新聞はサハラ以南のアフリカに植民地化を通じてもたらされた。この地域の最初の英語の新聞は1801年に設立されたThe Royal Gazette and Sierra Leone Advertiserであり、それに続いて1822年のTheRoyal Gold Coast Gazette and Commercial Intelligencer（英語版）と1826年のLiberia Heraldがあった[106]。19世紀のアフリカの多くの新聞は宣教師によって設立された[107]。これらの新聞は概して植民地政府を推進し、ヨーロッパからのニュースを伝えることでヨーロッパの入植者の利益に奉仕した[107]。先住アフリカ語で出版された最初の新聞は、ケニア中央協会によってキクユ語で出版されたMuigwithaniaだった[107]。Muigwithaniaや他の先住アフリカ人によって出版された新聞は強い反対の立場を取り、アフリカの独立のために強く主張した[108]。新聞は植民地時代—そして正式な独立後も—厳しく検閲された。1990年代にはいくらかの自由化と多様化が行われた[109]
^"News",Oxford English Dictionary, accessed online, 5 March 2015. "Etymology: Spec. use of plural of new n., after Middle Frenchnouvelles (see novel n.), or classical Latinnova new things, in post-classical Latin also news (from late 13th cent. in British sources), use as noun of neuter plural ofnovus new (compare classical Latinrēs nova (feminine singular) a new development, a fresh turn of events). Compare laternovel n."
^“Mrs. John Cosgrave Is Dead Founded Finch Junior College: Was Institution's President Nearly 50 Years; Coined 'Current Events' Phrase”. New York Herald Tribune. (1949年11月1日)
^abSmith,The Newspaper: An International History (1979), p. 7. "In the information which [the newspaper] chose to supply, and in the many sources of information which it took over and reorganized, it contained a bias towards recency or newness; to its readers, it offered regularity of publication. It had to be filled with whatever was available, unable to wait until information of greater clarity or certainty or of wider perspective had accumulated."
^Salmon,The Newspaper and the歴史家 (1923), p. 10. Salmon quotesテオフラスト・ルノドー（英語版）: "History is the record of things accomplished. AGazette is the reflection of feelings and rumors of the time which may or may not be true."
^abPettegree,The Invention of News (2014), p. 3. "Even as news became more plentiful in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the problem of establishing the veracity of news reports remained acute. The news market—and by the sixteenth century it was a real market—was humming with conflicting reports, some incredible, some all too plausible: lives, fortunes, even the fate of kingdoms could depend upon acting on the right information."
^abPark, "News as a Form of Knowledge" (1940), pp. 675–676. "News is not history because, for one thing among others, it deals, on the whole, with isolated events and does not seek to relate them to one another either in the form of causal or in the form ofTeleological sequences."
^Schudson, "When? Deadlines, Datelines, and History"; inReading The News (1986), ed. Manoff & Schudson; pp. 81–82.
^Shoemaker & Cohen,News Around the World (2006), pp. 13–14.
^Park, "News as a Form of Knowledge" (1940), p. 678.
^Stephens,History of News (1988), p. 56. "It is axiomatic in journalism that the fastest medium with the largest potential audience will disseminate the bulk of a community's breaking news. Today that race is being won by television and radio. Consequently, daily newspapers are beginning to underplay breaking news about yesterday's events (already old news to much of their audience) in favor of more analytical perspectives on those events. In other words, dailies are now moving in the direction toward which weeklies retreated when dailies were introduced."
^Heyd,Reading newspapers (2012), pp. 35, 82. "... newspapers were defining what news was, categorizing and expanding their domain on the fly. Indeed, Somerville argues that 'news' is not an objective 'historical' concept but one that is defined by the news industry as it creates a commodity sold by publishers to the public."
^Stephens,History of News (1988), p. 3. "The termjournalism is used broadly here and elsewhere in the book to refer to more than just the production of printed 'journals'; it is the most succinct term we have for the activity of gathering and disseminating news."
^Shoemaker & Cohen,News Around the World (2006), p. 7. "[...] for the journalist the assessment of newsworthiness is an operationalization based on the aforementioned conditions. In other words, the practitioner typically constructs a method for fulfilling the daily job requirements. He or she rarely has an underlying theoretical understanding of what defining something or someone asnewsworthy entails. To be sure, individual journalists may engage in more abstract musings about their work, but the profession as a whole is content to apply these conditions and does not care that the theory behind the application is not widely understood. Hall (1981, 147) calls news a 'slippery' concept, with journalists defining newsworthiness as those things that get into the news media."
^Pettegree,The Invention of News (2014), p. 6. "News fitted ideally into the expanding market for cheap print, and it swiftly became an important commodity."
^abBoyd-Barrett & Rantanen,The Globalization of News (1998), p. 6. "News agency news is considered 'wholesale' resource material, something that has to be worked upon, smelted, reconfigured, for conversion into a news report that is suitable for consumption by ordinary readers. It has also suited the news agencies to be thus presented: they have needed to seem credible to extensive networks of 'retail' clients of many different political and cultural shades and hues. They have wanted to avoid controversy, to maintain an image of plain, almost dull, but completely dependable professionalism."
