently in the cosmogenic narratives of both hunter-gatherer and Bantu-speaking farmer groups. Whenever these two culturally distinct groups came into contact with each other there would be an assimilation of cosmogenic concepts of power and the adoption of certain symbolically important animals. In this paper, we report on which animals were selected to make bone tools during the first millennium AD contact period in KwaZulu-Natal Province, South Africa, and explore the extent to which this selection may have been influenced by the symbolic associations of specific animals. Our results show selective targeting of specific animals for tool manufacture at some sites, with a narrowing of the range o...
Research paper thumbnail of Scales of Analysis: the Usage of Appropriate Magnification in Use-Wear Studies
Arheologia
The interpretative potential of microscopic use-wear polishes is a factor of the scale of analysi... moreThe interpretative potential of microscopic use-wear polishes is a factor of the scale of analysis. Observational surface area decreases in inverse proportion to magnification. In this paper I present the results of polishes on bone tools that have developed from fricative contact with nine different materials. Microwear polish is viewed at five different magnifications. I show that 50x―200x magnification, or observational areas of 0.4―2.0 mm2, is the most appropriate scale of analysis of use-wear polishes regardless of whether one is conducting morphological identifications or relying on surface texture analysis software. The images presented here are meant to serve as an online reference collection to allow use-wear analysts to visualise how polish appearances change at different levels of magnification.
Research paper thumbnail of The remediation of Kruger Cave: a Later Stone Age and living heritage site in the western Magaliesberg
Southern African Field Archaeology
We report on a programme of work to remediate Kruger Cave, a Later Stone Age painted rock shelter... moreWe report on a programme of work to remediate Kruger Cave, a Later Stone Age painted rock shelter in the western Magaliesberg, South Africa. Kruger Cave, originally excavated in the 1980s and never backfilled or stabilised, has deteriorated through forty years of erosional and quotidian processes that have significantly reduced the extent of the archaeological deposit. The cave is currently occupied by a lay Christian pastor whose activities at the site place the remaining archaeological deposit at further risk. Remedial work was undertaken on what remains of the archaeology-bearing sediment. We also present the preliminary analysis from two small-scale excavations that aimed to document the site’s stratigraphy. We explore the ambivalence of Kruger Cave’s living heritage status within the context of current heritage management practices and discuss how our remedial work is designed to be responsive and respectful to both the archaeological and living heritage priorities.
Figure 1. Location of Kruger Cave and its entrance as it appears in 2022. The elevation map (heights in meters) is provided courtesy of Fernando Colino (using data from the NASA EOSDIS Land Processes Distributed Active Archive Centre [LP DAAC]). Aerial photograph provided courtesy of Vincent Carruthers. to protect the site at the conclusion of the 1983 excavation had proved ineffectual by 1986, having been, by that stage, partly torn down and removed (Alan Retief pers. comm. January 2020).
Figure 2. Chronological site photos. a) looking towards the rear of the cave in 1997; b) looking towards the rear of the cave in 2007 with the same boulder in the left foreground; c) the site in 2021 showing the makeshift partition erected by Pastor Voyi for privacy in the rear and Mason’s AC 10-12 excavation in the fore; d) Simon Hall standing in the AC 10-12 excavation in 1997. Below is our map showing the intact deposit in dark grey and slump deposit in light grey. The stabilised bulks are labelled I-V. A rectified version of Mason’s excavation grid is superimposed for reference (used throughout when referring to locations, i.e., excavations). Twin pentagons indicate our dropline markers, between which are the rear profiles of our two small excavations. Historical photographs supplied courtesy of Vincent Carruthers.
Figure 3. Top row: excavation and profile images of FG22. Note the step of intact bulk above, and set back from, the surface of our excavation. Bottom row: excavation and profile images of BC8. BE ACUVULLOTLS LY UODCUITLECILE SEFULLS TUPI PP Upeees Prior to stabilisation, we selected two areas, in the fore and rear of the cave, near to where Mason had obtained some of his radiocarbon dates and that had clearly visible and intact stratigraphic profiles. Following Mason’s grid reference, we chose squares BC8 and FG22 as being representative of all three chronological lenses. To obtain clean stratigraphic profiles we removed the slump material to bedrock and then excavated back a ~30x50 cm area. The rear profile wall of each excavation is shown as a pair of pentagons on the map in Figure 2. When removing the slump material in front of FG22 from the area indicated by Mason to be in his excavation trench, we discovered in situ deposit. We therefore proceeded with careful excavation of this deposit back to the edge of the exposed bulk and down to bedrock but were consequently unable to incorporate the exposed bulk into our excavation. The top layer (VDGB) of FG22 therefore lies below the 6452-5331 BC dates obtained from adjacent squares and most likely represents only the oldest dated lens. Figure 3 shows our two small excavations and the ‘step’ of exposed, intact deposit above our excavation. Figures 4 and 5 present the stratigraphic profiles of each section.
Figure 5. Profile drawings of FG22. Figure 4. Profile drawings of BC8.
Figure 6. A typical sample of lithic material found lying on the slopes below Kruger Cave. from warthog (sensu Espinoza & Mann 1992; Locke 2008). The most intact warthog tooth has remnants of ochre paint near the tip (Fig. 9g). The ochre paint appears identical to that which was applied to the 6000 BP poisoned arrowhead recovered by Mason (for a colour photograph of this artefact see Bradfield & Choyke 2016: figure 3).
Figure 7. Lithics recovered in situ. a) a piece of chalcedony from the BC8 slump material retouched into a tear- drop shaped piece, possibly an arrow insert; b) a scraper from BC DGB; c) a dolerite adze recovered from the FG slump; d & e) D-shaped scrapers from FG Brwn I. All the pieces of carapace that we found are of a similar size, suggesting that people were deliberately targeting baby tortoises. Also in this layer, we found a dermal plate of a species of catfish (Fig. 11; cf. Ebstein et al. 2015). This is the first identification of this taxon at the site, although catfish are known from other riparian sites (e.g., Plug et al. 2010).
Figure 8. Butchery marks on bones from a) BC VDGB IV; b) FG VDB I; c) FG VDB I; d) FG Brwn I; e) FG Brwn II; f) FG slump.
Figure 9. Worked bone and ivory. a) ring-snapped and edge abraded shaft from BC slump; b) a rare hexagonally faceted whittled bone shaft from BC slump; c) abraded piece of bone with perforation from BC VDGB I; d) ivory flake from BC VDB I; e) bone shaft with two sets of parallel incised decorations from FG LB f) tip of a bone point from FG slump; g) warthog ivory tooth with ochre paint remnant near tip from FG slump, encircled.
