Tabard, a tunic without sleeves worn by military nobles over theirarms, generally emblazoned with heraldic devices. “Toom Tabard,” emptyking's cloak, nickname given by the Scotch to John Balliol as nothingmore.

Tabernacle, a movable structure of the nature of a temple, erectedby the Israelites during their wanderings in the wilderness; it was aparallelogram in shape, constructed of boards lined with curtains, theroof flat and of skins, while the floor was the naked earth, included asanctum and a sanctum sanctorum, and contained altars for sacrifice andsymbols of sacred import, especially of the Divine presence, and wasaccessible only to the priests. SeeFeasts, Jewish.

Table Mountain, a flat-topped eminence in the SW. of Cape Colony,rising to a height of 3600 ft. behind Cape Town and overlooking it, oftensurmounted by a drapery of mist.

Tables, The Twelve, the tables of the Roman laws engraven on brassbrought from Athens to Rome by the decemvirs.

Tablets, name given to thin boards coated with wax and included in aframe for writing on with a stylus.

Table-turning, movement of a table ascribed to the agency of spiritsor some recondite spiritual force acting through the media of a circle ofpeople standing round the edge touching it with their finger-tips incontact with those of the rest.

Taboo orTabu, a solemn prohibition or interdict among thePolynesians under which a particular person or thing is pronouncedinviolable, and so sacred, the violation of which entails malediction atthe hands of the supernatural powers.

Tabor, Mount, an isolated cone-shaped hill, 1000 ft. in height andclothed with olive-trees, on the NE. borders ofEsdraëlon (q.v.), 7 m. E. of Nazareth. A tradition of the 2nd century identifies itas the scene of the Tranfiguration, and ruins of a church, built by theCrusaders to commemorate the event, crown the summit.

Tabriz (170), an ancient and still important commercial city ofPersia, 320 m. SE. of Tiflis, 4500 ft. above sea-level; occupies anelevated site on the Aji, 40 m. E. of its entrance into Lake Urumiah;carries on a flourishing transit trade and has notable manufactures ofleather, silk, and gold and silver ware; has been on several occasionsvisited by severe earthquakes.

Tacitus, Cornelius, Roman historian, born presumably at Rome, ofequestrian rank, early famous as an orator; married a daughter ofAgricola, held office under the Emperors Vespasian, Domitian, and Nerva,and conducted along with the younger Pliny the prosecution of MariusPriscus; he is best known and most celebrated as a historian, and ofwritings extant the chief are his “Life of Agricola,” his “Germania,” his“Histories” and his “Annals”; his “Agricola” is admired as a modelbiography, while his “Histories” and “Annales” are distinguished for“their conciseness, their vigour, and the pregnancy of meaning; a singleword sometimes gives effect to a whole sentence, and if the meaning ofthe word is missed, the sense of the writer is not reached”; his greatpower lies in his insight into character and the construing of motives,but the picture he draws of imperial Rome is revolting;b. about A.D.54.

Tacna (14), capital of a province (32) in North Chile, 38 m. N. ofArica, with which it is connected by rail; trades in wool and minerals;taken from Peru in 1883.

Tacoma (38), a flourishing manufacturing town and port of WashingtonState, on Puget Sound; has practically sprung into existence within thelast 15 years, and is the outlet for the produce of a rich agriculturaland mining district.

Tadmor. SeePalmyra.

Tael, a Chinese money of account of varying local value, and risingand falling with the price of silver, but may be approximately valued atbetween 6s. and 5s. 6d. The customs tael, equivalent in value to about 4s9d., has been superseded by the new dollar of 1890, which is equal tothat of the United States.

Taganrog (50), a Russian seaport on the N. shore of the Sea of Azov;is the outlet for the produce of a rich agricultural district, wheat,linseed, and hempseed being the chief exports. Founded by Peter the Greatin 1698.

Taglioni, Maria, a famous ballet-dancer, born at Stockholm, thedaughter of an Italian ballet-master; made herdébut in Paris in 1827and soon became the foremostdanseuse of Europe; married Count deVoisins in 1832; retired from the stage in 1847 with a fortune, which shesubsequently lost, a misfortune which compelled her to set up as ateacher of deportment in London (1804-1884).

Tagus, the largest river of the Spanish peninsula, issues from thewatershed between the provinces of Guadalajara and Teruel; follows a moreor less westerly course across the centre of the peninsula, and, afterdividing into two portions below Salvaterra, its united waters enter theAtlantic by a noble estuary 20 m. long; total length 566 m., of which 190are in Portugal; navigable as far as Abrantes.

Tahiti (11), the principal island of a group in the South Pacific;sometimes called the Society Islands, situated 2000 m. NE. of NewZealand; are mountainous, of volcanic origin, beautifully wooded, andgirt by coral reefs; a fertile soil grows abundant fruit, cotton, sugar,&c., which, with mother-of-pearl, are the principal exports; capital andchief harbour is Papeete (3); the whole group since 1880 has become aFrench possession.

Taillandier, Saint-René, French littérateur and professor, born atParis; filled the chair of Literature at the Sorbonne from 1863; wrotevarious works of literary, historical, and philosophical interest, anddid much by his writings to extend the knowledge of German art andliterature in France; was a frequent contributor to theRevue des DeuxMondes, and in 1873 was elected a member of the Academy (1817-1879).

Tailors, Carlyle's humorsome name in “Sartor” for the architects ofthe customs and costumes woven for human wear by society, the inventorsof our spiritual toggery, the trulypoetic class.

Tailors, The Three, of Tooley Street, three characters said byCanning to have held a meeting there for redress of grievances, and tohave addressed a petition to the House of Commons beginning “We, thepeople of England.”

Tain (2), a royal burgh of Ross-shire, on the S. shore of theDornoch Firth, 44 m. NE. of Inverness; has interesting ruins of a13th-century chapel, a 15th-century collegiate church, an academy, &c.

Taine, Hippolyte Adolphe, an eminent French critic and historian,born at Vouziers, in Ardennes; after some years of scholastic drudgery inthe provinces returned to Paris, and there, by the originality of hiscritical method and brilliancy of style soon took rank among the foremostFrench writers; in 1854 the Academy crowned his essay on Livy; ten yearslater became professor of Æsthetics at the École des Beaux-Arts in Paris,and in 1878 was admitted to the French Academy; his voluminous writingsembrace works on the philosophy of art, essays critical and historical,volumes of travel-impressions in various parts of Europe; but his finestwork is contained in his vivid and masterly studies on “Les Origines dela France Contemporaine” and in his “History of English Literature”(1833-4; Eng. trans, by Van Laun), the most penetrative and sympatheticsurvey of English literature yet done by a foreigner; he was a discipleof Sainte-Beuve, but went beyond his master in ascribing character toomuch to external environment (1828-1893).

Tai-Pings, a name bestowed upon the followers of Hung Hsiû-ch`wan, avillage schoolmaster of China, who, coming under the influence ofChristian teaching, sought to subvert the religion and ruling dynasty ofChina; he himself was styled “Heavenly King,” his reign “Kingdom ofHeaven,” and his dynasty “Tai-Ping” (Grand Peace); between 1851 and 1855the rising assumed formidable dimensions, but from 1855 began to decline;the religious enthusiasm died away; foreign auxiliaries were called in,and under the leadership ofGordon (q. v.) the rebellion wasstamped out by 1865.

Tait, Archibald Campbell, archbishop of Canterbury, of Scotchdescent, born in Edinburgh; educated at Edinburgh, Glasgow, and Oxford;when at Oxford led the opposition to the Tractarian Movement; in 1842succeeded Arnold as head-master at Rugby; in 1850 became Dean ofCarlisle; in 1856 Bishop of London; and in 1868 Primate. This last officehe held at a critical period, and his episcopate was distinguished bygreat discretion and moderation (1811-1882).

Tait, Peter Guthrie, physicist and mathematician, born at Dalkeith;educated in Edinburgh; became senior wrangler at Cambridge, and Smith'sprizeman in 1852; was in 1854 elected professor of Mathematics atBelfast, and in 1860 professor of Natural Philosophy at Edinburgh; hasdone a great deal of experimental work, especially in thermo-electricity,and has contributed important papers on pure mathematics; wrote, alongwith Lord Kelvin, “Treatise on Natural Philosophy,” and along withBalfour Stewart “The Unseen Universe,” followed by “ParadoxicalPhilosophy”;b. 1831.

Tai-wan (70), capital ofFormosa (q. v.), an importantcommercial emporium, situated about 3 m. from the SW. coast, on which,however, it has a port, ranking as a treaty-port.

Taj Mahal. SeeAgra.

Talaria, wings attached to the ankles or sandals of Mercury as themessenger of the gods.

Talavera de la Reina (10), a picturesque old Spanish town on theTagus, situated amid vineyards, 75 m. SE. of Madrid; scene of a greatvictory under Sir Arthur Wellesley over a French army commanded by JosephBonaparte, Marshals Jourdan and Victor, 27th July 1809.

Talbot, William Henry Fox, one of the earliest experimenters and adiscoverer in photography, born in Chippenham, which he represented inParliament; was also one of the first to decipher the Assyrian cuneiforminscriptions (1800-1877).

Tale of a Tub, a great work of Swift's, characterised by ProfessorSaintsbury as “one of the very greatest books of the world, in which agreat drift of universal thought receives consummate literary form ...the first great book,” he announces, “in prose or verse, of the 18thcentury, and in more ways than one the herald and champion at once of itsspecial achievements in literature.”

Talent, a weight, coin, or sum of money among the ancients, ofvariable value among different nations and at different periods; theAttic weight being equal to about 57 lbs. troy, and the money to £243,15s.; among the Romans the great talent was worth £99, and the littleworth £75.

Talfourd, Sir Thomas Noon, lawyer and dramatist, born at Doxey, nearStafford; was called to the bar in 1821, and practised with notablesuccess, becoming in 1849 a justice of Common Pleas and a knight; was forsome years a member of Parliament; author of four tragedies, of which“Ion” is the best known; was the intimate friend and literary executor ofCharles Lamb (1795-1854).