^abcdPhil MacGregor, "International News Agencies: Global eyes that never blink", in Fowler-Watt & Allan (eds.),Journalism (2013).
^Schudson,Discovering the News (1978), p. 6. "Before the 1920s, journalists did not think much about the subjectivity of perception. They had relatively little incentive to doubt the firmness of the reality by which they lived. […] After World War I, however, this changed. Journalists, like others, lost faith in the democratic market society had taken for granted. Their experience of propaganda during the war and public relations thereafter convinced them that the world they reported was one that interested parties had constructed for them to report. In such a world, naïve empiricism could not last."
^Stephens,History of News (1988), p. 2. "Sensationalism appears to be a technique or style that is rooted somehow in the nature of the news. News obviously can do much more than merely sensationalize, but most newsis, in an important sense, sensational: it is intended, in part, to arouse, to excite, often—whether the subject is a political scandal or a double murder—to shock."
^abStrömbäck, Jesper; Karlsson, Michael; Hopmann, Nicolas (2012). “Determinants of News Content: Comparing journalists' perceptions of the normative and actual impact of different event properties when deciding what's news”. Journalism Studies13: 5–6. doi:10.1080/1461670X.2012.664321.
^Stephens,History of News (1988), pp. 26, 105–106.
^Stephens,History of News (1988), pp. 14, 305. "The desire to pass on tales of current events could be found even incultures that did not have writing—let alone printing presses or computers—to whet or satisfy their thirst for news. Observers have often remarked on the fierce concern with the news that they find in preliterate or semiliterate peoples. [...] It is difficult, if not impossible, to find a society that does not exchange news and that does not build into its rituals and customs means for facilitating that exchange."
^Fang,History of Mass Communication (1997), p. 19.
^Stephens,History of News (1988), p. 8. "A particularly lively forum for the exchange of news by word of mouth—the coffeehouse—flourished in England well after the development of the newspaper, and in some countries, thecoffeehouse has survived even the introduction of television."
^Ayalon,The Press in the Arab Middle East: A History (1995), p. 5.
^Straubhaar and LaRose,Communications Media in the Information Society (1997), p. 366. "Another ancient form of advertising was the town crier, who told the citizenry about the 'good deal' to be found 'just around the corner'. Unlike the signs, which contained only information regarding the merchant, the criers also informed the citizens of the news of the day. Because the crier, or his agent, was compensated for his assistance in getting the advertising message out in the context of the news, there are interesting parallels with the newspaper of today (Applegate, 1993; Roche, 1993; Schramm, 1988)."
^Ayalon,The Press in the Arab Middle East: A History (1995), p. 4.
^abFang,History of Mass Communication (1997), pp. 14–15.
^abStephens,History of News (1988), p. 27. "Whoever controlled the messengers could select which anecdotes and information would be favored by this treatment. Therefore, whoever controlled the messengers gained not only a conduit to the members of a society—the ability to inform them of new regulations—but gained a measure of power over the selection of news the members of a society received—the power, for example to ensure that they received news of triumphs but not necessarily of debacles. Messengers were controlled, for the most part, by kings, chiefs, headmen. They were rarely channels of dissent."
^Kessler, "Royal Roads" (1995), p. 129. "The ability of the Assyrian court to challenge a huge and permanent stream of information seems to have been one of the essential factors for the long maintenance of Assyrian domination, over the vast areas in the Near East."
^Pettegree,The Invention of News (2014), pp. 19–20.
^abcDistelrath, "Development of the Information and Communication Systems in Germany and Japan" (2000), pp. 45–46 .
^Zhang,Origins of the Modern Chinese Press (2007), p. 13.
^Smith,The Newspaper: An International History (1979), p. 14. "The Chinese civilization was one of the earliest to have found it convenient to set up a systematic news-collection network across a large land mass. During the Han dynasty (206BC–AD219) the imperial court arranged to be supplied with information on the events of the Empire by means of a postal empire similar to the princely message systems of the European Middle Ages, when the postmasters of the Holy Roman Empire were required to write summaries of events taking place within their regions and transmit them along specified routes."
^abSmith,The Newspaper: An International History (1979), p. 14–15.
^Zhang,Origins of the Modern Chinese Press (2007), p. 14. "However, it was in the Tang dynasty that a specific bureau—the Bureau of Official Reports (Jin Zhouyuan)—was created to accommodate the local representatives. During this time, there were many rising powerful dukes, princes or governor-generals in charge of the large territories, equal in size to a modern province in China. These dukes or princes would naturally provide for their own news service at the capital Chang'an, which handled all official documents submitted by these representatives and transmitted imperial edicts in return. Recent archaeological research has uncovered such official reports from the Tang dynasty. Two archive documents of that period, originally found in Dunhuang have been regarded by Chinese scholars as the earliest forms of newspaper in the world (Fang 1997 53–8)"
^Smith,The Newspaper: An International History (1979), p. 14. "At a later stage of its development, during the Sung period (960–1278), theti pao was made to circulate among the purely intellectual groups, and during the Ming (1367–1644) was seen by a wider circle of society."
