Magnesium is achemical element; it hassymbolMg andatomic number 12. It is a shiny gray metal having a low density, low melting point and high chemical reactivity. Like the otheralkaline earth metals (group 2 of theperiodic table), it occurs naturally only in combination with other elements and almost always has anoxidation state of +2. It reacts readily with air to form a thinpassivation coating ofmagnesium oxide that inhibits further corrosion of the metal. The free metal burns with a brilliant-white light. The metal is obtained mainly byelectrolysis of magnesiumsalts obtained frombrine. It is less dense thanaluminium and is used primarily as a component in strong and lightweightalloys that contain aluminium.
In thecosmos, magnesium is produced in large, agingstars by the sequential addition of threehelium nuclei to acarbon nucleus. When such stars explode assupernovas, much of the magnesium is expelled into theinterstellar medium where it may recycle into new star systems. Magnesium is the eighth most abundant element in theEarth's crust[13] and the fourth most common element in the Earth (afteriron,oxygen andsilicon), making up 13% of the planet's mass and a large fraction of the planet'smantle. It is the third most abundant element dissolved in seawater, aftersodium andchlorine.[14]
This element is the eleventh most abundant element by mass in thehuman body and is essential to all cells and some 300enzymes.[15] Magnesium ions interact withpolyphosphate compounds such asATP,DNA, andRNA. Hundreds of enzymes require magnesium ions to function. Magnesium compounds are used medicinally as commonlaxatives andantacids (such asmilk of magnesia), and to stabilize abnormal nerve excitation or blood vessel spasm in such conditions aseclampsia.[15]
Characteristics
Physical properties
Elemental magnesium is a gray-white lightweight metal, two-thirds the density of aluminium. Magnesium has the lowest melting (923 K (650 °C)) and the lowest boiling point (1,363 K (1,090 °C)) of all the alkaline earth metals.[16]
Pure polycrystalline magnesium is brittle and easily fractures alongshear bands. It becomes much moremalleable when alloyed with small amounts of other metals, such as 1% aluminium.[17] The malleability of polycrystalline magnesium can also be significantly improved by reducing its grain size to about 1 μm or less.[18]
When finely powdered, magnesium reacts with water to produce hydrogen gas:
However, this reaction is much less dramatic than the reactions of the alkali metals with water, because the magnesium hydroxide builds up on the surface of the magnesium metal and inhibits further reaction.[19]
Chemical properties
Oxidation
The principal property of magnesium metal is its reducing power. One hint is that ittarnishes slightly when exposed to air, although, unlike the heavieralkaline earth metals, an oxygen-free environment is unnecessary for storage because magnesium is protected by a thin layer of oxide that is fairly impermeable and difficult to remove.[20]
Direct reaction of magnesium with air or oxygen at ambient pressure forms only the "normal" oxide MgO. However, this oxide may be combined with hydrogen peroxide to formmagnesium peroxide, MgO2, and at low temperature the peroxide may be further reacted with ozone to form magnesium superoxide Mg(O2)2.[21]
Magnesium reacts with nitrogen in the solid state if it is powdered and heated to just below the melting point, formingMagnesium nitride Mg3N2.[22]
Magnesium reacts with water at room temperature, though it reacts much more slowly than calcium, a similar group 2 metal.[20] When submerged in water,hydrogen bubbles form slowly on the surface of the metal; this reaction happens much more rapidly with powdered magnesium.[20] The reaction also occurs faster with higher temperatures (see§ Safety precautions). Magnesium's reversible reaction with water can be harnessed to store energy and run amagnesium-based engine. Magnesium also reacts exothermically with most acids such ashydrochloric acid (HCl), producingmagnesium chloride and hydrogen gas, similar to the HCl reaction with aluminium, zinc, and many other metals.[23] Although it is difficult to ignite in mass or bulk, magnesium metal will ignite.
Magnesium may also be used as an igniter forthermite, a mixture of aluminium and iron oxide powder that ignites only at a very high temperature.
A prominent organomagnesium reagent beyond Grignard reagents ismagnesium anthracene, which is used as a source of highly active magnesium. The relatedbutadiene-magnesium adduct serves as a source for the butadiene dianion.