Talisman, a magical figure of an astrological nature carved on astone or piece of metal under certain superstitious observances, to whichcertain wonderful effects are ascribed; is of the nature of a charm toavert evil.

Tallard, Comte de, marshal of France; served in the War of theSpanish Succession; was taken prisoner by Marlborough at Hochstädt, onwhich occasion he said to the duke, “Your Grace has beaten the finesttroops in Europe,” when the duke replied, “You will except, I hope, thosewho defeated them” (1652-1728).

Tallemant des Réaux, Gédéon, French writer, native of La Rochelle;author of a voluminous collection of gossipy biographies, or anecdotesrather, “Historiettes,” filling five volumes, which throw a flood oflight on the manners and customs of 17th-century life in France, thoughallowance must be made for exaggerations (1619-1692).

Talleyrand de Périgord, Charles Maurice, Prince of Benevento, Frenchstatesman and diplomatist, born in Paris, of an illustrious family;rendered lame by an accident, was cut off from a military career; waseducated for the Church, and made bishop of Autun; chosen deputy of theclergy of his diocese to the States-General in 1789, threw himself withzeal into the popular side, officiated in his pontifical robes at thefeast of the Federation in the Champs de Mars, and was the first to takethe oath on that side, but on being excommunicated by the Pope resignedhis bishopric, and embarked on a statesman's career; sent on a mission toEngland in 1792, remained two years as anémigré, and had to deporthimself to the United States, where he employed himself in commercialtransactions; recalled in 1796, was appointed Minister of ForeignAffairs; supported Bonaparte in his ambitious schemes, and on the latterbecoming Emperor, was made Grand Chamberlain and Duke of Benevento, whilehe retained the portfolio of Foreign Affairs; in a fit of irritationNapoleon one day discharged him, and he refused to accept office againwhen twice over recalled; he attached himself to the Bourbons on theirreturn, and becoming Foreign Minister to Louis XVIII., was made a peer,and sent ambassador to the Congress of Vienna; went into opposition tillthe fall of Charles X., and attached himself to Louis Philippe in 1830;Carlyle in his “Revolution” pronounced him “a man living in falsehood andon falsehood, yet, as the specialty of him, not what you can call a falseman ... an enigma possible only in an age of paper and the burning ofpaper,” in an age in which the false was the only real (1754-1838).

Tallien, Jean Lambert, a notable French Revolutionist, born inParis; a lawyer's clerk; threw in his lot with the Revolution, and becameprominent as the editor of a Jacobin journal,L'Ami des Citoyens; tookan active part in the sanguinary proceedings during the ascendency ofRobespierre, notably terrorising the disaffected of Bordeaux by amerciless use of the guillotine; recalled to Paris, and became Presidentof the Convention, but fearing Robespierre, headed the attack whichbrought the Dictator to the block; enjoyed, with his celebrated wife,Madame de Fontenay, considerable influence; accompanied Napoleon toEgypt; was captured by the English, and for a season lionised by theWhigs; his political influence at an end, he was glad to accept the postof consul at Alicante, and subsequently died in poverty (1769-1820).

Tallis, Thomas, “the father of English cathedral music,” born in thereign of Henry VIII., lived well into the reign of Elizabeth; was anorganist, and probably “a gentleman of the Chapel Royal”; composedvarious anthems, hymns, Te Deums, etc., including “The Song of the FortyParts” (c. 1515-1585).

Tally, a notched stick used in commercial and Exchequer transactionswhen writing was yet a rare accomplishment; the marks, of varyingbreadth, indicated sums paid by a purchaser; the stick was splitlongitudinally, and one-half retained by the seller and one by the buyeras a receipt. As a means of receipt for sums paid into the Exchequer, thetally was in common use until 1782, and was not entirely abolished till1812. Tally System, a mode of credit-dealing by which a merchant providesa customer with goods, and receives in return weekly or monthly paymentsto account.

Talma, François Joseph, a famous French tragedian, born in Paris,where in 1787 he made hisdébut; from the first his great gifts wereapparent, and during the Revolution he was the foremost actor at theThéâtre de la République, and subsequently enjoyed the favour ofNapoleon; his noble carriage and matchless elocution enabled him to playwith great dignity such characters as Othello, Nero, Orestes, Leicester,etc.; introduced, like Kemble in England, a greater regard for historicalaccuracy in scenery and dress (1763-1826).

Talmud, a huge limbo, in chaotic arrangement, consisting of theMishna, or text, and Gemara, or commentary, of Rabbinical speculations,subtleties, fancies, and traditions connected with the Hebrew Bible, andclaiming to possess co-ordinate rank with it as expository of its meaningand application, the whole collection dating from a period subsequent tothe Captivity and the close of the canon of Scripture. There are twoTalmuds, one named the Talmud of Jerusalem, and the other the Talmud ofBabylon, the former, the earlier of the two, belonging in its presentform to the close of the 4th century, and the latter to at least acentury later. SeeHaggadah andHalacha.

Talus, a man of brass, the work of Hephæstos, given to Minos toguard the island of Crete; he walked round the island thrice a day, andif he saw any stranger approaching he made himself red-hot and embracedhim.

Tamatave, the chief town of Madagascar, on a bay on the E. coast.

Tamerlane orTimur, a great Asiatic conqueror, born at Hesh,near Samarcand; the son of a Mongol chief, raised himself by militaryconquest to the throne of Samarcand (1369), and having firmly establishedhis rule over Turkestan, inspired by lust of conquest began the wonderfulseries of military invasions which enabled him to build up an empire thatat the time of his death extended from the Ganges to the GrecianArchipelago; died whilst leading an expedition against China; was atypical Asiatic despot, merciless in the conduct of war, but inpeace-time a patron of science and art, and solicitous for his subjects'welfare (1336-1405).

Tamesis, the Latin name for the Thames, and so named by Cesar in his“Gallic War.”

Tamil, a branch of the Dravidian language, spoken in the S. of Indiaand among the coolies of Ceylon.

Tammany Society, a powerful political organisation of New YorkCity, whose ostensible objects, on its formation in 1805, were charityand reform of the franchise; its growth was rapid, and from the first itexercised, under a central committee and chairman, known as the “Boss,”remarkable political influence on the Democratic side. Since the giganticfrauds practised in 1870-1871 on the municipal revenues by the then“Boss,” William M. Tweed, and his “ring,” the society has remained underpublic suspicion as “a party machine” not too scrupulous about its waysand means. The name is derived from a celebrated Indian chief who livedin Penn's day, and who has become the centre of a cycle of legendarytales.

Tammerfors (20), an important manufacturing city of Finland,situated on a rapid stream, which drives its cotton, linen, and woollenfactories, 50 m. NW. of Tavastehuus.

Tammuz, a god mentioned in Ezekiel, generally identified with theGreek Adonis (q. v.), the memory of whose fall was annuallycelebrated with expressions first of mourning and then of joy all overAsia Minor. Adonis appears to have been a symbol of the sun, departing inwinter and returning as youthful as ever in spring, and the worship ofhim a combined expression of gloom, connected with the presence ofwinter, and of joy, associated with the approach of summer.

Tampico (5), a port of Mexico, on the Panuco, 9 m. from its entranceinto the Gulf of Mexico; the harbour accommodation has been improved, andtrade is growing.

Tamworth (7), an old English town on the Stafford and Warwickshireborder, 7 m. SE. of Lichfield; its history goes back to the time of theDanes, by whom it was destroyed in 911; an old castle, and the church ofSt. Edith, are interesting buildings; has prosperous manufactures ofelastic, paper, &c.; has a bronze statue of Sir Robert Peel, whorepresented the borough in Parliament.

Tanaïs, the Latin name for the Don.

Tancred, a famous crusader, hero of Tasso's great poem; was the sonof Palgrave Otho the Good, and of Emma, Robert Guiscard's sister; forgreat deeds done in the first crusade he was rewarded with theprincipality of Tiberias; in the “Jerusalem Delivered” Tasso, followingthe chroniclers, represents him as the very “flower and pattern ofchivalry”; stands as the type of “a very gentle perfect knight”; died atAntioch of a wound received in battle (1078-1112).

Tandy, James Napper, Irish patriot, born in Dublin, where he becamea well-to-do merchant, and first secretary to the United Irishmenassociation; got into trouble through the treasonable schemes of theUnited Irishmen, and fled to America; subsequently served in the Frencharmy, took part in the abortive invasion of Ireland (1798); ultimatelyfell into the hands of the English Government, and was sentenced to death(1801), but was permitted to live an exile in France (1740-1803).

Tanganyika, a lake of East Central Africa, stretching between theCongo Free State (W.) and German East Africa (E.); discovered by Spekeand Burton in 1858; more carefully explored by Livingstone and Stanley in1871; the overflow is carried off by the Lukuga into the Upper Congo; isgirt round by lofty mountains; length 420 m., breadth from 15 to 80 m.

Tangier orTangiers (20), a seaport of Morocco, on a small bayof the Strait of Gibraltar; occupies a picturesque site on two hills, butwithin its old walls presents a dirty and crowded appearance; has aconsiderable shipping trade; was a British possession from 1662 to 1683,but was abandoned by them, and subsequently became infested by pirates.

Tanis, an ancient city of Egypt, whose ruins mark its site on theNE. of the Nile delta; once the commercial metropolis of Egypt, and aroyal residence; fell into decay owing to the silting up of the Taniticmouth of the Nile, and was destroyed in A.D. 174 for rebellion.

Tanist Stone, monolith erected by the Celts on a coronation,agreeably to an ancient custom (Judges ix. 6).

Tanistry, a method of tenure which prevailed among the Gaelic Celts;according to this custom succession, whether in office or land, wasdetermined by the family as a whole, who on the death of one holderelected another from its number; the practice was designed probably toprevent family estates falling into the hands of an incompetent orworthless heir.

