Bikin isar da fayilolin da aka gyara daga Faculty of Natural Sciences and Museum of the UNLPDeltan Dallagnol tare da Nicole Barrett, 2017 Allard PrizeMagna Carta ko "Babban yarjejeniya" ɗaya daga cikin kundin duniya na farko dake ɗauke da umurni daga cikakken shugaban kasa zuwa ga alummarsa dasu daraja hakkokin dokaHaƙƙoƙin ɗan'adam
Hakkokin ɗan'adam kyawawan :Dabi'u ne ko hanyoyin tafiyar da rayuwa na yau da kullum.[1] Shi ɗan' adam na da wasukafaffun ɗabi'u, sannan kuma akan basu kariya ako da yaushe a matsayin haƙƙoƙin doka dana ɗabi'a a ƙarƙashin dokokin ƙasa da naduniya.[2] Ana ɗaukansu a matsayin haƙƙokin da ba'a iya tauye su,[3] tsararrun haƙƙoƙi ne "wanda kowanne mutum ke da haƙƙi akansu, badan komai ba sai don kasancewar ɗan' adam"[4] kuma "kowanne mutum yana da haƙƙi akansu",[5] ba tare da duba ga shekarun sa, jinsin sa, ƙasar sa ta asali, wurin zama, harshe,addini, ƙabila, ko kuma kowane irin babbanci ba.[3] Ana iya wanzar da su a ko ina a kuma ko da yaushe a zaman haƙƙi na duniya baki daya,[1] kuma yana daga ciki haƙƙoƙin ɗan'adam rashin nuna bambanci akan cewa dukkannin mutane daya suke.[3] Ana ɗaukar su a matsayin tausayin juna da kuma dokoki na shari'a[6] da kuma sanya wajabci akan kowane mutum da ya daraja wadannan Haƙƙoƙin na sauran mutane,[1][3]
kuma ya amince gabaki daya akan ba za'a kore waɗannan haƙƙoƙi ba face idan akwai wasu dalilai na tsari.[7]
Koyarwar Haƙƙin ɗan'adam yayi fice a tsakanin Ƙungiyoyin shari'a na ƙasa da ƙasa. Matakai da Jihohi da kuma Ƙungiyoyin da ba na gwamnati ba (NGO's) ne suka kafa tushen dokokin al'umma a duk fadin duniya. Ra'ayoyin Haƙƙin ɗan'adam sun bayyana cewa idan Ƙungiyoyin al'umma zasu zauna su tattauna akan matakan zaman lafiya ga al'ummomin duniya, to wannan za'a iya cewa ya zamo Ƙarshen kyawawan dabi'u na gama gari, Waɗannan su ne haƙƙokin ɗan'adam"[8]. Mayan hujjojin kare Haƙƙin ɗan'adam sun saɓawa koyarwa da dama na addinai, kuma suna jayayya akan abubuwan da dokokin suka ƙunsa, tsarinta da kuma sharuddanta har zuwa yau. Anyi jayayya sosai akan asalin ma'anar kalmarhaƙƙi, kuma ya zamo darasi na jayayya wanda baya karewa,[9] a yayinda anyi amanna akan cewa haƙƙokin ɗan'adam sun ƙunshi Haƙƙoƙi da dama, kamaradalci a shari'a, kare ɗan'adam daga zama bawa, da kumayancin faɗin albarkacin baki,[10] da kumahaƙƙokin samun ingantaccen Ilimi, akwai saɓani akan wanne daga cikin Waɗannan haƙƙoƙi ne zasu zamo daga cikin jigon haƙƙokin ɗan'adam ;[1] wasu manazarta sun ayyana cewa ya kamata aƙalla haƙƙin ɗan'adam ya zamo ƙaramin doka don hana mummunan cin zarafi, a yayinda wasu kuma suke gani cewa shine kololuwar sharaɗi.[1][11] Har ila yau, anyi jayayya cewa haƙƙin ɗan'adam doka ne dagaUbangiji; duk da cewa anyi suka ga wannan ra'ayi sosai.[12]