^Alice Gordenker, "Postal Symbol";Japan Times, 21 May 2013.
^Distelrath, "Development of the Information and Communication Systems in Germany and Japan" (2000), p. 44.
^Lampe & Ploeckl, "Spanning the Globe" (2014), 247.
^McCusker & Gravesteijn,Beginnings of Commercial and Financial Journalism (1991), p. 21. "Business thrives on the most recent news. The merchants of the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries, no less than those of today, required the 'freshest advices' in order to conduct their affairs profitably."
^Infelise, Mario. "Roman Avvisi: Information and Politics in the Seventeenth Century." inCourt and Politics in Papal Rome, 1492–1700(Cambridge University Press, 2002) pp. 212, 214, 216–217
^Selfridge-Field, Eleanor.Pallade Veneta: Writings on Music and Society, 1650–1750. Venice: Fondazione Ugo e Olga Levi, 1985. Chs. 1 2, 3.
^Selfridge-Field, Eleanor.Song and Season: Science, Culture, and Theatrical Time. (Stanford UP, 2007). Chs. 10, 11.
^Fang,History of Mass Communication (1997), pp. 29–30.
^Smith,The Newspaper: An International History (1979), pp. 18–19. "Since the late Middle Ages a formal network of correspondents and intelligence agents had come into being across the bulk of the European continent, busily sending news of military, diplomatic and ecclesiastical affairs along a series of prescribed routes. The information was handwritten and passed along carefully organized chains, each item being labeled with its place and date of origin."
^Kallionen, "Information, communication technology, and business" (2004), p. 22.
^Kallionen, "Information, communication technology, and business" (2004), p. 21. "Although the businessmen obtained information from newspapers and other public sources, for instance, from the consuls stationed in foreign towns, they placed special value on the letters received directly from their foreign partners. This is precisely the key to the existence of a network relationship: the parties were dependent on the resources controlled by both parties, both goods and information, so by mutual co-operation both parties gained mutual benefits. Long-term, personal networks were particularly well suited for transmitting information that required high reliability.
^Fang,History of Mass Communication (1997), pp. 20–23.
^Pettegree,The Invention of News (2014), pp. 6–8. "So this sort of news reporting was very different from the discreet, dispassionate services of the manuscript news men. News pamphlets were often committed and engaged, intended to persuade as well as inform. News also became, for the first time, part of the entertainment industry. What could be more entertaining than the tale of some catastrophe in a far-off place, or a grisly murder? This was not unproblematic, particularly for the traditional leaders of society who were used to news being part of a confidential service, provided by trusted agents."
^Pettegree,The Invention of News (2014), p. 9. "The news reporting of the newspapers was very different, and utterly unfamiliar to those who had not previously been subscribers to the manuscript service. Each report was no more than a couple sentences long. It offered no explanation, comment, or commentary. Unlike a news pamphlet the reader did not know where this fitted in the narrative—or even whether what was reported would turn out to be important."
^Smith,The Newspaper: An International History (1979), pp. 9–10.
^Starr,Creation of the Media (2004), p. 90. "The 1792 law codified the right of newspapers to exchange copies for free with one another, and by the 1840s the average newspaper received an astonishing 4,300 exchange copies a year. Editors relied on other papers for the national news that filled most of their columns. In effect, the federal government was encouraging local papers to become outlets for a national news network that the government itself did not control."
^Starr,Creation of the Media (2004), p. 48. ["Tout est primitif et sauvage autour de lui, mais lui est pour ainsi dire le résultat de dix-huit siècles de travaux et d'expérience. Il porte le vêtement des villes, en parle la langue; sait le passé, est curieux de l'avenir, argumente sur le présent; c'est un homme très civilisé, qui, pour un temps, se soumet à vivre au milieu des bois, et qui s'enfonce dans les déserts du Nouveau Monde avec la Bible, une hache et des journaux."]
^Smith,The Newspaper: An International History (1979), pp. 88–89.
^Straubhaar and LaRose,Communications Media in the Information Society (1997), p. 391.
^Parsons,Power of the Financial Press (1989), p. 31
^Parsons,Power of the Financial Press (1989), p. 40
^Parsons,Power of the Financial Press (1989), pp. 81–110.
^Fosu, "The Press and Political Participation" (2014), p. 59
^abcFosu, "The Press and Political Participation" (2014), pp. 60–61.
^Fosu, "The Press and Political Participation" (2014), p. 62
^Fosu, "The Press and Political Participation" (2014), pp. 64–65.
^Ayalon,The Press in the Arab Middle East: A History (1995), pp. 6–7.
^Ayalon,The Press in the Arab Middle East: A History (1995), pp. 13–16.
^Ayalon,The Press in the Arab Middle East: A History (1995), pp. 28–39.
^Wenzlhuemer,Connecting the Nineteenth-Century World (2013), pp. 31–32.
^Hills,Struggle for Control of Global Communication (2002), p. 32.