Complexes of dimagnesium(I) have been observed.[24]
Detection in solution
The presence of magnesium ions can be detected by the addition ofammonium chloride,ammonium hydroxide andmonosodium phosphate to an aqueous or dilute HCl solution of the salt. The formation of a white precipitate indicates the presence of magnesium ions.
Azo violet dye can also be used, turning deep blue in the presence of an alkaline solution of magnesium salt. The color is due to theadsorption of azo violet byMg(OH)2.
Magnesium is brittle, and fractures alongshear bands when its thickness is reduced by only 10% bycold rolling (top). However, after alloying Mg with 1% Al and 0.1% Ca, its thickness could be reduced by 54% using the same process (bottom).
As of 2013, magnesium alloys consumption was less than one million tonnes per year, compared with 50 million tonnes ofaluminium alloys. Their use has been historically limited by the tendency of Mg alloys to corrode,[25]creep at high temperatures, and combust.[26]
Corrosion
In magnesium alloys, the presence ofiron,nickel,copper, orcobalt strongly activatescorrosion. In more than trace amounts, these metals precipitate asintermetallic compounds, and the precipitate locales function as activecathodic sites that reduce water, causing the loss of magnesium.[26] Controlling the quantity of these metals improves corrosion resistance. Sufficientmanganese overcomes the corrosive effects of iron. This requires precise control over composition, increasing costs.[26] Adding a cathodic poison captures atomic hydrogen within the structure of a metal. This prevents the formation of free hydrogen gas, an essential factor of corrosive chemical processes. The addition of about one in three hundred partsarsenic reduces the corrosion rate of magnesium in a salt solution by a factor of nearly ten.[26][27]
High-temperature creep and flammability
Magnesium's tendency tocreep (gradually deform) at high temperatures is greatly reduced by alloying with zinc andrare-earth elements.[28] Flammability is significantly reduced by a small amount ofcalcium in the alloy.[26] By using rare-earth elements, it may be possible to manufacture magnesium alloys that are able to not catch fire at higher temperatures compared to magnesium'sliquidus and in some cases potentially pushing it close to magnesium's boiling point.[29]
Magnesium has three stableisotopes:24 Mg,25 Mg and26 Mg. All are present in significant amounts in nature (see table of isotopes above). About 79% of Mg is24 Mg. The isotope28 Mg is radioactive and in the 1950s to 1970s was produced by several nuclear power plants for use in scientific experiments. This isotope has a relatively short half-life (21 hours) and its use was limited by shipping times.
The nuclide26 Mg has found application inisotopicgeology, similar to that of aluminium.26 Mg is aradiogenic daughter product of26 Al, which has ahalf-life of 717,000 years. Excessive quantities of stable26 Mg have been observed in theCa-Al-rich inclusions of somecarbonaceous chondritemeteorites. This anomalous abundance is attributed to the decay of its parent26 Al in the inclusions, and researchers conclude that such meteorites were formed in thesolar nebula before the26 Al had decayed. These are among the oldest objects in theSolar System and contain preserved information about its early history.
It is conventional to plot26 Mg/24 Mg against an Al/Mg ratio. In anisochron dating plot, the Al/Mg ratio plotted is27 Al/24 Mg. The slope of the isochron has no age significance, but indicates the initial26 Al/27 Al ratio in the sample at the time when the systems were separated from a common reservoir.
Magnesium is the eighth-most-abundant element in the Earth's crust by mass and tied in seventh place withiron inmolarity.[13] It is found in large deposits ofmagnesite,dolomite, and otherminerals, and in mineral waters, where magnesium ion is soluble.[34]
TheMg2+ cation is the second-most-abundant cation in seawater (about1⁄8 the mass of sodium ions in a given sample), which makes seawater and sea salt attractive commercial sources for Mg.