Figure 10. Ostrich eggshell beads from Kruger Cave (a-c=BC8; d-g=FG22). a) VDGB IV; b) VDB II; c) DGB II; d) VDGB J; e) LB; f) Brwn I; g) slump.
Figure 11. Articulated tortoise carapace and catfish dermal bone recovered from FG22 Blck II.
‘igure 12. Perforated and near-perforated freshwater mussel shell. The broken abraded piece comes from BC LG II; the other two come from BC VDB.
Figure 13. Botanical remains. a) chewed bark from FG slump; b) unidentified seed from BC VDGB I; c) Strychnos sp. seed from BC LBG II; d) unidentified seeds from BC LBG I; e) Strychnos sp. exocarp with putative decoration from FG slump; f) Mimusops sp. seed from FG Blck II; g) unidentified seed from FG Blck IL.
Figure 14. Decorated rim pot sherds recovered from the BC slump. [Thirteen pieces of pottery were recovered from our excavation (Table 3). These included three rim sherds, of which two are decorated (Fig. 4), and two painted and burnished pieces. The rim sherds all >ome from the BC slump and match the motifs illustrated by Mason (1988: figure 59). The painted and yurnished pieces come from BC LBG and BC VDGB IV and display a polished red hue on one or both sides respectively. Mason attributed the incised motifs to Kaditshwene Phase people, which correlates o Huffman’s (2007) Uitkomst facies, although to us the decorative style seems more akin to facies within the Kalundu tradition than to w duffman 2007: 173). Mason noted the a lespite its abundance in the surrounding hat Huffman has illustrated as exemplars of Uitkomst (cf. bsence of Bupye (Huffman’s Buispoort) pottery in the cave, countryside. We too did not recover anything that resembled 3uispoort, although painting and burnishing is a feature common to this facies (see Huffman 2007).
igure 15. Rock paintings at Kruger Cave with digital photographs shown on the left-hand side and DStretcl colour augmented images on the right. efflorescence flow. We were able to identify several red blotches through DStretch, which may be the degraded missing images that Pager recorded, or they may be mineral discolourations in the rock. Except for four images, all the missing paintings are from a 5 m densely clustered stretch near the base of the NE wall. Pager noted the generally poor preservation of the images consequent upon the effects of lichen growth and dust.
Figure 16. Additional rock paintings at Kruger Cave. Digital photographs shown on the left-hand side and DStretch colour augmented images on the right.
present at the time or because he simply did not regard it as relevant is impossible to say.
Figure 18. Stabilised bulks of intact archaeological deposit. Corresponding to the map in Figure 2, a) shows bulk A; b) showing bulk A in foreground and bulk B in the background; c) showing bulk B; d) showing bulk C; e) showing bulk D situated in the rear of the cave; and f) showing bulk E.
Table 1. Sample weights per stratigraphic layer. All values are in grammes. Note that * indicates that weight is skewed due to the presence of a large hammerstone. Whereas any tortoise bones are included in the ‘bone’ column, tortoise carapace and plastron has been given its own column in the table. Similar to Mason’s excavations we found a low ratio of stone artefacts to excavated deposit. Unmodified flakes dominate t! he lithic technology category, while cores are relatively scarce (Table 2). Bladelet and split pebble cores are the most common throughout the deposit. The retouched tool category is dominated by scrapers. Along the outskirts of Kruger Cave many hammers ones and Oakhurst-style D-shaped scrapers made from dolerite and hornfels can be found lying on the surface (Fig. 6). These items recur in chalcedony, typical of the fina our sample, Johann Binneman (1987), working on a small sample from Mason’s excavation, he FG22 deposit, whereas BC8 contains smaller scrapers on quartz and Later Stone Age (Fig. 7). Although we have not performed us e-wear on found that wood-working wear was evident on scrapers with hinge and step flaked edges, whereas scrapers with abraded convex edges tended o display wear consistent with hide scraping.
Table 2. Main lithic categories per layer. Column names are as follows (C=core, HS=hammerstone, RF=rejuvenation flake, F=flake, Bl=bladelet, CP=convergent point, A=adze, BP=backed piece, S=scrape RP=retouched piece). In addition to bone, four pieces of ivory were found, some of which have been knapped (Fig. 9d). Based on gross morphology and provisional histology at the break facets, three of the four ivory pieces come
Table 3. Showing cultural categories. The presence of burnishing (*), decoration (**) and perforation (#) per level is indicated, not necessarily the number of examples. Botanical remains consisted primarily of charred seeds, twigs and chewed bark, and occurred throughout the deposit of both excavations (Table 1). At least six types of seed were noted. Although a full taxonomic identification of the seeds is pending, they ap pear to represent the same species identified by Friede (1987), with Mimusops sp., Strychnos sp. and Sclerocarya sp. being the most common (Fig. 13). Several pieces of Strychnos exocarp were recovered pieces appears to have a decorative line carved into it (Fig. from the FG slump material. One of these 13e). T his line has smooth, straight edges and does not resemble the pathological or taphonomic damage prevalent on most other pieces. Instead, its overall size, morphology and depth resemble the decorati sold today (Sotran: dekorativ n.d.). Unfortunately, our at empts ive carvings on Strychnos fruit that are still o refit the pieces of exocarp were largely unsuccessful, probably indicating that the remains are from several fruits. Nothing similar was reported by Mason. Chewed bark was recovered from the FG slump, FG LB and BC VDGB III (Fig. 13a). Many similar pieces were found in Mason’s excava Acacia natalia (sic). This plant taxon has subsequently been rec 2014). ion and are identified by Friede (1987) as assified as Vachellia karroo (Dyer
Research paper thumbnail of Field and Technical Report AN EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION INTO THE ORIGIN OF INCISED LINES ON A 4000-YEAR-OLD ENGRAVING FROM WONDERWERK CAVE, NORTHERN CAPE PROVINCE
Field and Technical Report AN EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION INTO THE ORIGIN OF INCISED LINES ON A 4000-YEAR-OLD ENGRAVING FROM WONDERWERK CAVE, NORTHERN CAPE PROVINCE
Research paper thumbnail of Taphonomic Study of a Modern Baboon Sleeping Site at Misgrot, South Africa: Implications for Large-Bodied Primate Taphonomy in Karstic Deposits
Taphonomic Study of a Modern Baboon Sleeping Site at Misgrot, South Africa: Implications for Large-Bodied Primate Taphonomy in Karstic Deposits
Journal of Paleolithic Archaeology, 2021
Primate taphonomy in cave deposits is complex, and the taphonomic signatures of different accumul... morePrimate taphonomy in cave deposits is complex, and the taphonomic signatures of different accumulation scenarios present some degree of equifinality, rendering their identification in the fossil record challenging. Here, we describe an assemblage of 30 modern chacma baboons, including nine partially mummified individuals, which died inside a cave chamber at Misgrot, South Africa. The mortality profile is attritional, favouring immature and older individuals. We describe skeletal part representation, body postures for the most complete mummies and preserved articulations. Bone surface modifications suggest limited impact by biotic agents besides small rodents and invertebrates. Several specimens were affected by heat-induced damage, most likely resulting from natural combustion of bat guano, abundant on the cave floor. Misgrot has a similar geology and similar dimensions to some Plio-Pleistocene primate-bearing cave deposits from the UNESCO World Heritage Cradle of Humankind area. Implications of the taphonomic features of the Misgrot baboon remains are discussed in the context of some of these fossil assemblages, including the recently discovered Homo naledi assemblages.
