Kingdom of Bulgaria,Austria–Hungary,Austrian Empire,Kingdom of Hungary
Dey follow
Byzantine Empire,Empire of Trebizond
Replaced by
Government of the Grand National Assembly,occupation of Smyrna,Principality of Serbia
Date dem dissolve, abolish anaa demolish
17 November 1922
Flag
flags of the Ottoman Empire
Coat of arms
coat of arms of the Ottoman Empire
History of topic
history of the Ottoman Empire
Official religion
Sunni Islam
Economy of topic
economic history of the Ottoman Empire
Demographics of topic
demographics of the Ottoman Empire
DeOttoman Empire, dem sanso call deTurkish Empire,[1][2] na e be an empire wey control much of Southeast Europe, West Asia, den North Africa from de 14th to early 20th centuries; e sanso control parts of southeastern Central Europe, between de early 16th den early 18th centuries.[3][4][5]
While na dem once think de Ottoman Empire enter a period of decline after de death of Suleiman the Magnificent, modern academic consensus dey posit dat na de empire continue to maintain a flexible den strong economy, society den military into much of de 18th century. De Ottomans suffer military defeats insyd de late 18th den early 19th centuries, wey dey culminate insyd de loss of territory. Plus rising nationalism, na a number of new states emerge insyd de Balkans. Dey followTanzimat reforms over de course of de 19th century, de Ottoman state cam be more powerful den organized internally. Insyd de 1876 revolution, na de Ottoman Empire attempt constitutional monarchy, before reverting to a royalist dictatorship under Abdul Hamid II, dey follow de Great Eastern Crisis.
Over de course of de late 19th century, Ottoman intellectuals dem know as Young Turks sought to liberalize den rationalize society den politics along Western lines, wey dey culminate insyd de Young Turk Revolution of 1908 wey de Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) lead, wich reestablish a constitutional monarchy. However, dey follow de disastrous Balkan Wars, de CUP cam be increasingly radicalized den nationalistic, wey lead a coup d'état insyd 1913 wey na dem establish a dictatorship.
Insyd de 19th den early 20th centuries, na persecution of Muslims during de Ottoman contraction den insyd de Russian Empire result in large-scale loss of life den mass migration into modern-day Turkey from de Balkans, Caucasus, den Crimea.[7] Na de CUP join World War I on de side of de Central Powers. Na e struggle plus internal dissent, especially de Arab Revolt, wey dem engage insyd genocide against Armenians, Assyrians, den Greeks. Insyd de aftermath of World War I, de victorious Allied Powers occupy den partition de Ottoman Empire, wich loose ein southern territories to de United Kingdom den France. De successful Turkish War of Independence, wey Mustafa Kemal Atatürk lead against de occupying Allies, lead to de emergence of deRepublic of Turkey den de abolition of de sultanate insyd 1922.
↑Kaser, 2011, p. 336: "The emerging Christian nation states justified the prosecution of their Muslims by arguing that they were their former "suppressors". The historical balance: between about 1820 and 1920, millions of Muslim casualties and refugees back to the remaining Ottoman Empire had to be registered; estimations speak about 5 million casualties and the same number of displaced persons"Fábos, 2005, p. 437: "Muslims had been the majority in Anatolia, the Crimea, the Balkans, and the Caucasus and a plurality in southern Russia and sections of Romania. Most of these lands were within or contiguous with the Ottoman Empire. By 1923, 'only Anatolia, eastern Thrace, and a section of the southeastern Caucasus remained to the Muslim land ... Millions of Muslims, most of them Turks, had died; millions more had fled to what is today Turkey. Between 1821 and 1922, more than five million Muslims were driven from their lands. Five and one-half million Muslims died, some of them killed in wars, others perishing as refugees from starvation and disease' (McCarthy 1995, 1). Since people in the Ottoman Empire were classified by religion, Turks, Albanians, Bosnians, and all other Muslim groups were recognized—and recognized themselves—simply as Muslims. Hence, their persecution and forced migration is of central importance to an analysis of 'Muslim migration.'"
Schayegh, Cyrus (2024). "A Late/Post-Imperial Region of Difference: The Ottoman Empire and its Successor Polities in Southeastern Europe, Turkey, and the Arab East, c. 1850s–1940s".Journal of World History.35 (4):579–622.doi:10.1353/jwh.2024.a943172.Between 1821 and the 1919–1922 Turko-Greek War, about five and a half million Muslims died of religious-ethnic war-related causes, including disease and hunger during forced migration, in southeastern Europe and the Crimea and Caucasus.