Tanjore (54), capital of a district (2,130) of the same name, inMadras Province, India, situated in a fertile plain 180 m. SW. of Madras,and about 45 m. from the sea; surrounded by walls; contains a rajah'spalace, a British residency, and manufactures silk, muslin, and cotton.

Tannahill, Robert, Scottish poet, born at Paisley; the son of aweaver, was bred to the hand-loom, and with the exception of a two years'residence in Lancashire, passed his life in his native town; anenthusiastic admirer of Burns, Fergusson, and Ramsay, he soon began toemulate them, and in 1807 published a volume of “Poems and Songs,” which,containing such songs as “Gloomy Winter's noo Awa,” “Jessie the Flower o'Dunblane,” “The Wood o' Craigielea,” &c., proved an immediate success;disappointment at the rejection by Constable of his proffered MSS. of anew and enlarged edition of his works and a sense of failing health ledto his committing suicide in a canal near Paisley; his songs are markedby tenderness and grace, but lack the force and passion of Burns(1774-1810).

Tanner, Thomas, bishop and antiquary, born at Market Lavington,Wiltshire; became a graduate and Fellow of Oxford; took orders, and roseto be bishop of St. Asaph; his reputation as a learned and accurateantiquary rests on his two great works “Notitia Monastica, or a ShortAccount of the Religious Houses in England and Wales,” and “BibliothecaBritannico-Hibernica,” a veritable mine of biographical andbibliographical erudition; bequeathed valuable collections of charters,deeds, &c., to the Bodleian Library (1674-1735).

Tannhäuser, a knight of medieval legend, who wins the affection of alady, but leaves her to worship in the cave-palace of Venus, on learningwhich the lady plunges a dagger into her heart and dies; smitten withremorse he visits her grave, weeps over it, and hastens to Rome toconfess his sin to Pope Urban; the Pope refuses absolution, and protestsit is no more possible for him to receive pardon than for the dry wand inhis hand to bud again and blossom; in his despair he flees from Rome, butis met by Venus, who lures him back to her cave, there to remain till theday of judgment; meanwhile the wand he left at Rome begins to put forthgreen leaves, and Urban, alarmed, sends off messengers in quest of theunhappy knight, but they fail to find him.

Tannin, an astringent principle found in gallnuts and the barkchiefly of the oak.

Tantalus, in the Greek mythology a Lydian king, who, being admittedfrom blood relationship to the banquets of the gods, incurred theirdispleasure by betraying their secrets, and was consigned to the netherworld and compelled to suffer the constant pangs of hunger and thirst,though he stood up to the chin in water, and had ever before him theoffer of the richest fruits, both of which receded from him as heattempted to reach them, while a huge rock hung over him, everthreatening to fall and crush him with its weight.

Tantia Topee, the most daring and stubborn of Nana Sahib'slieutenants during the Indian Mutiny; in alliance with the Rani of Jhansihe upheld for a time the mutiny after the flight of his chief, but wasfinally captured and executed in 1859.

Taoism, the religious system ofLaotze (q. v.).

Taormina (2), a town of Sicily; crowns the summit of Monte Tauro, 35m. SW. of Messina; chiefly celebrated for its splendid ruins of anancient theatre, aqueducts, sepulchres, &c.

Tapajos, one of the greater affluents of the Amazon; its head-watersrise in the Serra Diamantina, in the S. of Matto-Grosso State; has anorthward course of over 1000 m. before it joins the Amazon; is a broadand excellent waterway, and navigable in its lower course for 150 m.

Tapley, Mark, body-servant to Martin Chuzzlewit, in Dickens's novelof the name.

Tapti, a river of Bombay; has its source in the Betul district ofthe Central Provinces, and flows westward across the peninsula 450 m. tothe Gulf of Cambay; is a shallow and muddy stream, of little commercialuse.

Tara, Hill Of, a celebrated eminence, cone-shaped (507 ft.), incounty Meath, 7 m. SE. of Navan; legend points to it as the site of theresidence of the kings of Ireland, where something like a parliament washeld every three years.

Taranaki (22), a provincial district of New Zealand, occupying theSW. corner of North Island; remarkable for its dense forests, which covernearly three-fourths of its area, and for its beds (2 to 5 ft. deep) oftitaniferous iron-sand which extend along its coasts, out of which thefinest steel is manufactured; New Plymouth (4) is the capital.

Taranto (25), a fortified seaport of South Italy, situated on arocky islet which lies between the Gulf of Taranto and the Mare Piccolo,a broad inlet on the E., 72 m. S. of Bari; is well built, and containsvarious interesting buildings, including a cathedral and castle; isconnected with the mainland on the E. by a six-arched bridge, and by anancient aqueduct on the W.; some textile manufactures are carried on, andoyster and mussel fisheries and fruit-growing are important; as theancient Tarentum its history goes back to the time when it was the chiefcity of Magna Græcia; was captured by the Romans in 272 B.C., and afterthe fall of the Western Empire was successively in the hands of Goths,Lombards, and Saracens, and afterwards shared the fate of the kingdom ofNaples, to which it was united in 1063.

Tarapaca (47), a maritime province of North Chili, taken from Peruin 1883; its immense deposits of nitrate of soda are a great source ofwealth to the country; capitalIquique (q. v.)

Tarare (12), a town of France, dep. of Rhône, 21 m. NW. of Lyons;busy with the manufacture of muslins, silks, and other fine textiles.

Tarascon (7), a picturesque old town of France, 18 m. SW. ofAvignon; is surrounded by walls, has a 15th-century castle (King Rent's),a Gothic church, silk and woollen factories.

Tarbes (25), an old historic town of France, on the Adour, 100 m.SW. of Toulouse; has a fine 12th-century cathedral, a Government cannonfactory, etc.

Tare and Tret, commercial terms, are deductions usually made fromthe gross weight of goods. Tare is the weight of the case or covering,box, or such-like, containing the goods; deducting this thenet weightis left. Tret is a further allowance (not now so commonly deducted) madeat the rate of 4 lb. for every 104 lb. for waste through dust, sand, etc.

Tarentum. SeeTaranto.

Targums, translations, dating for the most part as early as the timeof Ezra, of several books of the Old Testament into Aramaic, which bothin Babylonia and Palestine had become the spoken language of the Jewsinstead of Hebrew, executed chiefly for the service of the Synagogue;they were more or less of a paraphrastic nature, and were accompaniedwith comments and instances in illustration; they were delivered at firstorally and then handed down by tradition, which did not improve them. Oneof them, on the Pentateuch, bears the name of Onkelos, who sat at thefeet of Gamaliel along with St. Paul, and another the name of Jonathan,in the historical and prophetical books, though there are others, theJerusalem Targum and the Pseudo-Jonathan, which are of an inferior stampand surcharged with fancies similar to those in theTalmud (q.v.).

Tarifa (13), an interesting old Spanish seaport, the most southerlytown of Europe, 21 m. SW. of Gibraltar, derives its name from the Moorishleader Tarif, who occupied it 710 A.D.; held by the Moors for more than500 years; still thoroughly Moorish in appearance, dingy, crowded, andsurrounded by walls; is connected by causeway with the strongly-fortifiedIsleta de Tarifa.

Tarnopol (26), a town of Galicia, Austria, on the Sereth, 80 m. SE.of Lemberg; does a good trade in agricultural produce; inhabitantschiefly Jews.

Tarnov (25), a town of Galicia, Austria, on the Biala, 48 m. SE. ofCracow; is the see of a bishop, with cathedral, monastery, etc.;manufactures linen and leather.

Tarpeian Rock, a precipitous cliff on the W. of the Capitoline Hillat Rome, from which in ancient times persons guilty of treason werehurled; named after Tarpeia, a vestal virgin, who betrayed the city tothe Sabine soldiers, then besieging Rome, on condition that they gave herwhat they wore on their left arms, meaning their golden bracelets;instead the soldiers flung their shields (borne on their left arms) uponher, so keeping to the letter of their promise, but visiting perfidy withmerited punishment; at the base of the rock her body was buried.

Tarquinius, name of an illustrious Roman family of Etruscan origin,two of whose members, according to legend, reigned as king in Rome:Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, fifth king of Rome; the friend andsuccessor of Ancus Martius; said to have reigned from 616 to 578 B.C.,and to have greatly extended the power and fame of Rome; was murdered bythe sons of Ancus Martius.Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, seventh andlast king of Rome (534-510), usurped the throne after murdering hisfather-in-law, King Servius Tullius; ruled as a despot, extended thepower of Rome abroad, but was finally driven out by a people goaded torebellion by his tyranny and infuriated by the infamous conduct of hisson Sextus (the violator of Lucretia); made several unsuccessful attemptsto regain the royal power, failing in which he retired to Cumæ, where hedied.

Tarragona (27), a Spanish seaport, capital of a province (349) ofits own name, situated at the entrance of the Francoli into theMediterranean, 60 m. W. of Barcelona; contains many interesting remainsof the Roman occupation, including an aqueduct, still used, and the Towerof the Scipios; possesses also a 12th-century Gothic cathedral; has alarge shipping and transport trade, and manufactures silk, jute, lace,&c.

Tarrytown (4), a village of New York State, on the Hudson, 21 m. N.of New York; associated with the arrest of Major André in 1780, and theclosing scenes of Washington Irving's life.

Tarshish, a place frequently mentioned in the Old Testament, nowgenerally identified with Tartessus, a Phoenician settlement in the SW.of Spain, near the mouth of the Guadalquivir, which became co-extensivewith the district subsequently known as Andalusia; also conjectured tohave been Tarsus, and also Yemen.

Tarsus (8), a city of great antiquity and interest, the ancientcapital of Cilicia, now in the province of Adana, in Turkey in Asia, onthe Cydnus, 12 m. above its entrance into the Mediterranean; legendascribes its foundation to Sennacherib in 690 B.C.; in Roman times was afamous centre of wealth and culture, rivalling Athens and Alexandria;associated with the meeting of Antony and Cleopatra and the deaths of theemperors Tacitus and Maximinus; here St. Paul was born and notable Stoicphilosophers; in the hands of the Turk has decayed into a squalidresidence of merchants busy with the export of corn, cotton, wool, hides,&c. In winter the population rises to 30,000.