Research paper thumbnail of Southern African arrow poison recipes, their ingredients and implications for Stone Age archaeology
Southern African Humanities, 2015
Biochemical analyses of residues preserved on ethno-historical and archaeological artefacts incre... moreBiochemical analyses of residues preserved on ethno-historical and archaeological artefacts increase our understanding of past indigenous knowledge systems. The interpretation of biochemical traces is, however, difficult. Problems that can hamper credible interpretations of ethno-historical or archaeological residues include incomplete knowledge about local natural products, limited published data about product applications, and overestimation of the abilities of the analytical techniques to make specific identifications. In an initial attempt to address some of the challenges, we discuss arrow poison as a case in point, and we provide complete, updated inventories of known southern African poison ingedients and recipes, suspected poisons, and the current state of knowledge about these toxins and their effects. We also suggest that discoveries of ancient arrow poison, and the technical steps involved in early toxicology, have the potential to indicate levels of human cognition.
Research paper thumbnail of Further evidence for bow hunting and its implications more than 60 000 years ago: Results of a use-trace analysis of the bone point from Klasies River Main site, South Africa
Quaternary Science Reviews, 2020
The bone point (SAM 42160) from >60 ka deposits at Klasies River Main Site, South Africa, is reas... moreThe bone point (SAM 42160) from >60 ka deposits at Klasies River Main Site, South Africa, is reassessed. We clarify the stratigraphic integrity of SAM 42160 and confirm its Middle Stone Age provenience. We find evidence that indicates the point was hafted and partially coated in an adhesive substance. Internal fractures are consistent with stresses occasioned by high-velocity, longitudinal impact. SAM 42160, like its roughly contemporaneous counterpart, farther north at Sibudu Cave, likely functioned as a hafted arrowhead. We highlight a growing body of evidence for bow hunting at this early period and explore bow-and-arrow technology might imply about the cognition of people in the Middle Stone Age who were able to conceive, construct and use it.
Research paper thumbnail of Bone hoes from the Middle Iron Age, Limpopo Province, South Africa
Quaternary International, 2018
This paper presents the first recognised evidence of bone hoes in South Africa. Two bovine scapul... moreThis paper presents the first recognised evidence of bone hoes in South Africa. Two bovine scapulae and a portion of a long bone show use-trace evidence that supports our interpretation as ground-working implements. The scapulae were probably hafted onto wooden handles using a combination of plant fibres and sinew, whereas the tool made from the long bone appears not to have been hafted. Bone hoes represent a short-lived technological innovation, although the reasons to account for this remain speculative. The recognition of these agricultural implements poses interesting questions about the extent and variety of bone working among Iron Age agriculturalists in the Limpopo Valley during the 10th e 13th centuries AD, and potentially also about the nature of women's work in these communities.
Research paper thumbnail of Identifying the animal species used to manufacture bone arrowheads in South Africa
Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences, 2018
The identification to species of completely worked bone tools is impossible using standard skelet... moreThe identification to species of completely worked bone tools is impossible using standard skeletal morphological markers. Worked bone studies therefore have focused on questions about manufacture and use, rather than on issues of raw material selection strategies. Zooarchaeology by Mass Spectrometry (ZooMS) is a technique that uses unique collagen biomarkers to fingerprint and identify species of origin from small amounts of bone or ivory. We present the first ZooMS analysis of bone arrowheads from southern Africa. Our findings show that a narrower selection of species was selected for tool manufacture than for food, while, at some sites, certain antelope species were selected for tools that are not present in the unmodified faunal remains. We examine what this selectivity might suggest about mechanical suitability and symbolic associations of the species chosen to make tools. We conclude that mechanical suitability was probably of primary concern and that probable symbolic connotations that were attached to certain species did not translate to the technological sphere to the same extent that they did in other parts of the world.
Research paper thumbnail of A functional investigation of southern Cape Later Stone Age artefacts resembling aerophones
Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports, 2019
This paper describes possible sound-producing artefacts from two Later Stone Age deposits in the ... moreThis paper describes possible sound-producing artefacts from two Later Stone Age deposits in the southern Cape, South Africa. Implements previously described as a 'wirra wirra' or 'pendant' from Klasies River main site (KRM), a 'woer woer' or 'bullroarer' and four 'pendants' from Matjes River (MR) are analysed and their sound producing qualities assessed through an actualistic research programme. For comparative purposes, a replica of an ethnographic 'spinning disk' was also spun and its sound recorded. All of the implements, except the MR 'woer woer' produced a sustained, pulsed, whirring sound when spun. Minor adjustments to the MR 5135 replica resulted in successful sound production. The frequency range of the KRM replica and ethnographic KK058 implement produced a frequency variation of between 52 Hz and 200 Hz. The frequency range of the pendant replicas varied from 55.55 to 250 Hz, comparable to other bullroarers. Spinning produces use-wear predominantly on the left laterals of the perforations, whereas pendant use produces use-wear along the upper sector of the perforation, thus allowing us to distinguish these two uses based on the placement of use-wear. We conclude that one of the bone artefacts previously thought to be a pendant, MR 40, most likely functioned as an instrument to produce sound. This investigation thus experimentally confirms that earlier hypotheses that the 'wirra wirra' from KRM and the 'bullroarer' from MR were aerophones are judicious. In addition we demonstrate for the first time that some archaeological pendants, such as MR 40, may have been used as free aerophones or bullroarers.