Muhimman ra'ayoyin da suka janyo wannan cece-kuce na Haƙƙin ɗan'adam
Manufar hakkin dan-adam ta wanzu na tsawon kaɗan'adam da, duk da cewa mutane da dama suna la'akari da Haƙƙin dan-adam na duka duniya kamar yadda mutanen zamanin nan ke yi a yau.[13][14][15]
Hujja akan hakkin dan-adam mafi tsufa itaceCyrus Cylindeɗan'adam w samo asali tun daga ƙarni naƙƙin ɗan'adam ɗauke da hakkoki kamar baƙƙoƙautar da bayi, Haƙƙin bauta a addinin da ka ga dama da kuma Haƙƙin daidaito a tsakanin launin fata.[16]
Majagaban tattaunawa na gaskiya a, an Haƙƙoƙin dan-adam yana cikin manufarhakkokin asali wanda , haɗi Da a matsayinr da akayi aokokin asali al'adun tsakiyar zamuna. Waɗannan al'adu sun tasirantu sosai daga rubuce-rubuceƙƙokin ɗan'adam a manazartan farko farko na addinin Kiristanci,StHilary of Poitiers,St. Ambrose da kumaSt. Augustine.[17] Augustine na daga cikin mutanƙina farkmin da suka fara tantance ingancin dokokin dan-aɗan'adama yayi ƙoƙarin bayyana iyakoki akan wasu hakkoki da dokoki na asali dangane da hikima da zurfin tunaƙƙin ɗan'adam n cewa mutane su gindaya dokokin da ka, kuma idan mutane zasu rikƙ bindokokin da ba na adalci ba.[18]
Wadannan al'adu na tsakiyar zamunai yayi fice a lokacin Ilimin falsafa na Turai(Enlightenment). A wannan dalilin ne, tushen Haƙƙoƙin dan-adam ta fara daga tsakiyar karshen karni na (20).[Ana bukatan hujja]
Masaninfalsafa na ƙarni na (17) dan ƙasar IngilaJohn Locke ya tattauna akan Haƙƙin dan adam na asali a cikin ayyukansa, kuma ya bayyana su a matsayin "rayuwa", "'yanci", da "gidaje (muhalli), kuma yayi jayayya akan cewa irin wadannan muhimman Haƙƙoƙi bai kamata a barsu ga masu hanu da shuni ba. A Burtaniya acikin shekara ta (1689) Dokokin Haƙƙoƙi na Ingila da kumaMallakar hakkoki na (1689) na kasar Scotland duka sunyi yunkurin kore wasu ayyukan gwamnati wanda basu bisa adalci.[20] Muhimman juyin juya hali guda biyu sun faru a cikin karni na (18) a kasar Amurka a shekara ta (1776) da kuma Faransa a cikin shekara ta (1789) wanda hakan ya janyoSanarwar Dokar 'Yancin Kai na Amurka da kumaSanarwa kan hakkokin dan adam da 'yan ƙasa na ƙasar Faransa bi da bi, dukkanninsu kuma sun kunshi wani nau'in hakkokin dan-adam.
Mun riqi wannan gaskiyar da ta zama hujja ga kowa da kowa, cewa dukkannin mutane an halicce su daidai, cewa ubangijinsu ya halicce su da wasu hakkoki wanda ba'a iya koresu, cewa daga cikinsu akwai rayuwa, 'yanci da kuma neman farin ciki a duniya.