Findley, 2008, pp. 16, 35Kirişci, 2008, pp. 175–177Karpat, 2001, p. 343: "The main migrations started from Crimea in 1856 and were followed by those from the Caucasus and the Balkans in 1862 to 1878 and 1912 to 1916. These have continued to our day. The quantitative indicators cited in various sources show that during this period a total of about 7 million migrants from Crimea, the Caucasus, the Balkans, and the Mediterranean islands settled in Anatolia. These immigrants were overwhelmingly Muslim, except for a number of Jews who left their homes in the Balkans and Russia in order to live in the Ottoman lands. By the end of the century the immigrants and their descendants constituted some 30 to 40 percent of the total population of Anatolia, and in some western areas their percentage was even higher." ... "The immigrants called themselves Muslims rather than Turks, although most of those from Bulgaria, Macedonia, and eastern Serbia descended from the Turkish Anatolian stock who settled in the Balkans in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries."Karpat, 2004, pp. 5–6: "Migration was a major force in the social and cultural reconstruction of the Ottoman state in the nineteenth century. While some seven to nine million, mostly Muslim, refugees from lost territories in the Caucasus, Crimea, Balkans and Mediterranean islands migrated to Anatolia and Eastern Thrace, during the last quarter of the nineteenth and the early part of the twentieth centuries..."Pekesen, 2012: "The immigration had far-reaching social and political consequences for the Ottoman Empire and Turkey." ... "Between 1821 and 1922, some 5.3 million Muslims migrated to the Empire.50 It is estimated that in 1923, the year the republic of Turkey was founded, about 25 per cent of the population came from immigrant families.51"Biondich, 2011, p. 93: "The road from Berlin to Lausanne was littered with millions of casualties. In the period between 1878 and 1912, as many as two million Muslims emigrated voluntarily or involuntarily from the Balkans. When one adds those who were killed or expelled between 1912 and 1923, the number of Muslim casualties from the Balkan far exceeds three million. By 1923 fewer than one million remained in the Balkans"Armour, 2012, p. 213: "To top it all, the Empire was host to a steady stream of Muslim refugees. Russia between 1854 and 1876 expelled 1.4 million Crimean Tartars, and in the mid-1860s another 600,000 Circassians from the Caucasus. Their arrival produced further economic dislocation and expense."Bosma, Lucassen, p. 17: "In total, many millions of Turks (or, more precisely, Muslim immigrants, including some from the Caucasus) were involved in this 'repatriation' – sometimes more than once in a lifetime – the last stage of which may have been the immigration of seven hundred thousand Turks from Bulgaria between 1940 and 1990. Most of these immigrants settled in urban north-western Anatolia. Today between a third and a quarter of the Republic's population are descendants of these Muslim immigrants, known as Muhacir or Göçmen"
Bosma, Ulbe; Lucassen, Jan; Oostindie, Gert, eds. (2012).Postcolonial Migrants and Identity Politics: Europe, Russia, Japan and the United States in Comparison. International Studies in Social History. Vol. 18. Berghahn Books.doi:10.1515/9780857453280.ISBN978-0-85745-328-0.
Volume 1: Kate Fleet ed., "Byzantium to Turkey 1071–1453." Cambridge University Press, 2009.
Volume 2: Suraiya N. Faroqhi and Kate Fleet eds., "The Ottoman Empire as a World Power, 1453–1603." Cambridge University Press, 2012.
Volume 3: Suraiya N. Faroqhi ed., "The Later Ottoman Empire, 1603–1839." Cambridge University Press, 2006.
Volume 4: Reşat Kasaba ed., "Turkey in the Modern World." Cambridge University Press, 2008.
Agoston, Gabor and Bruce Masters, eds.Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire (2008)
Faroqhi, Suraiya.The Ottoman Empire: A Short History (2009) 196pp
Finkel, Caroline (2005).Osman's Dream: The Story of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1923. Basic Books.ISBN978-0-465-02396-7.
Hathaway, Jane (2008).The Arab Lands under Ottoman Rule, 1516–1800. Pearson Education Ltd.ISBN978-0-582-41899-8.
Howard, Douglas A. (2017).A History of the Ottoman Empire. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0-521-72730-3.
Imber, Colin (2009).The Ottoman Empire, 1300–1650: The Structure of Power (2 ed.). New York: Palgrave Macmillan.ISBN978-0-230-57451-9.
İnalcık, Halil; Donald Quataert, eds. (1994).An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1914. Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0-521-57456-3. Two volumes.
Ágoston, Gábor (2014). "Firearms and Military Adaptation: The Ottomans and the European Military Revolution, 1450–1800".Journal of World History.25:85–124.doi:10.1353/jwh.2014.0005.S2CID143042353.