Production quantities
World production was approximately 1,100 kt in 2017, with the bulk being produced in China (930 kt) and Russia (60 kt).[36] The United States was in the 20th century the major world supplier of this metal, supplying 45% of world production even as recently as 1995. Since the Chinese mastery of the Pidgeon process the US market share is at 7%, with a single US producer left as of 2013: US Magnesium, aRenco Group company located on the shores of theGreat Salt Lake.[37]
In September 2021, China took steps to reduce production of magnesium as a result of a government initiative to reduce energy availability for manufacturing industries, leading to a significant price increase.[38]
Pidgeon and Bolzano processes
An Iranian worker tends to the Pidgeon process
ThePidgeon process and theBolzano process are similar. In both, magnesium oxide is the precursor to magnesium metal. The magnesium oxide is produced as a solid solution with calcium oxide by calcining the mineraldolomite, which is a solid solution of calcium and magnesium carbonates:
CaCO3·MgCO3 → MgO·CaO + 2 CO2
Reduction occurs at high temperatures with silicon. A ferrosilicon alloy is used rather than pure silicon as it is more economical. The iron component has no bearing on the reaction, having the simplified equation:[citation needed]
MgO·CaO +Si → 2 Mg + Ca2SiO4
The calcium oxide combines with silicon as the oxygen scavenger, yielding the very stable calcium silicate. The Mg/Ca ratio of the precursors can be adjusted by the addition of MgO or CaO.[39]
The Pidgeon and the Bolzano process differ in the details of the heating and the configuration of the reactor. Both generate gaseous Mg that is condensed and collected. The Pidgeon process dominates the worldwide production.[40][41] The Pidgeon method is less technologically complex and because of distillation/vapour deposition conditions, a high purity product is easily achievable.[40] China is almost completely reliant on thesilicothermicPidgeon process.
Besides the Pidgeon process, the second most used process for magnesium production iselectrolysis. This is a two step process. The first step is to prepare feedstock containing magnesium chloride and the second step is to dissociate the compound inelectrolytic cells as magnesium metal andchlorine gas.[41]
The temperatures at which this reaction is operated is between 680 and 750 °C.[41]
The magnesium chloride can be obtained using theDow process, a process that mixes sea water and dolomite in a flocculator or by dehydration of magnesium chloride brines. The electrolytic cells are partially submerged in a molten salt electrolyte to which the produced magnesium chloride is added in concentrations between 6–18%.[41] This process does have its share of disadvantages including production of harmfulchlorine gas and the overall reaction being very energy intensive, creating environmental risks.[45] The Pidgeon process is more advantageous regarding its simplicity, shorter construction period, low power consumption and overall good magnesium quality compared to the electrolysis method.[20]
In the United States, magnesium was once obtained principally with the Dow process inCorpus Christi TX, byelectrolysis of fused magnesium chloride frombrine andsea water. A saline solution containingMg2+ ions is first treated withlime (calcium oxide) and the precipitatedmagnesium hydroxide is collected:
The salt is then electrolyzed in the molten state. At thecathode, theMg2+ ion is reduced by twoelectrons to magnesium metal:
Mg2+ + 2 e− → Mg
At theanode, each pair ofCl− ions is oxidized tochlorine gas, releasing two electrons to complete the circuit:
2Cl− →Cl 2(g) + 2 e−
Carbothermic process
Thecarbothermic route to magnesium has been recognized as a low energy, yet high productivity path to magnesium extraction. The chemistry is as follows:
The rotary kiln is used for calcination
C + MgO → CO + Mg
A disadvantage of this method is that slow cooling the vapour can cause the reaction to quickly revert. To prevent this from happening, the magnesium can be dissolved directly in a suitable metal solvent before reversion starts happening. Rapidquenching of the vapour can also be performed to prevent reversion.[46]
YSZ process
A newer process, solid oxide membrane technology, involves the electrolytic reduction of MgO. At the cathode,Mg2+ ion is reduced by twoelectrons to magnesium metal. The electrolyte isyttria-stabilized zirconia (YSZ). The anode is a liquid metal. At the YSZ/liquid metal anodeO2− is oxidized. A layer of graphite borders the liquid metal anode, and at this interface carbon and oxygen react to form carbon monoxide. When silver is used as the liquid metal anode, there is no reductant carbon or hydrogen needed, and only oxygen gas is evolved at the anode.[47] It was reported in 2011 that this method provides a 40% reduction in cost per pound over the electrolytic reduction method.[48]
Rieke process
Rieke et al. developed a "general approach for preparing highly reactive metal powders by reducing metal salts in ethereal or hydrocarbon solvents using alkali metals as reducing agents" now known as theRieke process.[49] Rieke finalized the identification ofRieke metals in 1989,[50] one of which was Rieke-magnesium, first produced in 1974.[51]
History
The name magnesium originates from theGreek word for locations related to the tribe of theMagnetes, either a district inThessaly calledMagnesia[52] orMagnesia ad Sipylum, now in Turkey.[53] It is related tomagnetite andmanganese, which also originated from this area, and required differentiation as separate substances. Seemanganese for this history.