Masana falsafa irinsuThomas Paine,John Stuart Mill, da kumagel sun faɗaɗa jigonUniversality a tsakanin karni na (18) da na (19). A cikin shekara ta (1831)William Lloyd Garrison ya rubuta acikin wata jarida mai sunaThe Liberator cewa yana so ya sanya masu karanta labaransa a cikin wani "babban al'amari na hakkokin dan-adam",[21] to watakila ta haka ne aka fara amfani da kalmarHakkokin dan'adam a tsakanin maganan PaineHakkokin dan'adam (The Rights of Man) da kuma wallafar Garrison. A cikin shekara ta (1849) wani dan zamaninHenry David Thoreau yayi rubutu akanHakkokin dan'adam a cikin rubutunsa mai sunaCivil Disobedience wanda daga bisani yayi tasiri akan Haƙƙoƙin dan-adam da kuma manazarta.Kotun Kolin David Davis na kasar Amurka, acikin bayanansa na (1867) akanEx parte Milligan, ya rubuta kamar haka: "Don kare doka, ana tabbatar da hakkokin dan-adam; idan aka cire waɗannan Haƙƙoƙi to suna a hannun azzaluman shugabanni, ko kuma a cikin rudanin rikitattun mutane".[22]
Ƙungiyoyi da dama sun sami damar cimma nasaorin zamantakewa masu muhimmanci a cikin karni na (20) da sunan hakkin dan-adam. A yammacin Turai da Arewacin Amurka, Kungiyoyin kwadago sun janyo dokar da ya bai wa ma'aikata daman yajin aiki, kirkirar ƙa'idojin lokutan aiki, da kuma haramta ko kuma tsaraKwadago ga yara. Kamfe naHakkokin Mata yayi sanadiyyar samarwa mata 'yancin kada kuri'a.Yakoki akan 'yancin kasashe yayi sanadiyyar korar Turawan mulkin mallaka daga kasashe da dama. Daya daga cikin jagoranci mafi tasiri shine naMahatma Gandhi akangwagwarmayar 'yancin Indiya. Gwagwarmayoyi na ƙananan addinan da basu da galihu da wariyar launin fata sun samu nasarori da dama a yankuna daban daban na duniya, daga cikinsu akwaigwagwarmayar kare hakin 'yan kasa, da kuma na kusa-kusan nanbayyana siyasa, wanda ya jibanci mata da sauran marasa galihu a Amurka.[Ana bukatan hujja]
An kirkiriLeague of Nations a shekarar 1919, a wajen muhawara akanyarjejeniyar Versailles bayan an kammalaYakin Duniya na I. Manufofin ƙungiyar sune janye dakarun sojoji, magance yaki ta hanyar hadin gwiwa ta tsaro, daidaita sabani a tsakanin ƙasashe ta hanyar sasanci, diflomasiyya da kuma inganta jin dadin rayuwa a duk faɗin duniya. Tana dauke da yarjejeniya akan bunkasa hakkoki da dama wanda daga bisani aka sanya su acikin Zartarwa akan Haƙƙoƙin Dan-Adam na Duniya (Universal Declaration of Human Rights).
League of Nations tana da kudiri na goyon bayan da yawa daga cikin ƙasashen da Turawan Yammacin Turai suka mulka a yayin mika yanci daga mulkin malka zuwa 'yancin kai.
Ƙungiyar Kwadago ta kasa da kasa a matsayinta na hukuma a ƙarƙashin League of Nation, sannan a yanzuMajalisar dinkin Duniya ta na da kudirin bunkasawa da kare wasu hakkoki wanda daga baya aka sanya su a cikin Zartarwa akan Haƙƙoƙin Dan-Adam na Duniya (UDHR).
muhimmin kudirin Kungiyar kwadago ta kasa da kasa (ILO) a yau shine bunkasa damammaki ga mata da maza a wajen samun ayyuka masu armashi, a cikin yanayi na 'yanci, adalci, tsaro da kuma martabar dan-Adam.