^Wenzlhuemer,Connecting the Nineteenth-Century World (2013), pp. 211–215.
^Hills,Struggle for Control of Global Communication (2002), pp. 145–146.
^Hills,Struggle for Control of Global Communication (2002), pp. 153–178.
^Oliver Boyd-Barrett,"'Global' News Agencies", in Boyd-Barrett & Rantanen,The Globalization of News (1998), pp. 26–27. "The principal feature of the world's news market in the second half of the 19th century and the first third of the 20th, was the cartel. This was an oligopolistic and hierarchical structure of the global news market controlled by Reuters, Havas and Wolff at the top tier, in partnership with an ever-increasing number of national news agencies. Each member of the triumvirate had the right to distribute its news service, incorporating news of the cartel, to its ascribed territories: these territories were determined by periodic, formal agreements. […] The triumvirate of Reuters, Havas, and Wolff supplied world news to national news agencies in return for a service of national news […] (although the practice was rather more complicated) the national agencies had exclusive rights to the distribution of cartel news in their territories, and the cartel had exclusive rights to the national agency news services."
^Wolfe,Governing Soviet Journalism (2005), pp. 25–26. Translating Lenin: "Why instead of 200–400 lines you can't write in 20–10 lines about such simple, well-known, clear, and already mastered to a great degree, widespread phenomena like the base betrayals of the Mensheviks, those lackeys of the bourgeoisie, like the Anglo-Japanese invasion for the restoration of the holy law of capital; like the chattering teeth of the American millionaires against Germany, and so on, and so on. It is necessary to talk about this, it is necessary to register each new fact in this regard, but in a few lines; to pound out in 'telegraph style' the new appearances of old, already known and evaluated policies."
^abBoyd-Barrett,"'Global' News Agencies", in Boyd-Barrett & Rantanen,The Globalization of News (1998), pp. 23–24. "Earnings were generally derived from the sale of news services to media, financial or economic institutions, and governments, which were important as sources of revenue and as sources of intelligence, and it is generally considered that their news services reflected their respective national interests."
^Wood,History of International Broadcasting (1992), p. 31. "It was quite normal for the average listener to be depicted as dressed immaculately in full evening dress, seated or standing elegantly with an expensive brand of cigarette in his hand, listening to his set. The BBC was happy to live up to this stereotype. Radio announces always arrived in evening dress, and announcers were chosen from the upper classes of English society. More importantly, they had to be able to speak the King's English just as the King spoke it."
^Wood,History of International Broadcasting (1992), pp. 33–34.
^Straubhaar and LaRose,Communications Media in the Information Society (1997), pp. 177–178.
^Wood,History of International Broadcasting (1992), p. 27. "Thus WEAF planted the seeds of a new business that eventually grew to envelop the broadcasting industry: advertising, public relations, and propaganda. From about 1927 this revolution was under way. Advertising agencies, manufacturers, sponsors, promoters, and the sellers of medical and life insurance were jockeying for places in a world of propaganda disseminated by radio broadcasting."
^Wood,History of International Broadcasting (1992), pp. 38–42.
^abHachten,World News Prism (1996), pp. 45–48. "When a major crisis breaks out overseas, ABC, CBS, and NBC will issue news bulletins and then go back to scheduled programming and perhaps do a late-evening wrap-up, but CNN stays on the air for long stretches of time continually updating the story. The networks' version of the story will be seen in the United States; CNN's version will be seen all over the world."
^abSilverblatt & Zlobin,International Communications (2004), pp. 42–43. "In contrast, the Masai, a nomadic community of cattle raisers in Kenya, Africa, spend their lives on the move; consequently, their contact with the media is sporadic. As a result, members of the Masai community did not learn about the September 11 attack in New York until the following June."
^Straubhaar and LaRose,Communications Media in the Information Society (1997), pp. 158–159.
^Straubhaar and LaRose,Communications Media in the Information Society (1997), pp. 163–164.
^Einar Thorsen, "Live Blogging and Social Media Curation: Challenges and Opportunities for Journalism", in Fowler-Watt & Allan (eds.),Journalism (2013).
^Caitlin Patrick & Stuart Allan, "'The Camera as Witness: The Changing Nature of Photojournalism", in Fowler-Watt & Allan (eds.),Journalism (2013).
^Schudson, Michael (2011). The Sociology of News (2nd ed.). pp. 207–216
^Schudson, Michael (2011). The Sociology of News (2nd ed.). p. 207
^abcWatanabe, Kohei (2013). “The western perspective in Yahoo! News and Google News: Quantitative analysis of geographic coverage of online news”. International Communication Gazette75 (2): 141–156. doi:10.1177/1748048512465546.
^Chris Paterson, "News Agency Dominance in International news on the Internet",Papers in International and Global Communication 01/06 (Center for International Communications Research), May 2006.
^abcJohnston, Jane; Forde, Susan (2011). “"The Silent Partner: News Agencies and 21st Century News";”. International Journal of Communication5.