Research paper thumbnail of Identifying animal taxa used to manufacture bone tools during the Middle Stone Age at Sibudu, South Africa: Results of a CT-rendered histological analysis
PLOS ONE, 2018
This paper presents the histological characterisation of a selection of worked bone artefacts fro... moreThis paper presents the histological characterisation of a selection of worked bone artefacts from Middle Stone Age layers at Sibudu cave, South Africa. Histographic rendering is achieved using high-resolution Computed Tomography, which is non-destructive and facilitates three-dimensional histologic analysis. Excellent congruency in image quality was achieved with previous studies using this method. The results show that most of the artefact fragments contain mostly primary lamellar tissue, which is the bone tissue best adapted to withstand impact stresses. This indicates that bone with greater elastic properties was chosen. Histological characterisation allows the identification of animal taxa. Based on the sample analysed in this paper, Perissodactyla bone was used predominantly in the older layers at the site. Artiodactyla are represented throughout but appear far more frequently in the later (post-Howiesons Poort onwards) layers. Some of the Artiodactyla specimens have high proportions of Haversian tissue, reducing elasticity. The higher percentages of Haversian tissue in the post-Howiesons Poort artefacts relative to Holocene examples from southern Africa suggests that people may have started experimenting with bone from different animal taxa at this time and had not yet learned to eliminate the mechanically weaker secondary tissue. Apart from mechanical considerations, possible cultural constraints governing raw material selection is also explored.
Research paper thumbnail of New Excavations at Border Cave, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa
Journal of Field Archaeology, 2018
New excavations at Border Cave use high-resolution techniques, including FT-IR, for sediment samp... moreNew excavations at Border Cave use high-resolution techniques, including FT-IR, for sediment samples and thin sections of micromorphology blocks from stratigraphy. These show that sediments have different moisture regimes, both spatially and chronologically. The site preserves desiccated grass bedding in multiple layers and they, along with seeds, rhizomes, and charcoal, provide a profile of palaeo-vegetation through time. A bushveld vegetation community is implied before 100,000 years ago. The density of lithics varies considerably through time, with high frequencies occurring before 100,000 years ago where a putative MSA 1/Pietersburg Industry was recovered. The highest percentage frequencies of blades and blade fragments were found here. In Members 1 BS and 1 WA, called Early Later Stone Age by Beaumont, we recovered large flakes from multifacial cores. Local rhyolite was the most common rock used for making stone tools, but siliceous minerals were popular in the upper members.
Research paper thumbnail of Potential for identifying plant-based toxins on San hunter-gatherer arrowheads
South African Journal of Science, 2017
The antiquity of the use of hunting poisons has received much attention in recent years. In this ... moreThe antiquity of the use of hunting poisons has received much attention in recent years. In this paper we present the results of a pilot study designed to detect the presence of organic compounds, typically of less than 1200 Da, from poisonous plants that may have been used as hunting poisons in the past. We used ultra-performance liquid chromatography connected to a Synapt G2 high-resolution MS-QTOF mass spectrometer (UPLC-QTOF-MS) to provisionally identify plant-based toxins present in (1) extracts of fresh plant material, (2) a blind control recipe consisting of three plant ingredients and (3) a Hei||om arrow poison of unknown ingredients. Although not all expected toxic compounds were identified, those that were identified compared favourably with those reported in the literature and confirmed through databases, specifically the Dictionary of Natural Products and ChemSpider. MS/MS fragmentation patterns and accurate mass were used for tentative identification of compounds becaus...
Research paper thumbnail of The last of the LSA on the Makgabeng plateau
The last of the LSA on the Makgabeng plateau
Research paper thumbnail of Verifying the potential of micro-focus X-ray computed tomography in the study of ancient bone tool function
Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports, 2016
The results of 22 micro-focus X-ray computer tomography (micro-CT) scans of one-hundred-year-old ... moreThe results of 22 micro-focus X-ray computer tomography (micro-CT) scans of one-hundred-year-old bone arrowheads and link-shafts are presented. These data build on previous experimental research that sought to establish a new use-trace method for identifying archaeological bone arrowheads where surface damage is lacking. The results presented here confirm the potential of micro-CT for imaging bone micro-structure but highlight the variable conditions under which micro-cracks and fatigue fractures may develop. Micro-cracks associated with impact crushing occur more often than those associated with bending forces, but cannot be used in isolation to ascribe hunting function. Link-shafts are more likely to develop micro-structural damage unrelated to hunting activities. In order for micro-structural damage to be informative about the nature of use, a 'tool' must have been frequently used in order for sufficient damage to accrue.
Research paper thumbnail of Chaboo et al. 2019 Beetle and plant arrow poisons of the San people.pdf
A review of the plant and animal toxins used by the San to poison their weapons.
Research paper thumbnail of Bone Point Functional Diversity: A Cautionary Tale from Southern Africa
In this chapter I present the results of a use-tracestudy conducted on 357 pointed bone tools fr... moreIn this chapter I present the results of a use-trace
study conducted on 357 pointed bone tools from terminal
Pleistocene and Holocene assemblages in southern Africa.
All the bone points considered here conform to the morphological
criteria of projectile arrow heads, as defi ned by analogy
to historic Bushman arrows. Use-wear and residue traces
consistent with wood-working and hide processing reveal
that not all bone points functioned as projectile armatures in
the past. Functional diversity is evident only during the last
6000 years. Bone points from the Pleistocene are routinely
subject to rigorous use-wear analyses to establish their function,
yet it is often taken for granted that similar tools found
in the more recent Holocene were used as projectile tips.
This paper cautions against the specious imputation to projectile
technology of all bone points based solely on morphometric
criteria.
Research paper thumbnail of Fracture analysis of bone tools: a review of the micro-CT and macrofracture methods for studying bone tol function
When bone is dry or subject to high speed impact it assumes the fracturing properties of a brittl... moreWhen bone is dry or subject to high speed impact it assumes the fracturing properties of a brittle solid. Because
of this we can appeal to the mechanics of brittle solid fracture to study the conditions under which bone tools fractured.
This paper presents a review of two relatively new techniques for examining use-related damage in bone tools, namely,
macrofracture analysis and micro-CT. Both methods rely on the breakage mechanics of brittle solids under dynamic loading
conditions. This paper explores these techniques in the context of bone hunting weapon identification. Macrofracture
analysis is an inexpensive, easy-to-use technique that allows for the accurate identification of tools subject to longitudinal
impact, but their absence does not rule out this activity. Micro-CT is a machine that provides 3D X-ray images of objects
and can be used to image bone histological features. The visualisation of micro-cracks with the aid of micro-CT allows
for the identification of various loading conditions where no visible surface use-wear exists. Patterns of micro-crack formation
and degree of propagation can inform on different modes of loading, including static loading from trampling and
dynamic loading from hunting.