— Rahoto daga Darekta Jenar na Taron kwadago ta Ƙasa da Ƙasa, kashi na 87
Shella akan Hakkokin Dan-Adam na Duniya (UDHR) ta kasance zartarwa ce da ba'a tankwara wanda Majalisar Dinkin Duniya na gaba daya ta dabbaka a shekarar 1948,[24] wani bangare don martani akan abubuwan da suka faru aYakin Duniya na Biyu. UDHR ta bukaci membobin kasashe da su bunkasa Haƙƙoƙi da dama na dan-Adam, ma'aikata, tattalin arziƙi da kuma hakkoki na zamantakewa, da kuma tabbatar da wadannan hakkoki a cikin wani bangare na "tushen 'yanci, adalci da kuma zaman lafiya a duniya". Wannan yarjejeniya itace yunkurin shari'a na farko a tsakanin ƙasashen duniya don iyakance halayen ƙasashe da kuma tabbatar da cewa sunyi hidima ga 'yan kasashensu ta hanyar bin koyarwarRights-duty duality.
Samfuri:Omission duba da muhimmancin martaba da kuma na dai-daito dahakkokin da ba'a iya kore su da gabaki daya iyalin mutum shine tushen 'yanci, adalci da zaman lafiya a duniya
— Gabatarwa daga Shella akan Haƙƙoƙin Dan-Adam na Duniya, 1948
Kwamitin Haƙƙoƙin Dan-Adam ne suka tsara UDHR, tare daEleanor Roosevelt a matsayin chiyaman, wanda ya fara tattaunawa akanDokar Hakkokin Dan-Adam na Kasa da Kasa a shekarar 1947. Membobin kwamitin ba kai tsaye suka amince da dokokin da ke karkashin wadannan Haƙƙoƙi ba, da kuma ta yaya za'a iya tilasta dokokin. Kwamitin ta cigaba da tsara UDHR da sauran yarjejeniyoyi, amma cikin sauri UDHR ta zamo mafi muhammanci.[25] Farfesan shari'a dan kasar KanadaJohn Humprey da kuma lauyan kasar FaransaRené Cassin su ke da alhakin mafi yawancin bincike na kasa da kasa da kuma tsara takaddu bi da bi, a yayin da mukaloli akan zartarwar sun ta'allake ne akan gabaki daya dokokin da ke cikin tsokacin. Cassin ne ya tsara takardar don ta kunshi muhimman dokoki na daraja, 'yanci, dai-daito da kuma ƙaunar juna a mukalu biyu na farkonta, sannan sai kuma hakkoki da suka shafe mutane; hakkokin mutane a tsakaninsu da sauran mutane da kumma tsakaninsu da ƙungiyoyi; Haƙƙoƙin addini, na jama'a da kuma na siyasa; da kumahakkokin tattalin arziki, zamantakewa da kuma al'adu. Sauran kasidu ukun, dangane da Cassin, sun kunshi hakkoki da suka shafi iyakoki, dokokin ayyuka da kuma na zamantakewa da na siyasa da kuma yadda za'a wanzar da su.[26] Humphrey da Cassin sun ayyana cewa a tilasta wadannan dokoki na UDHR a shari'ance ta wasu hanyoyi, kamar yadda aka nuna a mujalladi na uku a cikin kasidar.[26]
A yayinda take da muhimmanci, idan baza'a tilasta wa mutum ya nema taimako ba, a matsayin itace kadai mafita, da ya zama dan tawaye dangane da wani zalunci da musgunawa, cewa ya kamata doka ta kare hakkokin dan-Adam.
