Notes

1. ↑^{1.01.11.21.31.41.5}/p/, /t/, /k/ areunaspirated, as in theRomance languages, or as in Englishspy, sty, sky. In final position, they areunreleased [p̚, t̪̚, ʔ̚], with finalk being aglottal stop. Word-finally, /b, d, ɡ/ do not occur phonemically but orthographically in certain loanwords where they are pronounced [p̚, t̪̚, k̚]. There is noliaison: they remain unreleased even when followed by a vowel, as inkulit ubi "potato skins", though they are pronounced as a normal medial consonant when followed by a suffix.
2. ↑^{2.02.12.22.32.4}The fricatives [f, z, ʃ, x] are found in loanwords only.
3. ↑^3.03.13.2The glottal stop [ʔ] is an allophone of /k/ and /ɡ/ in the coda:baik,bapak. It is also used between identical vowels inhiatus. Only a few words have this sound in the middle, e.g.bakso (meatballs) andrakyat (alternative word of 'people' or 'society'). It may be represented by an apostrophe in Arabic derived words such asAl Qur'an.
4. ^In Johor-Riau Malay, the more widely used standard variety of Malay in Malaysia, /r/ in the syllable coda is omitted (although it may be retained in formal speech).
5. ^In traditional Malay areas, therhotic consonant /r/ is realized as a velar or uvular fricative, [ɣ] or [ʁ], and elided word-finally. Elsewhere, it is an alveolar tap [ɾ], trill [r] or approximant [ɹ]. Its position relative to schwa is ambiguous:kertas "paper" may be pronounced [krəˈtas] or [kərəˈtas].
6. ↑^6.06.1In Johor-Riau Malay, word-final /a/ is pronounced as [ə].
7. ^[ɑ] is an occasional allophone of /a/after or before more carefully pronounced consonant from Arabic loanwords, example:qari [qɑri].
8. ↑^8.08.18.28.3[e, o] areallophones of /i, u/ in native words in closed final syllables, but have become established as distinct phonemes in English and Javanese loanwords. The diphthongs /ai, au/, which only occur in open syllables, are often merged into [e, o], respectively, especially inJava.
9. ^The Malay /e/ doesn't quite line up with any English vowel, though the nearest equivalents are the vowel ofclay (for most English dialects) and the vowel ofget. The Malay vowel is usually articulated at a point between the two.
10. ↑^10.010.1Some words borrowed from European languages have the vowels [ɛ] and [ɔ], such as pek [pɛk] ('pack') and kos [kɔs] ('cost'). Words borrowed earlier have a more nativized pronunciation, such as pesta ('fest'), which is pronounced [pestə]..
11. ^The Malay /o/ doesn't quite line up with any English vowel, though the nearest equivalents are the vowel ofsole (for most English dialects) and the vowel ofraw inAustralian English. The Malay vowel is usually articulated at a point between the two.
12. ^Instances of [ei] are typically realized simply as [e].
13. ^Stress generally falls on thepenultimate syllable. If that syllable contains a schwa [ə], stress shifts to theantepenult if there is one, and to the final syllable if there is not. Some suffixes are ignored for stress placement.