In 1618, a farmer at Epsom in England attempted to give his cows water from a local well. The cows refused to drink because of the water's bitter taste, but the farmer noticed that the water seemed to heal scratches and rashes. The substance obtained by evaporating the water became known asEpsom salts and its fame spread.[54] It was eventually recognized as hydrated magnesium sulfate,MgSO 4·7 H 2O.[55]
The metal itself was first isolated bySir Humphry Davy in England in 1808. He used electrolysis on a mixture ofmagnesia andmercuric oxide.[56]Antoine Bussy prepared it in coherent form in 1831. Davy's first suggestion for a name was 'magnium',[56] but the name magnesium is now used in most European languages.[57]
Further discoveries about magnesium were made by the father ofphysical chemistry inImperial Russia,Nikolai Beketov (1827-1911), who established that magnesium and zinc displaced other metals from their salts under high temperatures.
Magnesium is the third-most-commonly-used structural metal, followingiron and aluminium.[58] The main applications of magnesium are, in order: aluminium alloys,die-casting (alloyed withzinc),[59] removingsulfur in the production of iron and steel, and the production oftitanium in theKroll process.[60]
Magnesium is used in lightweight materials and alloys. For example, when infused with silicon carbidenanoparticles, it has extremely high specific strength.[61]
Historically, magnesium was one of the main aerospace construction metals and was used for German military aircraft as early as World War I and extensively for German aircraft in World War II. The Germans coined the name "Elektron" for magnesium alloy, a term which is still used today. In the commercial aerospace industry, magnesium was generally restricted to engine-related components, due to fire and corrosion hazards. Magnesium alloy use in aerospace is increasing in the 21st century, driven by the importance of fuel economy.[62] Magnesium alloys can act as replacements for aluminium and steel alloys in structural applications.[63][64]
Porsche used magnesium alloy frames in the917/053 that won Le Mans in 1971, and continues to use magnesium alloys for its engine blocks due to the weight advantage.[69]
Volkswagen Group has used magnesium in its engine components for many years.[70]
BMW used magnesium alloy blocks in theirN52 engine, including an aluminium alloy insert for the cylinder walls and cooling jackets surrounded by a high-temperature magnesium alloyAJ62A. The engine was used worldwide between 2005 and 2011 in various 1, 3, 5, 6, and 7 series models; as well as the Z4, X1, X3, and X5.[72]
Chevrolet used the magnesium alloy AE44 in the 2006 CorvetteZ06.[73]
Both AJ62A and AE44 are recent developments in high-temperature low-creep magnesium alloys. The general strategy for such alloys is to formintermetallic precipitates at thegrain boundaries, for example by addingmischmetal orcalcium.[74]
Electronics
Because of low density and good mechanical and electrical properties, magnesium is used for manufacturing of mobile phones, laptop andtablet computers, cameras, and other electronic components.[75] It was used as a premium feature because of its light weight in some 2020 laptops.[76]
Products made of magnesium: firestarter and shavings, sharpener, magnesium ribbon
Source of light
Magnesium is flammable, burning at a temperature of approximately 3,100 °C (3,370 K; 5,610 °F),[77] and theautoignition temperature of magnesium ribbon is approximately 473 °C (746 K; 883 °F).[78] Magnesium's high combustion temperature makes it a useful tool for starting emergency fires. When burning in air, magnesium produces a brilliant white light that includes strong ultraviolet wavelengths.