Tartars (originallyTatars), a name of no precise ethnologicalsignification, used in the 13th century to describe the Mongolic,Turkish, and other Asiatic hordes, who, underGenghis Khan (q.v.), were the terror of Eastern Europe, and now bestowed upon varioustribes dwelling in Tartary, Siberia, and the Asiatic steppes.

Tartarus, a dark sunless waste in the nether deeps, as far belowearth as heaven is above it, into which Zeus hurled the Titans thatrebelled against him; the term was subsequently sometimes used to denotethe whole nether world and sometimes the place of punishment.

Tartessus, the Greek and Roman name for the Scriptural Tarshish.

Tartini, Giuseppe, a famous Italian violinist and composer, born atPirano, in Istria; got into trouble over his clandestine marriage withthe niece of the archbishop of Padua, and fled for sanctuary to amonastery at Assisi; subsequently reunited to his wife establishedhimself in Padua as a teacher and composer; wrote a “Treatise on Music,”and enjoyed a wide celebrity, and still ranks as one of the greatviolinists of the past (1692-1770).

Tartuffe, a knave, a creation of Molière's, who makes a cloak ofreligion to cover his knaveries, and the name of the play in which thecharacter appears, Molière's greatest.

Tashkand orTashkent (100), capital of Russian Turkestan, onthe Tchirshik, 300 m. NE. of Samarcand; an ancient place still surroundedby its 12 m. circuit of wall, and fortified; Russian enterprise has donemuch for it, introducing schools, &c.; carries on a brisk trade, andmanufactures silks, leather, porcelain ware, &c.

Tasman Sea, the sea lying between the New Zealand group and theislands of Australia and Tasmania.

Tasmania (146), an island and colony of Britain, lying fully 100 m.S. of Australia, from which it is separated by Bass Strait; about thesize of Scotland; the beauty of its mountain and lake scenery has won itthe name of “the Switzerland of the South”; extensive stretches oftableland diversified by lakes—largest Great Lake, 90 m. incircumference—occupy the centre; wide fertile valleys stretch down tothe coastal plains, often richly wooded with lofty eucalyptus and variouspine trees; rivers are numerous, and include the Derwent and Tamar, whichform excellent waterways into the interior; enjoys a genial and temperateclimate, more invigorating than that of Australia; sheep-farming andlatterly mining (coal in particular), and fruit-growing are the principalindustries; gold, silver, and tin are also wrought; the flora, as alsothe fauna, is practically identical with that of Australia; has a long,irregular coast-line, with many excellent harbours; chief exports arewool, tin, fruit, timber, coal, and gold; was discovered in 1642 byTasman, a Dutchman, and first settled by Englishmen in 1803; theaborigines are now completely extinct; was till 1852 a penal settlement,and received representative government in 1855; is divided into 18counties; government is conducted by a legislative council, a house ofassembly, and a crown-appointed governor; most of the colonists belong tothe Church of England; compulsory education is in vogue; is well suppliedwith railways and telegraphs; was formerly called Van Diemen's Land afterVan Diemen, the Dutch governor-general of Batavia, who despatched Tasmanon his voyage of discovery.

Tasso, Bernardo, an Italian poet of some repute in his own day, butnow chiefly remembered as the father of the greater Torquato, born inVenice (1493-1569).

Tasso, Torquato, an illustrious Italian poet, son of preceding, bornat Sorrento, near Naples; educated at a Jesuit school in Naples, hedisplayed unusual precocity, and subsequently studied law at theuniversity of Padua, but already devoted to poetry, at 18 published hisfirst poem “Rinaldo,” a romance in 12 cantos, the subject-matter of whichis drawn from the Charlemagne legends; in 1566 he entered the service ofCardinal Luigi d'Este, by whom he was introduced to Alfonso, Duke ofFerrara, brother of the cardinal, within whose court he received theneedful impulse to begin his great poem “La Gerusalemme Liberata”; forthe court stage he wrote his pastoral play “Aminta,” a work of highpoetic accomplishment, which extended his popularity, and by 1575 hisgreat epic was finished; in the following year the symptoms of mentaldisease revealed themselves, and after a confinement of a few days hefled from Ferrara, and for two years led the life of a wanderer, thevictim of his own brooding, religious melancholy, passing on foot fromcity to city of Italy; yielding to a pent-up longing to revisit Ferrarahe returned, but was coldly received by the duke, and after an outburstof frenzy placed in confinement for seven years; during these years thefame of his epic spread throughout Italy, and the interest created in itsauthor eventually led to his liberation; in 1595 he was summoned by PopeClement VIII., from a heartless and wandering life, to appear at Rome tobe crowned upon the Capitol the poet-laureate of Italy, but, although hereached the city, his worn-out frame succumbed before the ceremony couldtake place; “One thing,” says Settembrini, the literary historian ofItaly, “Tasso had, which few in his time possessed, a great heart, andthat made him a true and great poet, and a most unhappy man;” Fairfax'stranslation of the “Jerusalem Delivered” is one of his greattranslations in the English language (1544-1595).

Tatar, a word derived from a Turanian root signifying “to pitch atent,” hence appropriate to nomadic tribes, became converted by Europeanchroniclers into Tartar, a fanciful derivative from Tartaros (Gr. hell),and suggestive of fiends from hell. Tartary, as a geographical expressionof the Middle Ages, embraced a vast stretch of territory from theDnieper, in Eastern Europe, to the Sea of Japan; but subsequentlydwindled away to Chinese and Western Turkestan.

Tate, Nahum, poet-laureate, born in Dublin, where he was educated atTrinity College; came to London to ply the craft of letters, and in 1690succeeded Shadwell in the laureateship; improvident, and probablyintemperate, he died in the Mint, the refuge of bankrupts in those days;wrote some dramatic pieces, but is to be remembered mainly for hismetrical version of the Psalms, executed in conjunction with NicholasBrady, which superseded the older version done bySternhold (q.v.) and Hopkins (1652-1715).

Tatius, Achilles, a Greek romancer who flourished about thebeginning of the 4th century A.D.; wrote the romance of “Leucippe andCleitophon.”

Tattersall's, a noted horse-mart and haunt of racing men atKnightsbridge, London, established by Richard Tattersall (1724-1795), anauctioneer, who in 1766 obtained a 99 years' lease from Lord Grosvenor ofpremises in Hyde Park Corner; the present premises were occupied on theexpiry of the lease in 1867.

Tattooing, a practice of imprinting various designs, oftenpictorial, upon the skin by means of colouring matter,e. g. Chineseink, cinnabar, introduced into punctures made by needles; widely in voguein past and present times amongst uncivilised peoples, and even to someextent amongst civilised races; like the use of rouge, was mainly for thepurpose of ornamentation and for improving the appearance, but also insome cases for religious purposes; reached its highest perfection inJapan, where it seems to have been largely resorted to as a substitutefor clothing, and was never employed on the face, feet, or hands; amongthe South Sea islanders the custom is universal, and is still practisedby considerable numbers of the lower-class criminals of Europe.

Tau, Cross of, orSt. Anthony's Cross, a cross resembling theletter T.

Tauchnitz, Karl Cristoph Traugott, a noted German printer andbookseller, born at Grosspardau, near Leipzig; trained as a printer, hestarted on his own account in Leipzig in 1796, flourished, and becamecelebrated for his neat and cheap editions of the Roman and Greekclassics; introduced stereotyping into Germany (1761-1836). Thewell-known “British Authors” collection was started in 1841 byChristianBernard, Baron von Tauchnitz, a nephew of the preceding, whoestablished himself as a printer and publisher in Leipzig in 1837; wasennobled in 1860, and made a Saxon life-peer in 1877;b. 1816.

Tauler, Johann, a German mystic, born in Strasburg, bred a monk ofthe Dominican order, had, along with the rest of his order, to flee thecity, and settled in Basel, became a centre of religious life there, andacquired repute as one of the most eloquent preachers of the day; hissphere was not speculative thought but practical piety, and his “Sermons”take rank among the aboriginal monuments of German prose literature(1300-1361).

Taunton, 1, (18), a trim, pleasantly-situated town of Somersetshire(18), on the Tone, 45 m. SW. of Bristol; has a fine old castle founded inthe 8th century, rebuilt in the 12th century, and having interestingassociations with Perkin Warbeck, Judge Jeffreys, and Sydney Smith; hasvarious schools, a college, barracks, &c.; noted for its hosiery, glove,and silk manufactures, and is also a busy agricultural centre. 2, Capital(31) of Bristol County, Massachusetts, on the Taunton River, 34 m. S. ofBoston, a well equipped and busy manufacturing town.

Taurida (1,060), a government of South Russia, of extensive area,jutting down in peninsular shape into the Black Sea, and including theCrimea and isthmus of Perekop; forms the western boundary of the Sea ofAzov; cattle-breeding and agriculture the staple industries.

Taurus, orThe Bull, a constellation, the second in size of thezodiac, which the sun enters towards the 20th of April.

Taurus, Mount, a mountain range of Turkey in Asia, stretching W. forabout 500 m. in an unbroken chain from the head-waters of the Euphratesto the Ægean Sea, and forming the S. buttress of the tableland of AsiaMinor; in the E. is known as the Ala Dagh, in the W. as the Bulghar Dagh.The Anti-Taurus is an offshoot of the main range, which, continuing tothe NE., unites with the systems of the Caucasus.

Tavernier, Jean Baptist, Baron d'Aubonne, a celebrated Frenchtraveller, born in Paris, the son of an Antwerp engraver; was a wandererfrom his boyhood, starting on his travels at the age of 15, and by theend of 1630 had made his way as valet, page, &c., over most of Europe;during the years 1630-1669 he in six separate expeditions traversed mostof the lands of Asia in the capacity of a dealer in jewels; reaped largeprofits; was honoured by various potentates, and returned with stores ofvaluable information respecting the commerce of those countries, whichwith much else interesting matter lie embodied in his great work, “SixVoyages,” a classic now in travel-literature; was ennobled in 1669 byLouis XIV. (1605-1689).