Research paper thumbnail of Macrofracture analysis as a method for identifying bone-tipped weapons: A functional approach to the recognition of Stone Age hunting points
Macrofracture analysis as a method for identifying bone-tipped weapons: A functional approach to the recognition of Stone Age hunting points
The use of formally fashioned bone points as possible components in hunting weaponry has been see... moreThe use of formally fashioned bone points as possible components in hunting weaponry has been seen as a marker of behavioural modernity. Unfortunately, their interpretation as hunting weapons is based largely on morphological analogy with recent hunter-gatherer artefacts. Many studies conducted over the last 30 years have focused on identifying criteria that can be used to establish the function of stone points. There have been no similar studies conducted on bone points thought to have been part of complex weapon systems. This study aims to combine the morphological approach to studying bone points, with macrofracture analysis. The results of a simulated hunting experiment show that macrofractures develop similarly on bone points as on stone points. The results of the macrofracture analysis on archaeological bone points from LSA and MSA contexts in South Africa show that diagnostic impact fractures are present on some of these pieces.
Research paper thumbnail of What a bone arrowhead from South Africa reveals about ancient human cognition
THE CONVERSATION, 2020
The origin of bow hunting has been a hotly debated topic in archaeology for the past two decades.... moreThe origin of bow hunting has been a hotly debated topic in archaeology for the past two decades. This is because knowing when it emerged has the potential to offer insights into the development of human cognition and the early development of complex technology. The bone arrowhead (insert) found at Klasies River main site has much to teach us. Justin Bradfield and Sarah Wurz What a bone arrowhead from South Africa reveals about ancient human ...https://theconversation.com/what-a-bone-arrowhead-from-south-africa-r...
Research paper thumbnail of We're closer to learning when humans first daubed arrows with poison
The layman's version of the Wooding et al. 2017 (South African Journal of Science) paper publishe... moreThe layman's version of the Wooding et al. 2017 (South African Journal of Science) paper published in the The Conversation. We report on a method for discerning poisons on archaeological artefacts.
Research paper thumbnail of Man, the hunter
Wildlife Ranching, 2014
Whereas USOs are implicated in bipedalism, the high protein provided by shellfish along the southern coast of South Africa, may have been the brain food that led to the development of complex cognition (thinking like we do) between 200 000 and 100 O00 years ago. So — were the shellfish hunted or gathered, by women or by men, or both? brain food that led to the development
TICAbPIUahnuo ~ have been found. Similar handaxes are found across Africa, into Europe and Asia, dating to between about 1,5 and 0,5 million years ago. There is no agreement on what they were used for; some say for scaveng- ing already dead animals, others for hacking honey from inside the bark of trees. Dr Johan Binneman compared the microscopic wear patterns on handaxes from Wonder- werk with the patterns on stones he had used for various purposes, and concluded that the handaxes were used for cutting sedges. Today the
Research paper thumbnail of Pointed Bone Tool technology in Southern Africa
Stone Age societies are understood largely in terms of their technology. The way in which we fram... moreStone Age societies are understood largely in terms of their technology. The way in which we frame our research and understanding of these past societies is based almost exclusively on stone tools and ceramics, yet these materials represent only a small percentage of recent hunter-gatherer paraphernalia and may not necessarily reflect the complexity of cultural adaptations and technological achievements of the past. Pointed bone tools are present in the archaeological record of almost every ancient society and time-period; yet, for various reasons, they seldom have been afforded the same attention as their stone equivalents. Unless all aspects of past technological systems are acknowledged and understood we risk providing a distorted image of the past.
This thesis begins to explore the variable and diverse functions of pointed bone artefacts in southern Africa during the Later Stone Age from approximately 18 000 years ago until a few hundred years ago when the hunter-gatherer societies practicing a stone age economy came under the influence of immigrant Iron Age farmers. A comprehensive study of bone tools has the potential to provide information about past societies that is simply not available from stone tools and ceramics. In this thesis I look at one aspect of past technology, namely pointed bone tools, that has seldom formed the focus of research. I present the results of a metrical analsyis and three use-trace analyses (micro-residue, use-wear and macrofracture), each designed to provide complementary information about the past function/s of pointed bone tools. Over 300 tools are examined from 12 archaeological sites.
Evidence presented here shows that while manufacturing techniques remain relatively constant throughout the last 18 000 years, greater functional variability among bone points is evident during the last 6000 years and largely parallels the sustained focus on hunting smaller animals. Changes in bone tool form and function do not correlate neatly with lithic technology oscillations or environmental fluctuations and seem to occur during rather than at the boundaries of stone tool technocomplexes. Evidence that bone points were reused after they fractured suggests the importance attached to these tools and raw material. Finally, a range of different arrow forms are recognised that may have the potential to provide an avenue for relative dating.
This affidavit conforms with the requirements of the J USTICES OF THE PEACE AND COMMISSIONERS OF OATHS ACT 16 OF 1963 and the applicable Regulations published in the GG GNR 1258 of 21) uly 1972; GN 903 of 10 J uly 1998; GN 109 of 2 February 2001 as amended.
Figure 3.2.1. Different types of arrows employing bone components identified from the archaeological and historical record. These are presented here in no particular order, nor are the letters intended to constitute a typology, although I do refer to the letters in the text for the sake of convenience: a) detachable bone point and link-shaft; b) non-detachable robust bone point; c) triangular-headed bone point; d) non-detachable bone point with barb; e) blunted bone point with triangular metal insert; f) bone point with triangular metal insert and barb; g) metal head and shaft wrapped in sinew; h) metal head attached via collar to blunted bone point; i) two stone, metal or glass segments embedded in mastic; j) a variant of ‘j’ with a single insert; k) bone or wooden point with stone inserts hafted down its length. borne in mind that other varieties of arrows exist that use wood, hom and porcupine quill.
demonstrated that the hafted lithics enhance penetration and lethality of the wound
Figure 4.1.1. Map of southern Africa showing sites referred to in this thesis (white) and other sites with comparable morphometric data (yellow).
Figure 5.1.1. Thin section comparison of Haversian and plexiform bone showing diagnostic structures. Figure is adapted from Kim et al. (2006). bone micro-cracks are longer and parallel to the lamellar bone, albeit that they develop
approach of using multiple strands of evidence (including distribution patterns, micro-
Most residue analysts following the morphological approach make use of a light 006; Langejans 2013). Particular effects can be achieved using different types of
Figure 5.2.1. Microscopes used in the analyses: a) Celestron® handheld digital microscope (model #44302-A); b) Olympus binocular light microscope (model #SZX 16); c) Olympus BX51M light microscope.