Magnesium powder (flash powder) was used for subject illumination in the early days ofphotography.[79][80] Magnesium filament used in electrically ignited single-use photographyflashbulbs replaced this usage eventually. Magnesium powder is used infireworks and marineflares where a brilliant light is required, and in trick self-relighting birthday candles. It was also used for various theatrical effects,[81] such as lightning,[82] pistol flashes,[83] and supernatural appearances.[84]
Magnesium is often used to ignite thermite or other materials that require a high ignition temperature. Magnesium continues to be used as anincendiary element in warfare.[85]
Magnesium firestarter (in left hand), used with apocket knife andflint to create sparks that ignite the shavings
Flame temperatures of magnesium and magnesium alloys can reach 3,100 °C (5,610 °F),[77] although flame height above the burning metal is usually less than 300 mm (12 in).[86] Once ignited, such fires are difficult to extinguish because they resist several substances commonly used to put out fires; combustion continues innitrogen (formingmagnesium nitride),[87] incarbon dioxide (formingmagnesium oxide andcarbon),[88] and in water (forming magnesium oxide and hydrogen, which also combusts due to heat in the presence of additional oxygen). This property[which?] was used in incendiary weapons during thefirebombing of cities inWorld War II, where the only practicalcivil defense was to smother a burning flare under dry sand[why?] to exclude atmosphere from the combustion.[citation needed]
Alloyed with aluminium with aluminium-magnesium alloys being used mainly forbeverage cans,[93] sports equipment such as golf clubs,[94] fishing reels,[95] andbows and arrows.[96]
Many car and aircraft manufacturers have made engine and body parts from magnesium.[97]
The important interaction betweenphosphate and magnesium ions makes magnesium essential to the basicnucleic acid chemistry of all cells of all known living organisms. More than 300enzymes require magnesium ions for their catalytic action, including all enzymes using or synthesizingATP and those that use othernucleotides to synthesizeDNA andRNA. The ATP molecule is normally found in achelate with a magnesium ion.[109]
Nutrition
Diet
Examples of food sources of magnesium (clockwise from top left): bran muffins, pumpkin seeds, barley, buckwheat flour, low-fat vanilla yogurt, trail mix, halibut steaks, garbanzo beans, lima beans, soybeans, and spinach
Spices, nuts, cereals, cocoa and vegetables are good sources of magnesium.[15] Green leafy vegetables such as spinach are also rich in magnesium.[110]
Dietary recommendations
In theUK, the recommended daily values by theDietary Reference Intake for magnesium are300 mg for men and270 mg for women.[111]
In the U.S. theRecommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) are400 mg for men ages 19–30 and420 mg for older; for women310 mg for ages 19–30 and320 mg for older.[112]
An adult body contains22–26 grams of magnesium,[15][115] with 60% in theskeleton, 39% intracellular (20% in skeletal muscle), and 1% extracellular.[15] Serum levels are typically0.7–1.0 mmol/L or1.8–2.4 mEq/L. Serum magnesium levels may be normal even when intracellular magnesium is deficient. The mechanisms for maintaining the magnesium level in the serum are varyinggastrointestinal absorption andrenal excretion. Intracellular magnesium is correlated with intracellularpotassium. Increased magnesium lowerscalcium[116] and can either prevent hypercalcemia or cause hypocalcemia depending on the initial level.[116] Both low and high protein intake conditions inhibit magnesium absorption, as does the amount ofphosphate,phytate, andfat in the gut. Unabsorbed dietary magnesium is excreted in feces; absorbed magnesium is excreted in urine and sweat.[117]
Detection in serum and plasma
Magnesium status may be assessed by measuring serum and erythrocyte magnesium concentrations coupled withurinary andfecal magnesium content, but intravenous magnesium loading tests are more accurate and practical.[118] A retention of 20% or more of the injected amount indicates deficiency.[119] As of 2004, nobiomarker has been established for magnesium.[120]
Magnesium concentrations in plasma or serum may be monitored for efficacy and safety in those receiving the drugtherapeutically, to confirm the diagnosis in potential poisoning victims. The newborn children of mothers who receivedparenteral magnesium sulfate during labor may exhibit toxicity with normal serum magnesium levels.[121]