Tavira (11), a seaport in the S. of Portugal; has a Moorish castle,and good sardine and tunny fisheries.

Tavistock (6), a market-town of Devon, situated at the western edgeof Dartmoor, on the Tavy, 11 m. N. of Plymouth; has remains of a10th-century Benedictine abbey, a guild-hall, grammar school, &c.; is oneof the old stannary towns, and still largely depends for its prosperityon the neighbouring tin, copper, and arsenic mines.

Taxidermy, the art of preparing and preserving the skins of animalsfor exhibition in cabinets.

Tay, a river of Scotland whose drainage area lies almost whollywithin Perthshire; rises on the northern slope of Ben Lui, on the Argylland Perthshire border, and flowing 25 m. NE. under the names of Fillanand Dochart, enters Loch Tay, whence it sweeps N., SE., and E., passingAberfeldy, Dunkeld, Perth, and Dundee, and enters the North Sea by anoble estuary 25 m. long and from ½ m. to 3½ m. broad; chief affluentsare the Tummel, Isla, Almond, and Earn; discharges a greater body ofwater than any British stream; is renowned for the beauty of its scenery,and possesses valuable salmon fisheries; has a total length of 120 m.,and is navigable to Perth; immediately W. of Dundee it is spanned by theTay Bridge, the longest structure of its kind in the world,consisting of 95 spans, with a total width of 3440 yards; Loch Tay, oneof the finest of Highland lochs, lies at the base of Ben Lawers,stretches 14½ m. NE. from Killin to Kenmore, and varies from ½ m. to 1½m. in breadth.

Taygetus, a range of mountains in the Peloponnese, separatingLaconia from Messina.

Taylor, Bayard, a noted American writer and traveller, born atKennett Square, Pennsylvania; was bred to the printing trade, and by 21had published a volume of poems, “Ximena,” and “Views Afoot, or Europeseen with Knapsack and Staff,” the fruit of a walking tour throughEurope; next for a number of years contributed, as travel correspondent,to theTribune, visiting in this capacity Egypt, the greater part ofAsia, Central Africa, Russia. Iceland, etc.; during 1862-1863 acted asSecretary of Legation at St. Petersburg, and in 1878 was appointedambassador at Berlin; his literary reputation rests mainly on his poeticworks, “Poems of the Orient,” “Rhymes of Travel,” etc., and an admirabletranslation of Goethe's “Faust”; also wrote several novels (1825-1878).

Taylor, Sir Henry, poet, born at Bishop. Middleham, in Durham; aftera nine months' unhappy experience as a midshipman obtained his discharge,and having acted for some years as clerk in the Storekeeper-General'sDepartment, entered the Colonial Office in 1823, where he continued tillhis retirement in 1872; literature engaged his leisure hours, and hisfour tragedies—the best of which is “Philip van Artevelde”—are animportant contribution to the drama of the century, and characterised asthe noblest effort in the true taste of the English historical dramaproduced within the last century; published also a volume of lyric poems,besides other works in prose and verse, including “The Statesman,” and acharming “Autobiography,” supplemented later by his no less charming“Correspondence”; received the distinctions of K.C.M.G. (1869) andD.C.L. (1800-1886).

Taylor, Isaac, a voluminous writer on quasi-philosophic subjects,born in Lavenham, Suffolk; passed his life chiefly at Ongar engaged inliterary pursuits; contributed to theEclectic Review,Good Words,and wrote amongst other works “Natural History of Enthusiasm,” “NaturalHistory of Fanaticism,” “Spiritual Despotism” and “Ultimate Civilisation”(1787-1865). His eldest son, Isaac, entered the Church, and rose to berector of Settrington, in Yorkshire, and was collated to a canonry ofYork in 1885; has a wide reputation as a philologist, and author of“Words and Places,” and “The Alphabet, an Account of the Origin andDevelopment of Letters,” besides “Etruscan Researches,” “The Origin ofthe Aryans,” etc.;b. 1829.

Taylor, Jeremy, great English divine and preacher, born atCambridge, son of a barber; educated at Caius College; became a Fellow ofAll Souls', Oxford; took orders; attracted the attention of Laud; wasmade chaplain to the king, and appointed to the living of Uppingham; onthe sequestration of his living in 1642 joined the king at Oxford, andadhered to the royal cause through the Civil War; suffered muchprivation, and imprisonment at times; returning to Wales, he procured thefriendship and enjoyed the patronage of the Earl of Carberry, in whosemansion at Grove he wrote a number of his works; before the Restorationhe received preferment in Ireland, and after that event was made bishop,first of Down and then of Dromore; his life here was far from a happyone, partly through insubordination in his diocese and partly throughdomestic sorrow; his works are numerous, but the principal are his“Liberty of Prophesying,” “Holy Living and Holy Dying,” “Life of Christ,”“Ductor Dubitantium,” a work on casuistry; he was a good man and afaithful, more a religious writer than a theological; his books are readmore for their devotion than their divinity, and they all give evidenceof luxuriance of imagination, to which the epithet “florid” has notinappropriately been applied; in Church matters he was a follower of Laud(1613-1667).

Taylor, John, known as the “Water-Poet,” born at Gloucester; wassuccessively a waterman on the Thames, a sailor in the navy, public-housekeeper in Oxford, etc.; walked from London to Edinburgh, “not carryingany money to or fro, neither begging, borrowing, or asking meat, drink,or lodging,” and described the journey in his “Penniless Pilgrimage”;wrote also “Travels in Germanie,” and enjoyed considerable repute in histime as a humorous rhymester (1580-1654).

Taylor, Tom, a noted playwright and journalist, born at Sunderland;was elected to a Fellowship at Cambridge, for two years filled the chairof English Literature at University College, London; in 1845 was calledto the bar, but shortly afterwards took to journalism, writing leadersfor theMorning Chronicle andDaily News; during 1850-1872 heldsecretarial appointments to the Board of Health and in the LocalGovernment Act Office; succeeded Shirley Brooks as editor ofPunch in1874; was throughout his life a prolific writer and adapter of plays,staging upwards of 100 pieces, of which the best known are “To Parentsand Guardians,” “Still Waters Run Deep,” “Our American Cousin,”“Ticket-of-Leave Man,” etc. (1817-1880).

Taylor, William, literary historian and critic, born at Norwich;residence on the Continent enabled him to master French, Italian, andespecially German, and confirmed him in his taste for literature, topursue which he abandoned business; various essays and reviews formed thegroundwork of his elaborate “Historic Survey of German Literature,” thefirst systematic survey of German literature presented to Englishreaders; taught German to George Borrow, who in “Lavengro” sketched hisinteresting personality, which may be further studied in hiscorrespondence with Southey, Scott, etc. (1765-1836).

Taylor, Zachary, twelfth President of the United States, born inOrange County, Virginia; obtained a lieutenancy in the navy in 1808;first saw service in Indian wars on the north-west frontier; in 1836cleared the Indians from Florida and won the brevet of brigadier-general;great victories over the Mexicans on the Texan frontier during 1845-48raised his popularity to such a pitch that on his return he was carriedtriumphantly into the Presidency; the burning questions of his brief termof office were the proposed admission of California as a free State andthe extension of slavery into the newly-acquired territory; was a man ofstrong character, a daring and skilful general, of unassuming manners,and loved by the mass of the people, to whom he was known as “Old Roughand Ready” (1784-1850).

Taylor Institute, a building in Oxford erected from bequests by SirRobert Taylor and Dr. Randolph as a gallery to contain works of art leftto the university, and which contains a noble collection.

Te Deum (Thee, O God), a grand hymn in Latin, so called from thefirst words, sung at matins and on occasions of joy and thanksgiving; ofuncertain authorship; is called also the Ambrosian Hymn, as ascribed,though without foundation, to St. Ambrose; is with more reason seeminglyascribed to Hilary, bishop of Aries.

Teazle, Lady, the heroine in Sheridan's “School for Scandal,”married to a man old enough to be her father, Sir Peter Teazle.

Teck, a German principality, named after a castle which crowns aneminence called “The Teck,” in the Swabian Alb, 20 m. SE. of Stuttgart,conferred in 1868 on Duke Albert of Würtemberg's son, who in 1866 marriedthe Princess Mary of Cambridge; their daughter, Princess May, became in1893 the Duchess of York.

Tees, English river, rises on Cross Fell, Cumberland, and flows E.,forming the boundary between Durham and York; enters the North Sea 4 m.below Stockton.

Tegner, Esaias, a popular Swedish poet, born at Kyrkerud, the son ofa country parson; graduated with distinction at Lund University in 1802,and shortly afterwards became lecturer in Philosophy; in 1812, already anoted poet, he was called to the chair of Greek, and in later years wasthe devoted bishop of Vexiö; his poems, of which “Frithiof's Saga” isreckoned the finest, have the clearness and finish of classic models, butare charged with the fire and vigour of modern romanticism (1782-1846).

Tegucigalpa (12), capital of Honduras, situated near the centre ofthe country at a height of 3400 ft., in the fertile valley of the RioGrande, surrounded by mountains; has a cathedral and university.

Tehama, a low, narrow plain in Arabia, W. of the mountain rangewhich overlooks the Red Sea.

Teheran (210), capital of Persia, stands on a plain near the ElburzMountains, 70 m. S. of the Caspian Sea; is surrounded by a bastionedrampart and ditch, 10 m. in circumference, and entered by 12 gateways;much of it is of modern construction and handsomely laid out with parks,wide streets, and imposing buildings, notable among which are the shah'spalace and the British Legation, besides many of the bazaars and wealthymerchant's houses; heat during the summer drives the court, foreignembassies, and others to the cooler heights in the N.; staple industriesare the manufactures of carpets, silks, cottons, &c.