Aksan, Virginia (2007).Ottoman Wars, 1700–1860: An Empire Besieged. Pearson Education Limited.ISBN978-0-582-30807-7.
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Aksan, Virginia H. "Mobilization of Warrior Populations in the Ottoman Context, 1750–1850." inFighting for a Living: A Comparative Study of Military Labour: 1500–2000 ed. by Erik-Jan Zürcher (2014)online.
Aksan, Virginia. "Breaking the spell of the Baron de Tott: Reframing the question of military reform in the Ottoman Empire, 1760–1830."International History Review 24.2 (2002): 253–277online.
Aksan, Virginia H. "The Ottoman military and state transformation in a globalizing world."Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East 27.2 (2007): 259–272online.
Aksan, Virginia H. "Whatever happened to the Janissaries? Mobilization for the 1768–1774 Russo-Ottoman War."War in History 5.1 (1998): 23–36online.
Albrecht-Carrié, René.A Diplomatic History of Europe Since the Congress of Vienna (1958), 736pp; a basic introduction, 1815–1955online free to borrow
Çelik, Nihat. "Muslims, Non-Muslims and Foreign Relations: Ottoman Diplomacy."International Review of Turkish Studies 1.3 (2011): 8–30.onlineArchived 28 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine
Fahmy, Khaled.All the Pasha's Men: Mehmed Ali, His Army and the Making of Modern Egypt (Cambridge University Press. 1997)
Hall, Richard C. ed.War in the Balkans: An Encyclopedic History from the Fall of the Ottoman Empire to the Breakup of Yugoslavia (2014)
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Merriman, Roger Bigelow.Suleiman the Magnificent, 1520–1566 (Harvard University Press, 1944)online
Miller, William.The Ottoman Empire and its successors, 1801–1922 (2nd ed 1927)online, strong on foreign policy
Minawi, Mustafa.The Ottoman Scramble for Africa Empire and Diplomacy in the Sahara and the Hijaz (2016)online
Nicolle, David.Armies of the Ottoman Turks 1300–1774 (Osprey Publishing, 1983)
Palmer, Alan.The Decline and Fall of the Ottoman Empire (1994).
Rhoads, Murphey (1999).Ottoman Warfare, 1500–1700. Rutgers University Press.ISBN978-1-85728-389-1.
Soucek, Svat (2015).Ottoman Maritime Wars, 1416–1700. Istanbul: The Isis Press.ISBN978-975-428-554-3.
Uyar, Mesut; Erickson, Edward (2009).A Military History of the Ottomans: From Osman to Atatürk. Abc-Clio.ISBN978-0-275-98876-0.
McMeekin, Sean.The Berlin-Baghdad Express: The Ottoman Empire and Germany's Bid for World Power (2010)
Mikhail, Alan.God's Shadow: Sultan Selim, His Ottoman Empire, and the Making of the Modern World (2020)ISBN978-1-63149-239-6 on Selim I (1470–1529)
Pamuk, Sevket.A Monetary History of the Ottoman Empire (1999). pp. 276
Stone, Norman "Turkey in the Russian Mirror" pp. 86–100 fromRussia War, Peace and Diplomacy edited by Mark & Ljubica Erickson, Weidenfeld & Nicolson: London, 2004ISBN0-297-84913-1.
Aksan, Virginia H. "What's Up in Ottoman Studies?"Journal of the Ottoman and Turkish Studies Association 1.1–2 (2014): 3–21.onlineArchived 9 August 2020 at the Wayback Machine
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Finkel, Caroline. "Ottoman history: whose history is it?."International Journal of Turkish Studies 14.1/2 (2008).
Gerber, Haim. "Ottoman Historiography: Challenges of the Twenty-First Century."Journal of the American Oriental Society, 138#2 (2018), p. 369+.onlineArchived 28 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine
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Kayalı, Hasan (December 2017). "The Ottoman Experience of World War I: Historiographical Problems and Trends".The Journal of Modern History (in English).89 (4):875–907.doi:10.1086/694391.ISSN0022-2801.S2CID148953435.
Lieven, Dominic.Empire: The Russian Empire and its rivals (Yale University Press, 2002), comparisons with Russian, British, & Habsburg empires.excerptArchived 19 October 2016 at the Wayback Machine
Mikhail, Alan; Philliou, Christine M. "The Ottoman Empire and the Imperial Turn,"Comparative Studies in Society & History (2012) 54#4 pp. 721–745. Comparing the Ottomans to other empires opens new insights about the dynamics of imperial rule, periodisation, and political transformation