Deficiency
Low plasma magnesium (hypomagnesemia) is common: it is found in 2.5–15% of the general population.[122] From 2005 to 2006, 48 percent of the United States population consumed less magnesium than recommended in theDietary Reference Intake.[123] Other causes are increased renal or gastrointestinal loss, an increased intracellular shift, and proton-pump inhibitor antacid therapy. Most are asymptomatic, but symptoms referable toneuromuscular,cardiovascular, and metabolic dysfunction may occur.[122]Alcoholism is often associated with magnesium deficiency. Chronically low serum magnesium levels are associated withmetabolic syndrome,diabetes mellitus type 2,fasciculation, and hypertension.[124]
Therapy
Intravenous magnesium is recommended by the ACC/AHA/ESC 2006 Guidelines for Management of Patients With Ventricular Arrhythmias and the Prevention of Sudden Cardiac Death for patients with ventriculararrhythmia associated withtorsades de pointes who present withlong QT syndrome; and for the treatment of patients with digoxin induced arrhythmias.[125]
Hypomagnesemia, including that caused by alcoholism, is reversible by oral or parenteral magnesium administration depending on the degree of deficiency.[128]
There is limited evidence that magnesium supplementation may play a role in the prevention and treatment ofmigraine.[129]
Other medical applications
Sorted by type of magnesium salt, other therapeutic applications include:
Magnesium stearate is a slightly flammable white powder with lubricating properties. Inpharmaceutical technology, it is used in pharmacological manufacture to preventtablets from sticking to the equipment while compressing the ingredients into tablet form.
Magnesium carbonate powder is used by athletes such as gymnasts, weightlifters, and climbers to eliminate palm sweat, prevent sticking, and improve the grip on gymnastic apparatus, lifting bars, and climbing rocks.
Overdose
Overdose from dietary sources alone is unlikely because excess magnesium in the blood is promptly filtered by thekidneys.Overdose is more likely in the presence of impaired renal function.[122] Overdose is likely in cases of excessive intake of supplements.Megavitamin therapy has caused death in a child,[131] and severehypermagnesemia in a woman and a young girl who had healthy kidneys.[132][133] The most common symptoms of overdose are nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea; other symptoms includehypotension, confusion, slowed heart andrespiratory rates, deficiencies of other minerals,coma,cardiac arrhythmia, and death fromcardiac arrest.[116]
Function in plants
Plants require magnesium to synthesizechlorophyll, essential forphotosynthesis.[134] Magnesium in the center of theporphyrin ring in chlorophyll functions in a manner similar to the iron in the center of the porphyrin ring inheme.Magnesium deficiency in plants causes late-season yellowing between leaf veins,[135] especially in older leaves, and can be corrected by either applying epsom salts (which is rapidly leached), or crushed dolomitic limestone, to the soil.
Magnesium block heated with blow torch to self-combustion, emitting intense white light
Magnesium metal and its alloys can be explosive hazards; they are highly flammable in their pure form when molten or in powder or ribbon form. Burning or molten magnesium reacts violently with water. When working with powdered magnesium,safety glasses witheye protection and UV filters (such as welders use) are employed because burning magnesium producesultraviolet light that can permanently damage theretina of a human eye.[138]
Magnesium is capable of reducingwater and releasing highly flammablehydrogen gas:[139]
Therefore, water cannot extinguish magnesium fires. The hydrogen gas produced intensifies the fire. Dry sand is an effective smothering agent, but only on relatively level and flat surfaces.
Hence, carbon dioxide fuels rather than extinguishes magnesium fires.
Burning magnesium can be quenched by using aClass D dry chemical fire extinguisher, or by covering the fire withsand or magnesium foundry flux to remove its air source.[140]
^abcdArblaster, John W. (2018).Selected Values of the Crystallographic Properties of Elements. Materials Park, Ohio: ASM International.ISBN978-1-62708-155-9.