^Boyd-Barrett & Rantanen,The Globalization of News (1998), p. 2; Oliver Boyd-Barrett, "'Global' News Agencies", in Boyd-Barrett & Rantanen,The Globalization of News (1998), p. 28.
^abOliver Boyd-Barrett, "'Global' News Agencies", in Boyd-Barrett & Rantanen,The Globalization of News (1998), p. 21. "Bloomberg's influence is greater than the number of its terminals may suggest, as it feeds financial data and economic news through the AP network to AP members and clients in the United States, and to many national networks through national news agencies. Indeed, it boasts having the second largest 'wholesale' news distribution in the United States, after AP. It has print, radio and television distribution in many countries: Bloomberg television is distributed via Astra satellite service in Europe."
^abJohn Bartram Ewha, "News Agency Wars: the battle between Reuters and Bloomberg";Journalism Studies 4.3 (2003).
^Hong, Junhao (2011). “"From the World's Largest Propaganda Machine to a Multipurposed Global News Agency: Factors in and Implications of Xinhua's Transformation Since 1978";”. Political Communication28 (3): 377–393. doi:10.1080/10584609.2011.572487.
^Boyd-Barrett & Rantanen,The Globalization of News (1998), p. 9.
^Oliver Boyd-Barrett, "'Global' News Agencies", in Boyd-Barrett & Rantanen,The Globalization of News (1998), p. 19.
^Hachten,World News Prism (1996), p. 7. "Since World War II, an intricate and worldwide network of international news media has evolved, providing an expanded capability for information flows. This relationship between the capacity and the need to communicate rapidly has resulted from the interaction of two long-term historical processes: the evolution toward a single global society and the movement of civilization beyond four great benchmarks of human communication—speech, writing, printing, electronic communications (telephone and radio)—into a fifth era of long-distance instant communication based on telecommunications (mainly satellites) and computer technology. Harold Lasswell believed that the mass media revolution has accelerated the tempo and direction of world history. What would have happened later has happened sooner, and changes in timing may have modified substantive developments."
^Oliver Boyd-Barrett, "'Global' News Agencies", in Boyd-Barrett & Rantanen,The Globalization of News (1998), p. 22.
^abBarbie Zeiler, "Cannibalizing Memory in the Global Flow of News"; inOn Media Memory (2011), ed. Neiger, Myers, & Zandberg; pp. 31–34.
^Fosu, "The Press and Political Participation" (2014), pp. 67–73.
^Straubhaar and LaRose,Communications Media in the Information Society (1997), pp. 124–125.
^abcSilverblatt & Zlobin,International Communications (2004), pp. 28–31. "A major liability of transnational media conglomerates is the loss of distinctive local culture. Transnational media conglomerates have a distinctly American influence—regardless of their country of origin. For instance, although Bertelsmann is a German-based corporation, in 2001, its largest proportion of its revenue (35 per cent) came from its U.S. media subsidiaries, including Bantam, Doubleday Dell, and Random House publishing companies,Family Circle andMcCall's' magazines, and Arista and RCA record labels."
^Boyd-Barrett & Rantanen,The Globalization of News (1998), p. 8-10. "The UN, through UNESCO, consistently endeavored to encourage the spread and development of national news agencies, and of news-exchange arrangements between them, especially during the great wave of independence in Africa during the 1960s. Setting up a national news agency became one of the essential things, part of the 'script', of what it meant to be a 'nation'. Through a national news agency, a state could lay down information links domestically and internationally which would facilitate the generation and exchange of news."
^Chakravartty and Sarikakis,Media Policy and Globalization (2006), p. 31.
^C. Anthony Giffard, "Alternative News Agencies", in Boyd-Barrett & Rantanen,The Globalization of News (1998), p. 191.
^abC. Anthony Giffard, "Alternative News Agencies", in Boyd-Barrett & Rantanen,The Globalization of News (1998), pp. 192–194.
^C. Anthony Giffard, "Alternative News Agencies", in Boyd-Barrett & Rantanen,The Globalization of News (1998), pp. 195–196.
^C. Anthony Giffard, "Alternative News Agencies", in Boyd-Barrett & Rantanen,The Globalization of News (1998), pp. 196–197.
^Chakravartty and Sarikakis,Media Policy and Globalization (2006), p. 29.
^Chakravartty and Sarikakis,Media Policy and Globalization (2006), pp. 33–38.
^Chakravartty and Sarikakis,Media Policy and Globalization (2006), pp. 58–72, 133–136. "In almost all cases, a combination of privatization schemes and higher rates of public investment led to double-digit growth in teledensity figures throughout the 1990s and continuing today (see Table 3.3). Private telecommunications operators were drawn to emerging markets like Brazil, China, and India, among others, because technological innovation coupled with policy reforms promised access to lucrative high-density business and urban middle-class consumers. […] The few comparative studies of telecommunications reform in the South show that the political environment—whether the state is responsive to democratic public interest—\and its relative power vis-à-vis foreign capital and G8 nations have shaped the terms of reform."
^Ali Mohammadi, "Communication and the Globalizing Process in the Developing World", in Mohammadi (ed.),International Communication and Globalization (1997).