— Gabatarwa daga Shella akan Hakkokin Dan-Adam, 1948
Kwamitin kwararru na ƙasa da kasa ne sukayi bincike kuma suka rubuta wasu sassa daga cikin dokokin UDHR, wanda ya haɗa da wakilai daga kowacce nahiya, sannan kuma daga dukkanin muhimman addinai, da kuma koyarwa daga tattaunawa da shuwagabanni irinsuMahatma Gandhi.[27] Shigar da dokokin mutane da na siyasa da kuma na tattalin arziki, zamantakewa da al'adu,[25][28] sun kasance a tsammanin cewa hakkokin dan-Adam ba kasafai ake gane su ba sannan kuma hakkoki daban daban da aka lissafo suna da alaka da juna. Duk da cewa babu wanda ya musunta waɗannan ka'idoji daga cikin mambobin kasashe a wannan lokacin, (amma an zartar da wadannan dokoki ne cikin hadin kai amma banda kungiyoyi irinsuSoviet Bloc,Apartheid naKudancin Afirka,da kumaSaudi Arebiya, wadannan dokoki daga baya sun fuskanci kalubale da dama.[28]
Dangane da lamarin "Duniya baki daya", dokar bata shafi nuna bambanci da wariyar launin fata na cikin ƙasashen ba.[29] Henry J. Richardson III ya musanta:[30]
Dukkanin manyan gwamnatoci na wancan lokacin a lokacin tsara dokokin U.N. da Shellar Haƙƙoƙin Duniya baki daya sunyi iya kokarinsu wajen tabbatar da cewa, ta kowacce hanya da aka sani na dokokin cikin gida da na kasa da kasa, cewa wadannan dokoki sun ta'allaka ne kadai ga ƙasa da ƙasa sannan kuma bata da wani doka na wajibci akan dokoki na cikin gida a tsakanin kasashe. Kowa da kowa ya lura cewa nuna bambancinsu akan masu karamin karfi don cin karensu ba babbaka akan yadda suke iya tilasta dokoki dangane da wadannan dokoki da zasu yadu zuwa wurare da dama zai samar da matsin lamba wanda zai tayar da hankula a siyasance.
Fara yakinCold War jim kadan bayan kirkirar UDHR ya haifar da rarrabuwa na adawa akan shigar da hakkokin zamantakewa da na tattalin arziki da kuma hakkokin 'yan kasa da na siyasa a cikin dokokin. Ƙasashen jari hujja sun bada muhimmanci sosai akan hakkokin 'yan kasa da na siyasa (kamar 'yancin cudanya da kuma fadan albarkacin baki), amma basu da niyyar wanzar da hakkokin tattalin arziki da na zamantakewa (kamar Haƙƙin yin aiki da kuma shiga kungiyoyi). Kasashen gurguzanci kuwa sun bada muhimmanci sosai akan hakkokin tatttalin arziki da na zamantakewa, kuma sunyi jayayya sosai akan dalilin shigar dasu cikin dokokin.[31]
A dalilin rarrabuwar da akayi, akan wadanne hakkoki suka kamata a shigar, sannan kuma wasu kasashe sun ki amincewa kuma sun goge wasu daga cikin dokokin, sannan kuma duk da cewa wasu daga cikin membobi irinsu Soviet bloc da sauran kasashe masu tasowa sunki amincewa da wasu hakkoki a zamanYarjejeniyar hadin kai, an raba hakkokin da ke cikin UDHR zuwa alkawarori guda biyu, inda aka bar wasu kasashe da su wanzar da wasu dokokin sannan kuma suyi watsi da wasu. Duk da cewa hakan ya bada damar kirkirar wadannan dokoki, amma ya tauye dokar cewa dukkanin hakkoki suna da alaka da juna, wanda wannan shine zuciyar UDHR ga wasu masana.[32][33]
Duk da cewa UDHR sansanci ne wanda ba'a iya tankwarawa, a yanzu ana daukar ta a matsayin wani bangare na tushenDokoki al'adu na kasa da kasa, wanda sashin shari'a na gwamnatocin kasashe ka iya hakayowa a yayin yanke wani hukunci.[34]
A cikin shekarar 1966, Majalisar Dinkin Duniya tayi amfani daInternational Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) da kumaInternational Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) a tsakaninsu, inda ta sanya hakkokin a karkashin UDHR akan kowacce kasa. Duk da haka, an tilasta su ne kawai a shekarar 1976, a lokacin da kasashe da dama suka sanya hannu a yarjejeniyar (duk da cewa an cimma nasarar ICCPR, alkawarin da ya kunshi hakkokin tattalin arziki da na zamantakewa, kasar Amurka ta sanya hannu ne kadai a yarjejeiyar ICCPR a shekarar 1992. ICESCR ta sanya kungiyar kasashe 155 don suyi aiki a wajen tabbatar da samar da hakkokin tattalin arziki da na zamantakewa ga mutane.