^Mg(0) has been synthesized in a compound containing a Na2Mg22+ cluster coordinated to a bulky organic ligand; seeRösch, B.; Gentner, T. X.; Eyselein, J.; Langer, J.; Elsen, H.; Li, W.; Harder, S. (2021). "Strongly reducing magnesium(0) complexes".Nature.592 (7856):717–721.Bibcode:2021Natur.592..717R.doi:10.1038/s41586-021-03401-w.PMID33911274.S2CID233447380
^Vol'nov, I. I.; Tokareva, S. A.; Belevskii, V. N.; Latysheva, E. I. (March 1970). "The formation of magnesium perperoxide Mg(O2)2 in the reaction of magnesium peroxide with ozone".Bulletin of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR Division of Chemical Science.19 (3):468–471.doi:10.1007/bf00848959.
^Zong, Fujian; Meng, Chunzhan; Guo, Zhiming; Ji, Feng; Xiao, Hongdi; Zhang, Xijian; Ma, Jin; Ma, Honglei (2010). "Synthesis and characterization of magnesium nitride powder formed by Mg direct reaction with N2"._Journal of Alloys and Compounds.508 (1):172–176.doi:10.1016/j.jallcom.2010.07.224.
^Birbilis, N.; Williams, G.; Gusieva, K.; Samaniego, A.; Gibson, M. A.; McMurray, H. N. (2013). "Poisoning the corrosion of magnesium".Electrochemistry Communications.34:295–298.doi:10.1016/j.elecom.2013.07.021.
^Rieke, Reuben D.; Sell, Matthew S.; Klein, Walter R.; Chen, Tian-An; Brown, Jeffrey D.; Hanson, Mark V. (1995). "Rieke Metals: Highly Reactive Metal Powders Prepared by Alkali Metal Reduction of Metal Salts".Active Metals. pp. 1–59.doi:10.1002/9783527615179.ch01.ISBN978-3-527-29207-3.
^Rieke, Reuben D.; Bales, Stephen E. (1974). "ChemInform Abstract: ACTIVATED METALS PART 4, PREPARATION AND REACTIONS OF HIGHLY REACTIVE MAGNESIUM METAL".Chemischer Informationsdienst.5 (21).doi:10.1002/chin.197421315.
^abDavy, H. (1808). "Electro-chemical researches on the decomposition of the earths; with observations on the metals obtained from the alkaline earths, and on the amalgam procured from ammonia".Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London.98:333–370.Bibcode:1808RSPT...98..333D.doi:10.1098/rstl.1808.0023.JSTOR107302.S2CID96364168.
^abBaker, Hugh D. R.; Avedesian, Michael (1999).Magnesium and magnesium alloys. Materials Park, OH: Materials Information Society. p. 4.ISBN978-0871706577.
^Ketil Amundsen; Terje Kr. Aune; Per Bakke; Hans R. Eklund; Johanna Ö. Haagensen; Carlos Nicolas; et al. (2002). "Magnesium".Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. Wiley-VCH.doi:10.1002/14356007.a15_559.ISBN978-3527306732.
^Shu, Dong Wei; Ahmad, Iram Raza (December 2010). "Magnesium Alloys: An Alternative for Aluminium in Structural Applications".Advanced Materials Research.168–170:1631–1635.doi:10.4028/www.scientific.net/amr.168-170.1631.
^Kumar, Sachin; Wu, Chuansong (2017). "Review:Mg and Its Alloy——Scope, Future Perspectives and Recent Advancements in Welding and Processing".Journal of Harbin Institute of Technology.24 (6):1–37.doi:10.11916/j.issn.1005-9113.17065.
^Billboard. Nielsen Business Media, Inc. 1974. p. 20.
^Altman, Rick (2004).Silent Film Sound. Columbia University Press. p. 41.ISBN978-0-231-11663-3.
^Lindsay, David (2005).Madness in the Making: The Triumphant Rise and Untimely Fall of America's Show Inventors. iUniverse. p. 210.ISBN978-0-595-34766-7.
^McCormick, John; Pratasik, Bennie (2005).Popular Puppet Theatre in Europe, 1800-1914. Cambridge University Press. p. 106.ISBN978-0-521-61615-7.