Figure 6.1.1. Examples of different types of arrows with bone components from the Burchell collection at the Pitt Rivers Museum.
identifiable traces of poison were found on the Dikbosch bone tools. both types of striations — always with the diagonal striations overlying the longitudinal
Figure 6.2.2. Examples of polish and striations on bone shafts from Dikbosch Area A: a) 6480 IC 2 showing a dull polish over manufacturing striations; b) 6480 IID displaying a bright polish with horizontal use-related striations; c) 6480 IC 2 showing a clustered group of diagonal striations overlying longitudinal striations; 6480 IC 1 showing dull polish on high points and deep diagonal striations cross-cutting longitudinal striations; e) 6480 IIC 1 showing dull polish and rounded edges of high point topography; 6480 IID1 showing invasive bright polish. Scale bars represent 1 mm.
residues could indicate hunting or hide piercing. Based on the placement of residues it would seem that on many of the pieces where one end is deliberately snapped and ground smooth, that end ultimately functioned as the base rather than the tip. smooth, that end ultimately functioned as the base rather than the tip. residues could indicate hunting or hide piercing. Based on the placement of residues it
Figure 6.3.1. Showing manufacturing and use wear on selected bone tools from Driel: a) the conical- shaped butt of D3(3)[2], note the pale blotchy substance, which might be degraded mastic; b) note the distinct band of dull polish that extends for 9 mm from the tip of D2(4); c) an intentionally ground end of D3(4) with chipping around the circumference indicative of hafting; d) showing the ring-snap technique on F3(2), note the characteristic filed edges and wafer-break centre; e) note how the bright polish on E2(3) has obliterated all manufacturing races; f) an example of intense polish on an awl D4(4), note the oblique striations in the polish. Scale bars represent 1 mm.
Figure 6.3.2. Micro-residues from Driel: a) skin or bone tissue recovered from the tip of E3(2); b) bone residue recovered from near the tip of F3(3); c) possible poison residue recovered near the point of E3(3). The substance has a resinous consistency and was blotched over the surface of the point; d) a biconcave contaminant fibre found adhering to the surface of D3(3). Scale bars of 50 pm are taken at 200X magnification, whereas those of 200 ym are taken at 50X magnification.
Figure 6.5.3. Examples of micro-residues from Kruger Cave: a) possible ochre grains and fat cells embedded in a manufacturing groove on KC 222, magnification 100X; b) fat cell on the surface of KC47, magnification 100X; c) bone flake on the surface of KC 728, magnification 200X; d) unidentified yellow substance, possibly tree gum, wax or fat on KC 728, magnification 500X; e) fatty substance covering KC 2221, magnification 100X; f) dried blood on KC 2688, magnification 200X. Scale bars represent 100 ym except where indicated to the contrary.
Figure 6.6.1. Selected bone points from KwaG andaganda. Scale bar represents 50 mm. less or that bone points were generally intended to be longer. from sites looked at thus far, suggesting that either fragmentation at KwaG andaganda was
Figure 6.7.2. Examples of micro-wear on bone tools from Likoaeng; a) longitudinal manufacturing striations on SF105, magnification 150X; b) diagonal over longitudinal striations on SF693, magnification 60X; c) diagonal striations on SF719, magnification 50X; d) high point polish near the base of 2928DB34(3), magnification of inset is 40X; e) use-related longitudinal striation in bright polish on SF705. Note how the polish occurs over the diagonal manufacturing striations, magnification 150X; f) uni-directional oblique striations near the base of SF670, magnification 150X; g) a band of bright polish on the side of a perforation on LXI, magnification of inset 150X; h) decorative incision near the base of 2928DB33; i) discolouration caused through hafting on 2928DB34(4). Scale bars represent 1 mm.
Figure 6.8.2. Examples of micro-wear traces on bone tools from Mapungubwe: a) diagonal striations cross-cutting longitudinal manufacturing striations on M .1940.5.5.1; b) intense polish with occasional oblique striation on the surface of UP273, the amber colour is suggestive of rapid burial; c) intense polish with oblique striations on intentionally heated elliptical tool 281B9; d) whittled butt M.1940.55.2.3; e) butt discolouration indicative of hafting on M.1940.10.12.3; f) hafting residue on M.1940.8.71.2; g) green tinged copper spot on M.1940.6.12.6; h) iron oxide residue at tip of M.1940.8.71.2; i) intentionally squared tip with edge chipping and decorative circumferential incision on M.1940.51.3.2. Scale bars represent 100 pm. metal to the bone.
Figure 6.8.3. Examples of incised decorations on bone tools from Mapungubwe.
Table 6.10.1. Mean metrics of pointed bone tools from final Later Stone Age layers at Nkupe shelter. Figure 6.10.1. Examples of pointed bone tools from Nkupe Shelter. was a micro-point (see Mazel 1988). Altogether, seven micro-points were analysed and
Figure 6.10.2. Examples of polish, striations and butt morphology of pointed bone tools from Nkupe Shelter: a) high point bright polish on 5/3/WAIC (2); b) rounding of the fracture edge on the same piece; c) smooth polish over longitudinal striations at the base of $13 VP1; d) oblique use-related striations on R11 WA3A; e) oblique striations over polish on S10 MBS1; f) squared tip of S10 MBS1 that has been ground smooth; g) ring-snapped base of S10 WA 2A; h) conical base of S10 MBS1; i) stemmed butt with horizontal striations on S2 BSS2. Scale bars represent 1 mm. of this piece. In some cases, both ends had been ground smooth and these are likely to be Jink-shafte.
Figure 6.10.3. Micro-residues on bone tools from Nkupe: a) ash granules from R11 WA 2B, at 200X magnification; b) resin chips from the distal end of S10 MBS1at 200X magnification; c) red spots near the tip of S12 VP1 and d) at 200x magnification. Scale bars represent 100 pm.
Figure 6.11.1. Examples of pointed bone tools from Olieboomspoort.
Figure 6.11.2. Examples of manufacturing and use-wear at Olieboomspoort: a) intense polish on 16/68/4 and b) a close-up of the ventral surface; c) horizontal grinding near the squared tip of 16/68/6; d) bright polish on high point topography 16/68/16; e) horizontal striations cross-cutting longitudinal striations and showing dull polish on the high points 16/68/18; f) dull polish on the high point topography of 16/68/11; g) lichen patches on the shaft of 16/68/4; h) fungal hyphae on 16/68/1 under normal light and i) digitally enhanced. Scale bars represent 100 pm.