Akwai sauran dumbin yarjejeniyoyi da aka gudanar a tsakanin kasashe. An fi saninsu da kayan aikin hakkokin dan-Adam -human rights instruments. Daga cikin wadanda sukayi fice sun hada da:
Alhakin bada kariya wani shiri ne na kasashen da ke karkashin Majalisar Dinkin Duniya da su shiga tsakani kuma su kare mutane daga azzalumai. An ayyana ta a matsayin adalci a dalilin shiga tsakani da sojoji sukayi na kwanan nan. Misalin wannan shiga tsakani da akai ta suka shineShigan Sojoji kasar Libiya a shekara ta 2011 aYakin Basasan Farko na Libiya wanda dakarunNATO daQatar sukayi, wanda kudurin kare kasar daga zalunci ya dauki wani fasali na musamman na tumbuke gwamnatin da ake hari.[36][37]
Akwaihukunci akan tattalin arziki ga duk mutanenda da ko kasar da ta saba dokar hakkin dan-adam. An soke wannan hukunci ta fuskar yadda ake hukuntar da gabaki daya mutanen kasa ta fuskar tattalin arziki don a dankwafar da mutuncin gwamnatin wannan kasa a idan 'yan kasar.[38][39] Har wayau anyi jayayya da cewa, hukunci akan wanda suka sabawa gwamnatin manyan kasashe na karawa gwamnatin wadannan manyan kasa ta fuskar tattalin arzikin cikin gida a yayinda wannan gwamnati zata kirkiri hanyoyi da dama na samun kudade fiye da kasashen da suke suka ko adawa, wadanda za'a kara dankwafarwa.[40]
Hadarin take hakkokin dan-adam na karuwa tare da karuwar talauci a tsakanin mutane. Ana daukar 'ya'ya mata daga iyalai masu karamin karfi a kasashe masu rauni na tattalin arziki a matsayin nauyi acikin iyalin a dalilin haka ana aurar da mata da kananun shekarun da nufin cewa za'a ciyar dasu a karkashin iyalan da ke da arziki.[41]
Wasu masu suka na ra’ayin cewa haƙƙin ɗan adam na duniya ne, na ganin cewa haƙƙin ɗan adam ra’ayi ne da ya samo asali daga al’adun Yammacin duniya – musamman daga Turai, addinin Yahudanci da Kiristanci, da kuma zamanin wayewar kai. Suna jayayya cewa waɗannan haƙƙoƙin ba za a iya aiwatar da su yadda ya kamata ba a cikin al’adu da ba su ɗauki dabi’u da yanayin Yammacin duniya ba.
Masu ra’ayin dama suna ganin cewa haƙƙin ɗan adam ra’ayoyi ne da ba su da tushe, kuma tsoma baki ne cikin ikon ƙasa. A gefe guda, masu ra’ayin hagu na sukar cewa haƙƙin ɗan adam ba su iya cimma manufofin ci gaba, ko kuma suna hana samun wasu hanyoyi mafi inganci na ci gaba.
Simone Weil ta yi kira da a fi mai da hankali kan wajiban ɗan adam fiye da haƙƙoƙi. Ta bayar da shawarar a sake gina Ƙasar Faransa mai ‘yanci bisa tsarin wajibi da bukatun mutane, maimakon gina ta bisa haƙƙoƙi kawai. A cewarta, tsarin da ya fi mayar da hankali kan haƙƙin mutum ɗaya yana sa mu kau da kai daga wahalar wasu, domin ba mu da ƙarfin ɗabi’a da zai sa mu fuskanci irin wannan wahala. Weil ta jaddada cewa kowanne ɗan adam na da wajibi ga ɗan adam ɗan’uwansa, komai bambancin al’ada ko yanayi.Weil ta bayyana cewa haƙƙoƙi da wajibu abubuwa ne da ke da alaƙa da juna. Ta ce wajibu yana ɗawainiya da mutum kai tsaye, yayin da haƙƙi ba ya samuwa sai idan wasu sun gane cewa suna da nauyi ko alhakin sauke wani abu a gare mu. Idan mutum yana shi kaɗai a duniya, ba zai sami wani haƙƙi ba, amma zai ci gaba da kasancewa da wajibu. Ta jaddada cewa haƙƙoƙi na iya kasancewa da sharaɗi, amma wajibu kuwa ba ya canzawa – na kowa ne, kuma na dindindin.