Tehuantepec, an isthmus in Mexico, 140 m. across, between a gulf ofthe name and the Bay of Campeachy; it contains on the Pacific coast atown (24) of the same name, with manufactures and pearl fisheries.

Teignmouth (8), a watering-place and port of Devonshire, on theestuary of the Teign (here crossed by a wooden bridge 1671 ft. long), 12m. S. of Exeter; has a Benedictine nunnery, baths, pier, &c.; does someshipbuilding.

Teinds, in Scotland tithes derived from the produce of the land forthe maintenance of the clergy.

Telamones, figures, generally colossal, of men supportingentablatures, as Caryatides of women.

Tel-el-Kebir (the “Great Mound”), on the edge of the Egyptiandesert, midway between Ismaila and Cairo, the scene of a memorablevictory by the British forces under Sir Garnet Wolseley over the Egyptianforces of Arabi Pasha (September 13, 1882), which brought the war to aclose.

Telemachus, the son ofUlysses andPenelope (q. v.), who an infantwhen his father left for Troy was a grown-up man on his return; havinggone in quest of his father after his long absence found him on hisreturn in the guise of a beggar, and whom he assisted in slaying hismother's suitors.

Teleology, the doctrine of final causes, particularly the argumentfor the being and character of God from the being and character of Hisworks, that the end reveals His purpose from the beginning, the end beingregarded as the thought of God at the beginning, or the universe viewedas the realisation of Him and His eternal purpose.

Telepathy, name given to the supposed power of communication betweenmind and mind otherwise than by the ordinary sense vehicles.

Telford, Thomas, a celebrated engineer, born, the son of a shepherd,in Westerkirk parish, Eskdale; served an apprenticeship to a stone-mason,and after a sojourn in Edinburgh found employment in London in 1782; assurveyor of public works for Shropshire in 1787 constructed bridges overthe Severn, and planned and superintended the Ellesmere Canal connectingthe Dee, Mersey, and Severn; his reputation now made, he was in constantdemand by Government, and was entrusted with the construction of theCaledonian Canal, the great road between London and Holyhead (includingthe Menai Suspension Bridge), and St. Katherine Docks, London; but hisbridges, canals, harbours, and roads are to be found in all parts of thekingdom, and bear the stamp of his thorough and enduring workmanship;“the Colossus of Roads,” Southey called him (1757-1834).

Tell, a fertile strip of land of 47 m. of average breadth inNorth-West Africa, between the mountains and the Mediterranean Sea;produces cereals, wine, &c.

Tell, William, Swiss hero and patriot, a peasant, native of thecanton of Uri, who flourished in the beginning of the 14th century;resisted the oppression of the Austrian governor Gessler, and was takenprisoner, but was promised his liberty if with his bow and arrow he couldhit an apple on the head of his son, a feat he accomplished with onearrow, with the second arrow in his belt, which he told Gessler he hadkept to shoot him with if he had failed. This so incensed the governorthat he bound him to carry off to his castle; but as they crossed thelake a storm arose, and Tell had to be unbound to save them, when heleapt upon a rock and made off, to lie in ambush, whence he shot theoppressor through the heart as he passed him; a rising followed, whichended only with the emancipation of Switzerland from the yoke of Austria.

Tellez, Gabriel, the assumed name of Tirso de Molina, Spanishdramatist, born in Madrid; became a monk; wrote 58 comedies, some ofwhich keep their place on the Spanish stage; as a dramatist ranks next toLope de Vega, whose pupil he was (1583-1648).

Tellicherri (27), a seaport on the Malabar coast, Madras Presidency,India; is fortified and garrisoned; surrounding country is pretty, aswell as productive of coffee, cardamoms, and sandal-wood.

Tellurium, a rare metal usually found in combination with othermetals.

Temesvar (40), a royal free city of Hungary, on the Bega Canal, 75m. NE. of Belgrade; is a strongly-fortified, well-built city, equippedwith theatre, schools, colleges, hospitals, &c., and possesses a handsomeGothic cathedral and ancient castle; manufactures flour, woollens, silks,paper, &c.

Tempe, Vale of, a valley in the NE. of Thessaly, lying betweenOlympus on the N. and Ossa on the S., traversed by the river Peneus, andfor the beauty of its scenery celebrated by the Greek poets as afavourite haunt of Apollo and the Muses; it is rather less than 5 m. inlength, and opens eastward into a spacious plain.

Templars, a famous order of knights which flourished during theMiddle Ages, and originated in connection with the Crusades. Its founderswere Hugues de Payen and Geoffroi de St. Omer, who, along with 17 otherFrench knights, in 1119 formed themselves into a brotherhood, taking vowsof chastity and poverty, for the purpose of convoying, in safety fromattacks of Saracens and infidels, pilgrims to the Holy Land. King BaldwinII. of Jerusalem granted them a residence in a portion of his palace,built on the site of the Temple of Solomon, and close to the Church ofthe Holy Sepulchre, which became the special object of their protection.Hence their assumption of the name “Templars.” The order rapidlyincreased in numbers, and drew members from all classes. “The Templar wasthe embodiment of the two strongest passions of the Middle Ages—thedesire for military renown and for a monk's life.” A constitution wasdrawn up by Bernard of Clairvaux (1128), and later three ranks wererecognised—the knights, who alone wore the mantle of white linen and redcross, men-at-arms, and lower retainers, while a grand-master, seneschal,and other officers were created. During the first 150 years of theirexistence the Templars increased enormously in power; under papalauthority they enjoyed many privileges, such as exemption from taxes,tithes, and interdict. After the capture of Jerusalem by the infidelsCyprus became in 1291 their head-quarters, and subsequently France. Buttheir usefulness was at an end, and their arrogance, luxury, and quarrelswith the Hospitallers had alienated the sympathies of Christendom.Measures of the cruellest and most barbarous kind were taken for theirsuppression by Philip the Fair of France, supported by Pope Clement IV.Between 1306 and 1314 hundreds were burned at the stake, the orderscattered, and their possessions confiscated.

Temple, Frederick, archbishop of Canterbury, born at Santa Maura, inLeukas, one of the Ionian Islands; was highly distinguished at BalliolCollege, Oxford, as graduate, fellow, and tutor; in 1846 became Principalof Kneller Hall Training College, was one of H.M. Inspectors of Schools,and during 1858 and 1869 was head-master of Rugby; a Liberal in politics,he supported the disestablishment of the Irish Church, and as aBroad-Churchman was elected to the bishopric of Exeter (1869), of London(1885), and in 1896 was consecrated Archbishop of Canterbury; contributedto the celebrated “Essays and Reviews”; published “Sermons Preached inRugby Chapel,” and in 1884 was Bampton Lecturer;b. 1821.

Temple, Sir William, diplomatist and essayist, born in London, andeducated at Cambridge; travel on the Continent, courtship, and marriage,and some years of quiet and studious retirement in Ireland, occupied himduring the Protectorate; in 1660 was returned to the ConventionParliament at Dublin, and five years later, having resettled in England,began his diplomatic career, the most notable success in which was hisarrangement in 1668 of the Triple Alliance between England, Holland, andSweden to hold in check the growing power of France; as ambassador at TheHague became friendly with the Prince of Orange, whose marriage with thePrincess Mary (daughter of James II.) he negotiated; was recalled in1671, but after the Dutch War returned to his labours at The Hague, andin 1679 carried through the Peace of Nimeguen; although offered a StateSecretaryship more than once, shrank from the responsibilities of officeunder Charles II., a diffidence he again showed in the reign of WilliamIII.; the later years of his life were spent in Epicurean ease, in theenjoyment of his garden, and in the pursuit of letters at his villa atSheen, and, after 1686, at Moor Park, in Surrey, where he had Swift forsecretary; is remembered in constitutional history for his scheme (afailure ultimately) to put the king more completely under the check ofthe Privy Council by remodelling its constitution; was a writer ofconsiderable distinction, his miscellaneous essays and memoirs beingnotable for grace and perspicuity of style (1628-1699).

Temple, The, of Jerusalem, a building constructed on the same planand for the same purpose as theTabernacle (q. v.), only oflarger dimensions, more substantial and costly materials, and a moreornate style; it was a magnificent structure, contained treasures ofwealth, and was the pride of the Hebrew people. There were threesuccessive structures that bore the name—Solomon's, built by Solomon in1004 B.C., and destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar in 588 B.C.; Zerubbabel's,built in 515, and pillaged and desecrated by Antiochus Epiphanes in 167B.C.; and Herod's, on the ruins of the former, begun in 16 B.C.,finished in 29 A.D., and destroyed by Titus in 70 A.D. All three werebuilt on Mount Moriah, on the spot where Abraham offered up Isaac, andwhere David afterwards raised an altar to the Lord; and of the number thepalm must be given to the Temple of Solomon, it was the Templeparexcellence.

Temple Bar, a famous London gateway, which formerly divided FleetStreet from the Strand; pressure of traffic caused its removal in 1879;now stands in Theobald's Park, Cheshunt.

Tenasserim (972), the southernmost division of Burma, forms a longcoastal strip facing the Bay of Bengal and backed by the mountain barrierof Siam; acquired by the British in 1825.

Tenby (5), a popular little watering-place of Pembrokeshire, has arocky site on Carmarthen Bay coast; ruins of its old wall and of a castlestill remain; has a fine 13th-century Gothic church, marble statue of thePrince Consort, &c., while its extensive sands and splendid bathingfacilities attract crowds of summer visitors.

Tencin, Madame de, a French writer of romances, a woman of cleverwit and of personal charms, who abandoned a religious life and, coming toParis in 1714, immersed herself in the political and fashionable life ofthe city; was not too careful of her morals, and ranked among her loversthe Regent, Fontenelle, and Cardinal Dubois; used her influence againstthe Jansenists; more circumspect in later life she presided over afashionable salon; was the mother of D'Alembert (1681-1749).

Tendon Achilles, name given to the tendon of the leg above the heel,so called as being the tendon by which Thetis held Achilles when shedipped him in the Styx, and where alone he was in consequence vulnerable.