Figure 6.12.2. Examples of use-related polish and striations on bone tools from Sehonghong. Top row Wilton: a) SF031 DC showing dull polish on the high points; b) SF1047d showing smooth polish. Note the horizontal striations in the polish; c) SF163 GAP showing bright polish; d) SF055 GWA showing intense polish with many horizontal striations in the polish. Middle row Oakhurst: e) SF767 ALP showing dull polish confined to the high points; g) SF144 ALP showing smooth polish with longitudinal and oblique striations in the polish; h) SF598 SA showing bright polish with oblique striations. Bottom row Robberg: i) SF522 RBL showing smooth polish confined to the high points; j) SF570 CLBRF showing smooth polish with oblique striations; k) SF 1087 RBL showing bright polish confined to the high points. Scale bar represents 1 mm.
Figure 6.12.3. Examples of decorations on bone tools from Sehonghong. A) SF001 GWA; b) SF775 GWA; c) SF915c DC. surface of the piece is covered in a bright polish. This piece meets all the criteria for a ‘bone point’ and even has evidence, in the form of ’
Figure 7.1.1.Morphometric data of total fragmented bone assemblage. Point angle values are in degrees; all other values are in milimetres. Table 7.1.2. Student T -test results of total fragmented assemblage. Highlighted blocks show a statistically significant difference (T <0.05).
Figure 7.1.2. Morphometric data of complete bone tools. Point angle values are in degrees; all other values are in milimetres.
Figure 7.2.1. Incidence of diagonal striations over time. Moritsane, and all technocomplexes. Figure 7.2.1 presents the incidence of diagonal
Figure 8.3.1. Later Stone Age technocomplexes and chronology in relation to main findings of Chapter 6. CC stands for circumferential chipping. Single dots represent isolated, possibly anomalous occurrences. only a small sample in this thesis, there does not appear to be a marked ‘innovative
Table 3.2.1. List of arrows collected. The date and region of collection and the affiliation of the groups from whom the arrows were collected.
Table 4.1.1. Table showing the number of pointed bone tools analysed from each site. More detailed information can be found in the appendices,
Table 5.1.1. Definition of certain use-wear indicators on bone artefacts. Use-wear traces develop on bone appreciatively quickly (van Gijn 2007; Legrand &
Table 5.1.2. Description of common use-wear indicators associated with bone tools.
Table 6.1.1. Mean metric values of bone points from the four collections curated at the Pitt rivers Museum. Although many points were covered with poison, it was possible to discern the the narrow standard deviations. The length of points ranges from 76 mm to 172 mm. are considered together there is remarkable continuity and standardisation as evinced by
Table 6.1.2. Number of tools with polish, use-wear striations and manufacturing striations. Apart from polish, no instances of use-wear were discernible. In five cases where poison Figure 6.1.2. Bone point and link-shaft fashioned from a single piece of bone. Note the decoration at the ‘join’. covers the point, fine parallel longitudinally orientated striations can be observed above
Table 6.1.3. Decoration motifs present in the four collections Poison came in different colours and consistencies indicating that different ingredients
Dikbosch 5; d’Errico et al. 2003). However, in the absence of these distinguishing features, it can be was detected. Indeed, there is a great deal of overlap in dimensions. The two complete more robust appearance than tools from the Robberg, although no significant difference
Table 6.2.3. Number of tools from Dikbosch Area A with macrofracture: Micro-residues were recovered from four specimens (Figure 6.2.3). The primary
Table 6.3.1. Metrics per stratagraphic layer for the ceramic final Later Stone Age at Driel was only obtainable from one of the two pieces.
Table 6.3.2. Number of tools with polish, striations and manufacturing wear.
Table 6.4.2. Number of tools with polish, striations and manufacturing wear. not seem intentional.
Table 6.5.1. Metrics of pointed bone tools from ceramic final Later Stone Age and Oakhurst layers at Kruger Cave. whittled to a point — but not a point that would serve any obvious function. It is clear,
Fatty deposits were observed on many tools. This could come from the bone tool itself, ochre, was used to polish them. It is perhaps not coincidental that these tools were also
Table 6.6.1. Comparison of metric values of complete bone points with total sample of pointed bone artefacts. overlie the longitudinal ones except in one example (G2 Pit1). Diagonal striations appear
Seven pointed bone artefacts had a sandy encrustation coating their surface. These came remainder came from the Ndondondwane phase. No diagnostic impact fractures were 2012). Sixty percent of bones with macrofractures came from the Msuluzi phase, while the
Table 6.7.2. Number of tools from Likoaeng with polish, striations and manufacturing wear.
Table 6.8.1. Mean metric values for the Mapungubwe bone tools (n=86).
Table 6.8.2. Results of the macrofracture analysis on the Mapungubwe bone tools. occurred on only four tools. In all cases save five, the macrofractures developed on the
Table 6.9.2. Results of the macrofracture analysis on pointed bone artefacts from M oritsane. diagnostic impact fractures were present on the 9 bone tools available for study. Nkupe Shelter yielded 406 worked bone artefacts, of which only 57 were pointed bone material. On most of the specimens it is not possible to tell whether the ring-snap is at the
Table 6.10.2. Number of tools from Nkupe with polish, striations and manufacturing wear activity different from that which created the polish. however, such as S10 MBS1, the distal end has been squared and smoothed (also see This may suggest that these oblique striations occurred after use or during use in an
Table 6.10.3. Results of the macrofracture analysis on pointed bone tools from Nkupe.
Table 6.11.1. Mean metric values of pointed bone tools from the final Later Stone A ge at Olieboomspoort (n=19).
Table 6.11.2. Number of tools from Olieboomspoort with polish, striations and manufacturing wear.
Table 6.12.1. Mean metric data for Sehonghong pointed bone tools.
Table 6.12.2. Number of tools with polish, use-wear and manufacturing wear.
