Notes

1. ^In free variation with[ʀ] and also — in Switzerland, Bavaria, and Austria — thevoiced alveolar trill[r]. Compare /ɐ/.
2. ^/x/ is realized as a uvular fricative[χ] after[a],[aː], and often[ʊ],[ɔ], and[aʊ].
3. ^Predominantly realized as[z̥] (devoiced) or[s] (voiceless) in southern regions (Switzerland, Bavaria, Austria).
4. ^The presence or absence of[ʔ] is not phonemic. In most standard varieties of German, all initial vowels are preceded by[ʔ]. However, this does not generally hold true for Austrian, southern, and Swiss standard German and most colloquial varieties.
5. ^[ɛː] is often replaced by[eː], chiefly in northern and eastern Germany, and eastern Austria.
6. ^Some references transcribe this diphthong as/ɔʏ/.
7. ^/ɐ/ is often merged into, and hence not distinguished from,[ə], specifically in southern Germany and Austria. The/ɐ/–/a/ merger is true in northern Germany.
8. ^Compare/ʁ/.
9. ^In Austria and Germany,/ə/, before sonorants/l/,/m/, and/n/ in the syllable coda, often disappears so that they become syllabic[l̩],[m̩], and[n̩]. Especially in Austrian, southern, and Swiss standard German,/ə/, representing unstressede, is alternatively realized as[ɛ] or even within Switzerland,[e].
10. ^In assimilated loanwords, many speakers replace a nasal vowel with an oral vowel followed by/ŋ/, e.g.Balkon/balˈkõː/ ~/balˈkɔŋ/. Nasal vowels are generally long in stressed syllables and short in unstressed ones.

Bibliography