Tenedos, a rocky but fertile little island belonging to Turkey, inthe Ægean, 3 m. off the mainland of Turkey in Asia, and 12 m. S. of theentrance to the Dardanelles; it was the place the Greeks made a feintthey had returned to during the Trojan War.

Tenerife (108), the largest of theCanary Islands (q. v.), ofvolcanic formation, with cliff-bound coast; richly fruit-bearing; chiefexports, cochineal, tobacco, and wine; capital,Santa Cruz (q.v.); most notable natural feature is the famous Peak of Tenerife, aconical-shaped dormant volcano, 12,000 ft. in height, at the summit ofwhich there is a crater 300 ft. in circuit; last eruption took place in1798.

Teniers, David, the elder (1582-1649), andDavid Teniers, theyounger (1610-1690), father and son, both famous masters of the Flemishschool of painting, and natives of Antwerp; the greater genius belongedto the younger, who carried his father's gift of depicting rural andhomely life to a higher pitch of perfection.

Tennant, William, a minor Scottish poet, born at Anstruther, Fife;was educated at St. Andrews, and after a short experience of businesslife betook himself to teaching in 1813, filling posts at Dunino,Lasswade, and Dollar; his most notable poem, “Anster Fair” (1812), waswarmly received, and in 1835 his knowledge of Eastern languages won himthe chair of Oriental Languages in St. Andrews (1784-1848).

Tennemann, W. Gottlieb, German historian of philosophy; wasprofessor at Marburg; wrote both a history and a manual of philosophy(1761-1819).

Tennessee (1,768, of which 434 are coloured), one of the centralStates of the American Union, lies S. of Kentucky, and stretches from theMississippi (W.) to North Carolina (E.); is one-third larger thanIreland; politically it is divided into three districts withcharacteristic natural features; East Tennessee, mountainous, with ridgesof the Appalachians, possessing inexhaustible stores of coal, iron, andcopper; Middle Tennessee, an undulating, wheat, corn, and tobacco-growingcountry; and West Tennessee, with lower-lying plains growing cotton, andtraversed by the Tennessee River, the largest affluent of the Ohio;Nashville is the capital and largest city; became a State in 1796.

Tenniel, John, a celebrated cartoonist who, since 1864, has week byweek drawn the chief political cartoon inPunch, the merits of whichare too well known to need comment; illustrations to “Æsop's Fables,”“Ingoldsby Legends,” “Alice in Wonderland,” and other works, reveal thegrace and delicacy of his workmanship; born in London, and practically aself-taught artist; joined the staff ofPunch in 1851; was knighted in1893;b. 1820.

Tennyson, Alfred, Lord, poet-laureate, born at Somersby, inLincolnshire, son of a clergyman, and of aristocratic descent; waseducated at the grammar school of Louth and at Trinity College,Cambridge, which latter he left without taking a degree; having alreadydevoted himself to the “Ars Poetica,” an art which he cultivated more andmore all his life long; entered the university in 1828, and issued hisfirst volume of poems in 1830, though he had four years previouslycontributed to a small volume conjointly with a brother; to the poems of1830 he added others, and published them in 1833 and 1842, after which,endowed by a pension from the Civil List of £200, he produced the“Princess” in 1847, and “In Memoriam” in 1850; was in 1851 appointed tothe laureateship, and next in that capacity wrote his “Ode on the Deathof the Duke of Wellington”; in 1855 appeared his “Maud,” in 1859 thefirst four of his “Idylls of the King,” which were followed by “EnochArden” and the “Northern Farmer” in 1864, and by a succession of otherpieces too numerous to mention here; he was raised to the peerage in 1884on the recommendation of Mr. Gladstone; he was a poet of the ideal, andwas distinguished for the exquisite purity of his style and the harmonyof his rhythm; had a loving veneration for the past, and an adoringregard for everything pure and noble, and if he indulged in a vein ofsadness at all, as he sometimes did, it was when he saw, as he could nothelp seeing, the feebler hold regard for such things had on the men andwomen of his generation than the worship of Mammon; Carlyle thoughtaffectionately but plaintively of him, “One of the finest-looking men inthe world,” he writes to Emerson; “never had such company over a pipe!...a truly interesting son of earth and son of heaven ... wanted atask,with which that of spinning rhymes, and naming it 'art' and 'high art' ina time like ours, would never furnish him” (1809-1892).

Tenterden, a market-town in Kent, once a Cinque Port; the steeple ofthe church of which is reported to have been the cause of the GoodwinSands, the stones intended for the dyke which kept the sea off havingbeen used instead to repair the church.

Tenterden, Lord, English judge, born at Canterbury; wrote a“Treatise on the Law relative to Merchant Ships and Seamen”; was raisedto the peerage; an obstinate enemy of Reform (1762-1832).

Teocalli, among the ancient Mexicans a spirally-terraced pyramidalstructure surmounted by a temple containing images of the gods.

Teplitz (15), a popular health resort in N. Bohemia, finely situatedin a valley between the Erzgebirge and Mittelgebirge, 20 m. NW. ofLeitmeritz; its thermal springs are celebrated for the cure of gout,rheumatism, &c.

Teraphim, small images, a sort of household gods among the Hebrews,consulted as oracles, and endowed with some magic virtue.

Teratology, the branch of biology which treats of malformations ordepartures from the normal type.

Terburg, Gerhard, a noted Dutch painter, whose portraits andgenrepictures are to be found in most of the great European galleries; born atZwolle; after travelling in Germany, Italy, England, and Spain, settledat Deventer, where he became burgomaster; his most famous pictures are aportrait of William of Orange, “Father's Advice,” and his “Congress ofMünster, 1648,” which last was bought for £7280 and presented to theNational Gallery, London (16081681).

Terceira (45), the second largest of the Azores; rears cattle, andyields grain, oranges, &c.; chief town Angra, capital of the group.

Terence, Roman comic poet, born at Carthage; brought thence as aslave; educated by his master, a Roman senator, and set free; composedplays, adaptations of others in Greek by Menander and Apollodorus; theydepict Greek manners for Roman imitation in a pure and perfect Latinstyle, and with great dramatic skill (185-159 B.C.).

Tereus. SeePhilomela.

Terminus, in Roman mythology a deity who presided over boundaries,the worship of whom was instituted byNuma (q. v.).

Terpsichorë, the Muse of choral song and dancing.

Terra-Cotta, a composition of fine clay and fine colourless sandmoulded into shapes and baked to hardness.

Terray, Abbé, “dissolute financier” of Louis XV.; “paying eightpencein the shilling, so that wits exclaim in some press at the play-house,'Where is Abbé Terray that he might reduce it to two-thirds!'”; lived ascandalous life, and ingratiated himself with Madame Pompadour; he heldhis post till the accession of Louis XVI., and fell with his iniquitouscolleagues (1715-1778).

Terre-Haute (37), capital of Vigo County, Indiana, stands on aplateau overlooking the Wabash, 178 m. S. of Chicago; is situated in arich coal district, and has numerous foundries and various factories; iswell equipped with schools and other public institutions.

Terry, Ellen (Mrs. Charles Kelly), the most celebrated of livingEnglish actresses, born at Coventry; made herdébut at the early age ofeight, appearing as Mamilius in “The Winter's Tale,” at the PrincessTheatre, then under the management of Charles Kean; during 1864—74 shelived in retirement, but returning to the stage in 1875 achieved herfirst great success in the character of Portia; played for some time withthe Bancrofts and at the Court Theatre; in December 1878 made her firstappearance at the Lyceum Theatre, then under the management ofHenry Irving (q. v.), with whose subsequent successful career her own isinseparably associated, sharing with him the honours of a long list ofmemorable Shakespearian and other performances;b. 1848.

Tersanctus, the ascription of praise, Holy, Holy, Holy, preliminaryto the consecrating prayer in Holy Communion.

Tertullian, Quintus Septimius Florens, one of the Latin Fathers,born at Carthage, the son of a Roman centurion; was well educated; bred arhetorician; was converted to Christianity, became presbyter of Carthage,and embracedMontanist views (q. v.); wrote numerous works,apologetical, polemical, doctrinal, and practical, the last of an ascetictendency (150-230).

Test Act, act of date 1673, now repealed, requiring all officialsunder the crown to take the oath of allegiance and supremacy, &c.;directed equally against Dissenters, Roman Catholics, &c.

Testudo (tortoise-shell), in ancient Roman warfare a covering of theshields of the soldiers held over their heads as protection againstmissiles thrown from the walls when besieging a city.

Tetanus orLock-Jaw, a nervous affection of a most painful andfatal character, which usually begins with intensely painful andpersistent cramp of the muscles of the throat and jaws, spreading down tothe larger muscles of the body. As the disease progresses the musclesbecome more and more rigid, while the paroxysms of pain increase inviolence and frequency. Death as a rule results from either sheerexhaustion or failure of breath through the spasmodic closure of theglottis. The cause of the disease is now ascertained to be due to theaction of a microbe, which may find an entrance through any wound orabrasion of the skin, not necessarily of the thumb as is the popularbelief.

Tethys, in the Greek mythology a daughter of Uranus and Gaia, wifeofOceanus (q. v.), and mother of the river-gods.

Tetragrammaton, the mystic number “four,” symbolical of deity, whosename in different languages is composed of four letters.

Tetuan (22), a port and walled town of Morocco, on the Martil, 4 m.above its entrance into the Mediterranean and 22 m. S. of Ceuta; has afortified castle and wall-towers; exports provisions to Ceuta, and has agood trade in fruit, wool, silk, cotton, &c.

Tetzel, John, a Dominican monk, born at Leipzig; was employed in thesale of indulgences to all who subscribed to the fund for building St.Peter's at Rome, in opposition to whom and his doings Luther publishedhis celebrated theses in 1517, and whose extravagances involved him inthe censure of the Church (1455-1519).