^Matheson, Donald (2000). “"The birth of news discourse: changes in news language in British newspapers, 1880–1930";”. Media, Culture & Society22 (5): 557–573. doi:10.1177/016344300022005002.
^Zhong, "Searching for Meaning" (2006), pp. 15, 35.
^Sara Shipley Hiles & Amanda Hinnart, "Climate Change in the Newsroom: Journalists' Evolving Standards of Objectivity When Covering Global Warming";Science Communication 36.4, 2014.
^John Soloski, "News Reporting and Professionalism: Some Constraints on Reporting the News", fromMedia, Culture & Society 11 (1989); reprinted in Berkowitz,Social Meanings of News (1997), pp. 143–145.
^James S. Ettema, D. Charles Whitney, & Daniel B. Wackman, inHandbook of Communications Science (1987), ed. C.H. Berger & S.H. Chaffee; reprinted in Berkowitz,Social Meanings of News (1997), p. 37.
^Warren Breed, "Social Control in the Newsroom: A Functional Analysis" (pdf), fromSocial Forces 33 (1955); reprinted in Berkowitz,Social Meanings of News (1997), pp. 108–110.
^John Soloski, "News Reporting and Professionalism: Some Constraints on Reporting the News", fromMedia, Culture & Society 11 (1989); reprinted in Berkowitz,Social Meanings of News (1997), pp. 139–140, 146–152. "One method management could use to control its journalists would be to establish rules and regulations. This bureaucratic form would not be very efficient […] A more efficient method for controlling behavior in nonbureaucratic organizations, such as news organizations, is through professionalism. Professionalism "makes the use of discretion predictable. It relieves bureaucratic organizations of responsibility for devising their own mechanisms of control in the discretionary areas of work (Larson, 1977: 168) (emphasis in original)."
^Warren Breed, "Social Control in the Newsroom: A Functional Analysis" (pdf), fromSocial Forces 33 (1955); reprinted in Berkowitz,Social Meanings of News (1997), pp. 111–114.
^John Soloski, "News Reporting and Professionalism: Some Constraints on Reporting the News", fromMedia, Culture & Society 11 (1989); reprinted in Berkowitz,Social Meanings of News (1997), pp. 141–142.
^James S. Ettema, D. Charles Whitney, & Daniel B. Wackman, inHandbook of Communications Science (1987), ed. C.H. Berger & S.H. Chaffee; reprinted in Berkowitz,Social Meanings of News (1997), p. 38.
^Pamela J. Shoemaker, "A New Gatekeeping Model", fromGatekeeping (1991); reprinted in Berkowitz,Social Meanings of News (1997), p. 57. "Simply put, gatekeeping is the process by which the billions of messages that are available in the world get cut down and transformed into hundreds of messages that reach a given person on a given day."
^David Manning White, "The 'Gate Keeper': A Case Study in the Selection of News", fromJournalism Quarterly 27 (1950); reprinted in Berkowitz,Social Meanings of News (1997), p. 63.
^David Manning White, "The 'Gate Keeper': A Case Study in the Selection of News", fromJournalism Quarterly 27 (1950); reprinted in Berkowitz,Social Meanings of News (1997), pp. 66–71.
^Thomas John Erneste, "Toward a Networked Gatekeeping Theory: Journalism, News Diffusion, and Democracy in a Networked Model"; Dissertation accepted at University of Minnesota, January 2014.
^An Nguyen, "Online News Audiences: The challenges of web metrics", in Fowler-Watt & Allan (eds.),Journalism (2013).
^abcJamie Matthews, "Journalists and their sources: The twin challenges of diversity and verification", in Fowler-Watt & Allan (eds.),Journalism (2013).
^abSalmon,The Newspaper and the Historian (1923), pp. 90–91.
^Annteresa Lubrano,The Telegraph: How Technology Innovation Caused Social Change; New York: Garland, 1997; pp.72–74.
^Stephens,History of News (1988), p. 5. "Free of an extended view of the history of press-government relations, it is easy to maintain a romantic image of the journalist, when unchained by repressive regulation, as a staunch adversary of government; it is easy to overlook the basic pro-authoritarian role that has been played by those who spread news: their success in occupying the minds of the governed with a belief in the importance, if not the inevitability, of a system of government."
^Michael Schudson, "The Sociology of News Production", fromMedia, Culture & Society (1989); reprinted in Berkowitz,Social Meanings of News (1997), p. 14. "One study after another comes up with essentially the same observation, and it matters not whether the study is at the national, state, or local level—the story of journalism, on a day-to-day basis, is the story of the interaction of reporters and officials."
^Allan,News Culture (2004), pp. 62–63. "To clarify, H.S. Becker (1967) employs the notion of a 'hierarchy of credibility' to specify how, in a system of ranked groups, participants will take it as given that the members of the highest group are best placed to define 'the way things really are' due to their 'knowledge of truth'. Implicit in this assumption is the view that 'those at the top' will have access to a more complete picture of the bureaucratic organization's workings than members of lower groups whose definition of reality, because of this subordinate status, can only be partial and distorted."