Table 6.12.3. Sehonghong macrofractures. pieces where the snap had been modified by grinding the surface smooth (n=5). Most 0 these pieces displayed chipping around the circumference of the break, indicating repetitive impact. pieces where the snap had been modified by grinding the surface smooth (n=5). Most of
Table 6.13.3 presents the results of the macrofracture analysis. Only the bone points are
Table 6.13.3. Results of the macrofracture analysis on Uniondale bone points. way, but as neither of them are above 10 mm in length it is unknown what purpose they
Table 7.1.1. Number of bone points in each technocomplex. IA (Iron Age); CFLSA (ceramic final Later Stone Age); FLSA (final Later Stone Age); W (Wilton); O (Oakhurst); R (Robberg); PRM (Pitt Rivers Museum). This Figure demonstrates that the thickest points come from the Wilton assemblages,
Table 7.1.3. Student T-test results of complete bone tools. Highlighted blocks show a statistical significant difference (T<0.05). ‘E”’ means not enough values to run a T-test. Guthrie (1983) has noted that, in order for a bone point to penetrate the vital organs of a large animal, a minimum length of 200 mm and maximum width of 10 mm is required. No Guthrie (1983) has noted that, in order for a bone point to penetrate the vital organs of a
Table 7.2.3. Archaeological sites with incidence of wood-working and hide-working use-wear features. working traces are associated with the Iron Age and final Later Stone A ge, hinting ata
Table 7.2.4. Percetage of diagnostic impact fractures (DIFs) in each technocomplex. which I review below and to which I shall return at the end of this chapter. Bradfield & Lombard 2011), once step terminating fractures have been excluded from the
Table 7.4.1. Comparative list of sites showing large and small animal dominance in the faunal record. Three methodological avenues have been explored with respect to bone points. The
Table D. Pitt Rivers Museum collection use trace observations on tanged bone points.
Table F. Dikbosch use-trace observations. Asterisks indicate complete intact specimens.
Table J. Ha Mokotoko use-trace observations. Asterisks indicate complete intact specimens.
Table L. Kruger Cave use-trace observations.
Table M. KwaGandaganda bone point metrics. Point angles are in degrees, all other measurements are in millimetres. A stricks indicate complete intact specimens.
Table P. Likoaeng use-trace observations. Asterisks indicate complete intact specimens.
Table X. Oliboomspoort use-trace observations. A sterisks indicate complete intact specimens.
Table AA. Results of statistical tests for normal distribution.
Research paper thumbnail of A 7,000-year-old multi-component arrow poison from Kruger Cave, South Africa
iScience, 2024
Highlights d GC-MS and UHPLC-MS results of the contents of a 7,000year-old artifact are presented... moreHighlights d GC-MS and UHPLC-MS results of the contents of a 7,000year-old artifact are presented d The contents of the femur contain three different plant-based toxins d The presence of toxins indicates that the substance is a poison d The toxins derive from different plant taxa, indicating possible long-distance acquisition
“Base peak, ppm = parts per million, mDa = milliDalton, DBE = double bond equivalence, i-Fit = the reliability of the candidate formula calculated by the consistency between the mass shift and the isotope intensity ratio. Table 2. Analytes of interest detected in methanolic extracts of poison arrowheads by UHPLC-qTOF-MS
Table 3. Archaeobotanical identifications from from Friede showing the minimum number of individual specimens identifiec from each of the sampled occupation phases
CAS registry number: unique identification number, assigned by the Chemical Abstracts Service (CAS), the Sl (similarity index) percentage indicate the match to the NIST17 mass spectral library. Present in acetone extract. Table 1. List of small-molecule organic compounds identified by gas chromatography coupled to a mass spectrometer detector (GC- MS)
Graphical abstract
Figure 1. The location and situation of Kruger Cave and bovid femur containing the bone arrowheads and poison (A) The location of Kruger Cave within the Magaliesberg Biosphere Reserve (map adapted from Carruthers*'), showing a picture of the site taken from across the dam and an aerial view of the cave entrance. (B) The bovid femur seen from three angels: in anterior and posterior perspective with the bottom inset showing the superior perspective in transverse plane. (C) Micro-computed tomography (CT) segmented scan of the femur quiver clearly showing the three bone arrowheads embedded in the poison residue in the marrow cavity.
Figure 2. UHPLC-qTOF-MS analysis of the methanolic extract from sample derived from bone arrowheads stored in the femur shaft container Shown is the base peak intensity (BPI) mass chromatogram in negative electrospray ionization (ESI) mode. Peak intensities are expressed as percentage values of that of the most intense peak. Sample preparation and conditions of analysis are described under materials and methods.
Figure 3. Extracted ion chromatogram (AIC) for digitoxin Showing the diagnostic peak at retention time 7.48 min and m/z = 763 in ESI(-) mode following UHPLC separation and MS analysis (A), and mass fragmentation spectrum (B) The associated mass spectrometric data is reported in Table 2.
Figure 5. Integrated extracted ion chromatograms (XIC) for ricinoleic acid (cis-12-hydroxy-9-octadecenoic acid) and its trans isomer, rici- nelaidic acid Showing peaks at retention times 9.90 and 10.04 min and m/z = 297.2414 and 297.2423 in ESI(-) mode following UHPLC separation and MS analysis (A), and associated mass fragmentation data (B). The two isomers share a near-identical mass fragmentation pattern. The associated mass spectrometric data are reported in Table 2.
Data for the table comes from Watt & Breyer-Brandwyk,° Neuwinger,°"°> Van Wyk et al.,°° and LOTUS — the natural products occurrence database accessible on PubChem. "denotes occurrence in South Africa but considered a naturalized exotic by the South African National Biodiversity Institute (SANBI). ©denotes a fungus. Table 4. Taxa in which the identified compounds of interest have been found and their purported native distribution in Africa
Research paper thumbnail of The Current Occupation of Kruger Cave, A Later Stone Age Site, South Africa
Journal of Contemporary Archaeology, 2021
Contemporary occupation of archaeological sites is fraught with challenges and conflicting priori... moreContemporary occupation of archaeological sites is fraught with challenges and conflicting priorities. While prevailing opinion on heritage management recognises the fluid and continuous nature of archaeological site formation, the role of present-day communities as agents of archaeological palimpsests is often not adequately acknowledged. Contemporary communities, often unrelated to the autochthonous inhabitants of the archaeological sites, occasionally use these sites and landscapes in similar or different ways to how they were used in the past. Their use of these sites, while potentially damaging to the archaeology, simultaneously adds to, and is part of, the life history of the site, of which the excavated material and rock art are but pictures in time. Squatters who appropriate archaeological heritage sites constitute ambiguous communities under current South African heritage legislation. Yet, their role as contributing agents to archaeological sites is no less real. This article presents the case study of Kruger Cave, a Later Stone Age hunter-gatherer rock art site in South Africa, currently occupied by a lay Christian pastor. We document how the pastor is using the site and offer some thoughts around the nuances of negotiating and reconciling archaeological preservation and living heritage management.

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