↑1.01.11.21.31.4James Nickel, with assistance from Thomas Pogge, M.B.E. Smith, and Leif Wenar, 13 December 2013, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy,Human Rights, Retrieved 14 August 2014
↑Burns H. Weston, 20 March 2014, Encyclopædia Britannica,human rights, Retrieved 14 August 2014
↑Gary J. Bass (book reviewer), Samuel Moyn (author of book being reviewed), 20 October 2010, The New Republic,The Old New Thing, Retrieved 14 August 2014
↑The United Nations, Office of the High Commissioner of Human Rights, What are human rights? Archived 19 August 2014 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 14 August 2014
↑Macmillan Dictionary, human rights – definitionArchived 19 August 2014 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 14 August 2014, "the rights that everyone should have in a society, including the right to express opinions about the government or to have protection from harm"
↑International technical guidance on sexuality education: an evidence-informed approach(PDF). Paris: UNESCO. 2018. p. 16. ISBN978-9231002595. Archived (PDF) from the original on 13 November 2018. Retrieved 23 February 2018.
↑Niose, David (6 October 2016). "The Danger of Claiming That Rights Come From God".Psychology Today. Retrieved 18 May 2022.
↑Hazeltine, H. D. (1917). "The Influence of Magna Carta on American Constitutional Development". In Malden, Henry Elliot (ed.).Magna Carta commemoration essays. BiblioBazaar.ISBN978-1116447477.
↑"Britain's unwritten constitution". British Library. Archived from the original on 8 September 2021. Retrieved 27 November 2015.The key landmark is the Bill of Rights (1689), which established the supremacy of Parliament over the Crown ... providing for the regular meeting of Parliament, free elections to the Commons, free speech in parliamentary debates, and some basic human rights, most famously freedom from 'cruel or unusual punishment.
↑26.026.1Glendon, Mary Ann (July 2004). "The Rule of Law in The Universal Declaration of Human Rights".Northwestern University Journal of International Human Rights.2 (5). Archived from the original on 20 July 2011. Retrieved 7 January 2008.
↑Glendon, Mary Ann (2001).A World Made New: Eleanor Roosevelt and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Random House of Canada Ltd. ISBN0375506926.
↑Paul Gordon Lauren, "First Principles of Racial Equality: History and the Politics and Diplomacy of Human Rights Provisions in the United Nations Charter,"Human Rights Quarterly 5 (1983): 1–26.
↑Henry J. Richardson III, "Black People, Technocracy, and Legal Process: Thoughts, Fears, and Goals," inPublic Policy for the Black Community,ed. by Marguerite Ross Barnett and James A. Hefner (Port Washington, N.Y.: Alfred Publishing, 1976), p, 179.
↑Littman, David G. (19 January 2003). "Human Rights and Human Wrongs". Archived from the original on 11 January 2008. Retrieved 7 January 2008.The principal aim of the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) was to create a framework for a universal code based on mutual consent. The early years of the United Nations were overshadowed by the division between the Western and Communist conceptions of human rights, although neither side called into question the concept of universality. The debate centered on which "rights" – political, economic, and social – were to be included among the Universal Instruments
↑Akbarzadeh, Shahram; Saba, Arif (2020). "UN paralysis over Syria: the responsibility to protect or regime change?".International Politics.56 (4): 536–550.doi:10.1057/s41311-018-0149-x.S2CID150004890.
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