^James S. Ettema, D. Charles Whitney, & Daniel B. Wackman, inHandbook of Communications Science (1987), ed. C.H. Berger & S.H. Chaffee; reprinted in Berkowitz,Social Meanings of News (1997), pp. 34–37. "In sum, a considerable body of research supports the argument that inter-organizational- and institutional-level forces, realized in a journalistic culture of 'objectivity,' fostered by, and in the service of, progressive liberal capitalism, constrain what journalists report. News thus exhibits an identifiable and widely shared form and a content broadly consonant with the social structures and values of its political-economic context."
^abVan Leuven, Sarah; Joye, Stijn (2013). “"Civil Society Organizations at the Gates? A Gatekeeping Study of News Making Efforts by NGOs and Government Institutions";”. International Journal of Press/Politics19 (2).
^Geniets,Global News Challenge (2013), pp. 4–6, 15.
^Wood,History of International Broadcasting (1992), p. 39.
^Wood,History of International Broadcasting (1992), pp. 177–182.
^Wood,History of International Broadcasting (1992), pp. 129–133, 132, 206–207.
^Wood,History of International Broadcasting (1992), pp. 21, 55. "The Reuters news service would be broadcast from Rugby with an insertion written by the Foreign Office. The secret agreement provided that both Leafield and Rugby Radio would carry 720 000 words per year, at a cost of three and a half pence per word. During and after the Second World War, these two radio stations transmitted news whose content had been falsified with the intention of deceiving the enemy."
^Silverblatt & Zlobin,International Communications (2004), p. 49; also see
^Silverblatt & Zlobin,International Communications (2004), p. 49; also see: Josh Getlin and Johanna Neuman, "Vying for Eyes, Ears of Iraq";Los Angeles Times, 10 May 2003.
^Rampton & Stauber,Trust Us, We're Experts (2001), pp. 13–20.
^Rampton & Stauber,Trust Us, We're Experts (2001), pp. 22–24.
^Straubhaar and LaRose,Communications Media in the Information Society (1997), pp. 395–396.
^Curtin, Patricia A. (1999). “Reevaluating Public Relations Information Subsidies: Market-Driven Journalism and Agenda-Building Theory and Practice”. Journal of Public Relations Research11 (1): 53–90. doi:10.1207/s1532754xjprr1101_03.
^abKevin Moloney, Daniel Jackson, & David McQueen, "News journalism and public relations: a dangerous relationship", in Fowler-Watt & Allan (eds.),Journalism (2013).
^Karen Rothmyer, "What really happened in Biafra? Why did themes such as mass starvation and genocide alternately surface and fade? A study of media susceptibility to public relations manipulation."Columbia Journalism Review 9.3, Fall 1970.
^Salmon,The Newspaper and the Historian (1923), pp. 1–2, 31.
^Perse,Media Effects And Society (2001), pp. 93–94. "Because political events and issues in modern societies typically take place in specialized locations, most citizens experience politics vicariously. […] For elites, information from the media becomes just one of many sources of data. Because of their political involvement and interest and their vast base of prior knowledge, elites treat media coverage as foreground, or sources of new and/or specific information. […] Nonelites, on the other hand, are not so interested in politics, and they have relatively little prior knowledge about political issues. For nonelites, media coverage is not only a source of new data, but their only source of information."
^R. Brandon Kershner,The Culture of Joyce's Ulysses; Palgrave Macmillan, 2010; see Chapter Five, "Newspapers and Periodicals: Endless Dialogue". Also see: James Broderick, "'Give Us This Day Our Daily Press': Journalism in the Life and Art of James Joyce", Dissertation accepted at City University of New York, 1999.
^Bernard Berelson, "What 'missing the newspaper' means", inCommunications Research 1948–1949, ed. Lazarsfeld & Stanton; New York: Harper & Brothers, 1949; quoted in Stephens,History of News (1988), p. 17.
^abStarr,Creation of the Media (2004), p. 24. "Publications weave invisible threads of connection among their readers. Once a newspaper circulates, for example, no one ever truly reads it alone. Readers know that others are also seeing it at roughly the same time, and they read it differently as a result, conscious that the information is now out in the open, spread before a public that may talk about the news and act on it."
^Salmon,The Newspaper and the Historian (1923), p. 17. "The newspaper has ceased to be a personal organ and has become a social product; it no longer represents the interests of an individual, but it represents rather a group activity. The press groups society and unifies each group, as Scott-James has pointed out. It unifies society on national lines and thus the press of each country has developed in its own characteristic direction. It unifies the groups interested in religion, in politics, in business, in automobiles, in sports, in education, or in fashion, and from these groups having unified interests there has developed the press that ministers to each specialized group."