^Ehrlich, P. (1 December 1963)."Section 17: Alkaline Earth Metals". In Brauer, Georg (ed.).Handbook of Preparative Inorganic Chemistry 1 (Second ed.). New York, London: Academic Press. pp. 916–917.ISBN978-0121266011. Retrieved29 March 2025.
Whisnant, David; Phillips, David; Houston Jetzer, Kelly (2022) [6 Mar 2012].Reaction of magnesium with carbon dioxide (web video). American Chemical Society, Division of Chemical Education – via ChemEdX.
^Ainscough, J.B.; Rigby, F (July 1974). "Magnesium reduction of uranium oxide".Journal of Inorganic and Nuclear Chemistry.36 (7):1531–1534.doi:10.1016/0022-1902(74)80618-4.
^Romani, Andrea, M.P. (2013). "Magnesium in Health and Disease". In Astrid Sigel; Helmut Sigel; Roland K. O. Sigel (eds.).Interrelations between Essential Metal Ions and Human Diseases. Metal Ions in Life Sciences. Vol. 13. Springer. pp. 49–79.doi:10.1007/978-94-007-7500-8_3.ISBN978-94-007-7499-5.PMID24470089.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^"Magnesium in diet". MedlinePlus, U.S. National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health. 2 February 2016. Retrieved13 October 2016.
^"6, Magnesium".Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium, Phosphorus, Magnesium, Vitamin D, and Fluoride. National Academy Press. 1997. pp. 190–249.
^Firoz M; Graber M (2001). "Bioavailability of US commercial magnesium preparations".Magnes Res.14 (4):257–262.PMID11794633.
^Lindberg JS; Zobitz MM; Poindexter JR; Pak CY (1990). "Magnesium bioavailability from magnesium citrate and magnesium oxide".J Am Coll Nutr.9 (1):48–55.doi:10.1080/07315724.1990.10720349.PMID2407766.
^Saris NE, Mervaala E, Karppanen H, Khawaja JA, Lewenstam A (April 2000). "Magnesium. An update on physiological, clinical and analytical aspects".Clin Chim Acta.294 (1–2):1–26.doi:10.1016/S0009-8981(99)00258-2.PMID10727669.
^abc"Magnesium".Umm.edu. University of Maryland Medical Center. 7 May 2013. Archived fromthe original on 16 February 2017. Retrieved19 September 2013.
^Giannini, A. J. (1997).Drugs of Abuse (Second ed.). Los Angeles: Physicians Management Information Co.ISBN978-0874894998.
^Teigen L, Boes CJ (2014). "An evidence-based review of oral magnesium supplementation in the preventive treatment of migraine".Cephalalgia (Review).35 (10):912–922.doi:10.1177/0333102414564891.PMID25533715.S2CID25398410.There is a strong body of evidence demonstrating a relationship between magnesium status and migraine. Magnesium likely plays a role in migraine development at a biochemical level, but the role of oral magnesium supplementation in migraine prophylaxis and treatment remains to be fully elucidated. The strength of evidence supporting oral magnesium supplementation is limited at this time.
^Gowariker, Vasant; Krishnamurthy, V. P.; Gowariker, Sudha; Dhanorkar, Manik; Paranjape, Kalyani (8 April 2009).The Fertilizer Encyclopedia. John Wiley & Sons. p. 224.ISBN978-0470431764.
^McGuire, John K.; Kulkarni, Mona Shah; Baden, Harris P. (1 February 2000). "Fatal Hypermagnesemia in a Child Treated with Megavitamin/Megamineral Therapy".Pediatrics.105 (2): e18.doi:10.1542/peds.105.2.e18.PMID10654978.
^Kutsal, Ebru; Aydemir, Cumhur; Eldes, Nilufer; Demirel, Fatma; Polat, Recep; Taspınar, Ozan; Kulah, Eyup (February 2000). "Severe Hypermagnesemia as a Result of Excessive Cathartic Ingestion in a Child Without Renal Failure".Pediatrics.205 (2):570–572.doi:10.1097/PEC.0b013e31812eef1c.PMID17726419.
^"Magnesium"(PDF). The Fertilizer Institute. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 18 March 2023. Retrieved14 July 2023.
_NIST_ASD_emission_spectrum.png)