^Motti Neiger, Eyal Zandberg, and Oren Meyers, "Localizing Collective Memory: Radio Broadcasts and the Construction of Regional Memory"; inOn Media Memory (2011), ed. Neiger, Myers, & Zandberg; pp. 156–160. "In Israel, radio played a decisive role in establishing and consolidating the nation during the first decades after the creation of the State (Pansler, 2004). The exclusive position enjoyed by radio in the field of electronic broadcasting during the crucial first twenty years of Israel's existence since 1948, when the press was politically divided and television was absent—Israel's first television channel started broadcasting in 1968—gave it much weight in setting the collective agenda."
^McNair,Cultural Chaos (2006), pp. 6–7. "But [news] is an illusion which, when we receive it, and when we extend to it our trust in its authority as a representation of the real, transports us from the relative isolation of our domestic environments, the parochialism of our streets and small towns, the crowded bustle of our big cities, to membership of virtual global communities, united in access tothese events, communally experienced atthis moment, through global communications networks. […] It is, indeed, more like the fear and exhilaration experienced by watching a movie on the big screen, but with an added viscerality contributed by the awareness that this scene, unlike a movie, isreally happening, right now, to real people."
^Park, "News as a Form of Knowledge" (1940), p. 677.
^Salmon,The Newspaper and the Historian (1923), pp. 211–213.
^Park, "News as a Form of Knowledge" (1940), pp. 685–686. "In fact, the multiplication of the means of communication has brought it about that anyone, even in the most distant part of the world, may now actually participate in events—at least as listener if not as spectator—as they actually take place in some other part of the world. We have recently listened to Mussolini address his fascist followers from a balcony of Rome; we have heard Hitler speaking over the heads of a devout congregation in the Reichstag, in Berlin, not merely to the President, but to the people, of the United States. We have even had an opportunity to hear the terms of the momentous Munich agreement ten seconds after it had been signed by the representatives of four of the leading powers in Europe and the world. The fact that acts so momentous as these can be so quickly and so publicly consummated has suddenly and completely changed the character of international politics so that one can no longer even guess what the future has in store for Europe and for the world."
^Paterson, Chris; Andresen, Kenneth; Hoxha, Abit (2011). “"The manufacture of an international news event: The day Kosovo was born";”. Journalism13 (1): 103–120. doi:10.1177/1464884911400846.
^Danie Du Plessis, "What's News in South Africa?" in Shoemaker & Cohen,News Around the World (2006), p. 303. "Virtually all references to the political significance of news events refer to the historical events of the first part of the 1990s. Current political events are overshadowed so greatly by the start of the political process in South Africa that they have lost much of their significance to the participants. Both black and white participants in the focus group shared this response."
^Elizabeth A. Skewes and Heather Black, "What's News in the United States?" in Shoemaker & Cohen,News Around the World (2006), p. 329.
^Mohammed Issa Taha Ali, "What's News in Jordan?" in Shoemaker & Cohen,News Around the World (2006), p. 252.
^Neta Kliger-Vilenchik, "Memory-Setting: Applying Agenda-Setting Theory to the Study of Collective Memory"; inOn Media Memory (2011), ed. Neiger, Myers, & Zandberg; pp. 233–234. Also see: Neta Kliger-Vilenchik, "Setting the collective memory agenda: Examining mainstream media influence on individuals' perceptions of the past";Memory Studies 7.4, October 2014.
^abcGraber, Doris A. (1980). Mass Media and American Politics. Congressional Quarterly Press
^Mark A. Schuster, et al., "A National Survey of Stress Reactions After the September 11, 2011, Terrorist Attacks",New England Journal of Medicine, 345.20, 15 November 2001.
^Terr (1999). “Children's symptoms in the wake of Challenger: a field study of distant-traumatic effects and an outline of related conditions”. American Journal of Psychiatry156 (10): 1536–44. doi:10.1176/ajp.156.10.1536. PMID10518163.
^Gavin Rees, "The Trauma Factor", in Fowler-Watt & Allan (eds.),Journalism (2013).
^Altheide, David L. (1997). “The News Media, the Problem Frame, and the Production of Fear”. Sociological Quarterly38 (4): 647–668. doi:10.1111/j.1533-8525.1997.tb00758.x.
^Perse,Media Effects And Society (2001), 12. "Some media may be so pervasive and so consistent in their effects that their impact is not noticeable. After all, it is almost impossible find someone who doesn't watch television in industrialized societies. And those light viewers associate regularly with others who do watch television. Morgan (1986) suggested that 'the longer we live with television, the smaller television's observable impact may become'.
^Zhong, "Searching for Meaning" (2006), pp. 17–18.
^McCombs, Maxwell E.; Shaw, Donald L. (1972). “The Agenda-Setting Function of Mass Media”. Public Opinion Quarterly36 (2): 176. doi:10.1086/267990.
^Perse,Media Effects And Society (2001), 100. "When issues are obtrusive, or directly experienced, such as inflation, the public does not need the news media to alert them to its importance. But, the less direct experience that they have with an issue, the more they depend on the news media for awareness. So, agenda-setting appears to be stronger for less personally involving issues."
^Tien Vu, Hong; Guo, Lei; McCombs, Maxwell E. (2014). “Exploring 'the World Outside and the Pictures in Our Heads': A Network Agenda-Setting Study”. Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly91 (4).
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