Teufelsdröck, the hero of “Sartor” and prototype of the author as athinker and a man in relation to the spirit of the time, which is suchthat it rejects him as its servant, and he rejects it as his master; theword means “outcast of the devil,” and the devil is the spirit of thetime, which the author and his prototype here has, God-compelled, risenup in defiance of and refused to serve under; for a time the one or theother tried to serve it, till they discovered the slavery the attemptmore and more involved them in, when they with one bold effort toreasunder the bands that bound them, and with an “Everlasting No” achievedat one stroke their emancipation; a man this born to look through theshow of things into things themselves.

Teutonic Knights, like theTemplars (q. v.) andHospitallers, a religious order of knighthood which arose during theperiod of the Crusades, originally for the purpose of tending woundedcrusaders; subsequently became military in character, and besides thecare of the sick and wounded included among its objects aggressivewarfare upon the heathen; was organised much in the same way as theTemplars, and like them acquired extensive territorial possessions;during the 14th and 15th centuries were constantly at war with theheathen Wends and Lithuanians, but the conversion of these toChristianity and several defeats destroyed both the prestige andusefulness of the knights, and the order thenceforth began to decline. Asa secularised, land-owning order the knighthood lasted till 1809, when itwas entirely suppressed in Germany by Napoleon; but branches still existin the Netherlands and in Austria, where care for the wounded in war hasbeen resumed.

Teutons, the most energetic and progressive section of the Aryangroup of nations, embracing the following races speaking languagestraceable to a common stock: (1) Germanic, including Germans, Dutch,Flemings, and English; (2) Scandinavian, embracing Danes, Swedes,Norwegians, Icelanders. But naturally Celts and other race-elements havein the course of centuries entered into the composition of these peoples.

Tewfik Pasha, Mohammed, khedive of Egypt from the time of hisfather's abdication in 1879; a man of simple tastes and religiousdisposition, friendly and loyal to the English; Arabi Pasha'sinsurrection, closed atTel-el-Kebir (q. v.), the Mahdi's risingand capture of Khartoum, occurred during his reign, which, however, alsowitnessed Egypt's steadily increasing prosperity under English rule(1852-1892).

Tewkesbury (5), a market-town of Gloucestershire, at the confluenceof the Avon and Severn (here spanned by one of Telford's bridges), 10 m.NE. of Gloucester; possesses one of the finest of old English churches inthe Norman style; trades chiefly in agricultural produce; half a miledistant is the field of the battle of Tewkesbury (May 4, 1471), where theYorkists under Edward IV. crushed the Lancastrians.

Texas (2,236, including 493 coloured), the largest of the UnitedStates of America, in the extreme SW., fronts the Gulf of Mexico for 400m. between Mexico (W.) and Louisiana (E.); has an area more than twicethat of the British Isles, exhibiting a great variety of soil from richalluvial valleys and pastoral prairies to arid deserts of sand in the S.Climate in the S. is semi-tropical, in the N. colder and drier. Theuseful metals are found in abundance, but agriculture and stock-raisingare the chief occupations, Texas being the leading cattle-raising andcotton State in the Union; seceded from the republic of Mexico in 1835,and was an independent State till 1845, when it was annexed to theAmerican Union. Austin is the capital and Galveston the principal port.

Texel (7), an island of North Holland, situated at the entrance tothe Zuider Zee and separated from the mainland by a narrow strait calledthe Marsdiep, the scene of several memorable naval engagements betweenthe Dutch and English; staple industries are sheep and dairy farming.

Tezcuco (15), a city of Mexico which, under the name Acolhuacan, wasonce a centre of Aztec culture, of which there are interesting remainsstill extant; is situated on a salt lake bearing the same name, 25 m. NE.of Mexico City.

Thackeray, William Makepeace, novelist, born in Calcutta, educatedat the Charterhouse and at Trinity College, Cambridge; after leavingcollege, which he did without taking a degree, travelled on theContinent, making long stays at Rome and Paris, and “the dear littleSaxon town (Weimar) where Goethe lived”; his ambition was to be anartist, but failing in that and pecuniary resources, he turned toliterature; in straitened circumstances at first wrote for the journalsof the day and contributed toPunch, in which the well-known “SnobPapers” and “Jeames's Diary” originally appeared; in 1840 he produced the“Paris Sketch-Book,” his first published work, but it was not till 1847the first of his novels, “Vanity Fair,” was issued in parts, which wasfollowed in 1848 by “Pendennis,” in 1852 by “Esmond,” in 1853 by “TheNewcomes,” in 1857 by “The Virginians,” in 1862 by “Philip,” and in 1863by “Denis Duval”; in 1852 he lectured in the United States on “TheEnglish Humorists of the Eighteenth Century,” and in 1855 on “The FourGeorges,” while in 1860 he was appointed first editor ofCornhill. When“Vanity Fair” was issuing, Mrs. Carlyle wrote her husband: “Very goodindeed; beats Dickens out of the world”; but his greatest effort was“Esmond,” which accordingly is accounted “the most perfect, artistically,of his fictions.” Of Thackeray, in comparison with Dickens, M. Tainesays, he was “more self-contained, better instructed and stronger, alover of moral dissertations, a counsellor of the public, a sort of laypreacher, less bent on defending the poor, more bent on censuring man;brought to the aid of satire a sustained common-sense, great knowledge ofthe heart, consummate cleverness, powerful reasoning, a store ofmeditated hatred, and persecuted vice with all the weapons ofreflection... His novels are a war against the upper classes of hiscountry” (1811-1863).

Thaïs, an Athenian courtezan who accompanied Alexander the Great onhis expedition into Asia; had children after his death to Ptolemy Lagi.

Thalberg, Sigismund, a celebrated pianist, born at Geneva; earlydisplayed a talent for music and languages; was intended and trained fora diplomatic career, but, overcoming his father's scruples, followed hisbent for music, and soon took rank as one of the most brilliant pianistsof the age; “Thalberg,” said Liszt, “is the only pianist who can play theviolin on the key-board”; composed a large number of pianoforte pieces,chiefly fantasias and variations (1812-1871).

Thales, philosopher of Greece, and one of her seven sages; was aphilosopher of the physical school, and the father of philosophy ingeneral, as the first to seek and find within Nature an explanation ofNature; “the principle of all things is water,” he says; “all comes fromwater, and to water all returns”; flourished about the close of the 7thcentury B.C.

Thalia, one of thethree Graces (q. v.), as also of thenine Muses (q. v.).

Thallium, a rare metallic element similar to lead, but heavier,discovered in 1861 by the green in the spectrum in the flame as it wasbeing volatilised.

Thames, the most important river of Great Britain, formed by thejunction at Lechdale of four head-streams—the Isis, Churn, Coln, andLeach—which spring from the SE. slope of the Cotswold Hills; windsacross the southern midlands eastwards till in a wide estuary it entersthe North Sea; forms the boundary-line between several counties, andpasses Oxford, Windsor, Eton, Richmond, London, Woolwich, and Gravesend;navigable for barges to Lechdale, and for ocean steamers to TilburyDocks; tide is felt as far as Teddington, 80 m.; length estimated at 250m.

Thane orThegn, a title of social distinction among theAnglo-Saxons, bestowed, in the first instance, upon men bound in militaryservice to the king, and who came to form a nobility of service asdistinguished from a nobility of blood; these obtained grants of land,and had thegns under them; in this way the class of thegns widened;subsequently the name was allowed to the ceorl who had acquired fourhides of land and fulfilled certain requirements; after the NormanConquest the thegnhood practically embraced the knighthood; the namedropped out of use after Henry II.'s reign, but lasted longer inScotland.

Thanet, Isle Of (58), forms the NE. corner of Kent, from themainland of which it is separated by the Stour and the rivuletNethergong; on its shores, washed by the North Sea, stand the popularwatering-places, Ramsgate, Margate, and Broadstairs; the north-easternextremity, the North Foreland, is crowned by a lighthouse.

Thasos (5), an island of Turkey, in the Ægean Sea, near theMacedonian coast; is mountainous and richly wooded; inhabited almostentirely by Greeks.

Thaumuz. SeeTammuz.

Théâtre Français, theatre in the Palais Royal, Paris, where theFrench classic plays are produced and rendered by first-class artistes.

Thebaïde, a desert in Upper Egypt; the retreat in early times of anumber of Christian hermits.

Thebans, name given to the inhabitants of Boeotia, from Thebes, thecapital; were reckoned dull and stupid by the Athenians.

Thebes, an ancient city of Egypt of great renown, once capital ofUpper Egypt; covered 10 sq. m. of the valley of the Nile on both sides ofthe river, 300 m. SE. of Cairo; now represented by imposing ruins oftemples, palaces, tombs, and statues of colossal size, amid which thehumble dwellings of four villages—Luxor, Karnack, Medinet Habu, andKurna—have been raised. The period of its greatest flourishing extendedfrom about 1600 to 1100 B.C., but some of its ruins have been dated asfar back as 2500 B.C.

Thebes, capital of theancient Grecian State Boeotia (q.v.), whose site on the slopes of Mount Teumessus, 44 m. NW. of Athens,is now occupied by the village of Thiva; its legendary history, embracingthe names of Cadmus, Dionysus, Hercules, Oedipus, &c., and authenticstruggles with Athens and Sparta during the Peloponnesian War, its riseto supremacy under Epaminondas over all Greece, and its destruction byAlexander, have all combined to place it amongst the most famous citiesof ancient Greece.

Theism, belief in the existence of God associated in general with abelief in Providence and Revelation.

Theiss, the longest river of Hungary and largest of the affluents ofthe Danube; is formed in East Hungary by the confluence of the WhiteTheiss and the Black Theiss, both springing from south-western slopes ofthe Carpathians; after a great sweep to the NW. bends round to the S.,and flows steadily southward through the centre of Hungary until it joinsthe Danube 20 m. above Belgrade, after a course of 750 m.; with itsgreater tributaries, the Maros and the Bodrog, it forms a splendid meansof internal commerce.

Themis, in the Greek mythology the goddess of the established orderof things; was a daughter of Uranos and Gaia, and the spouse of Zeus,through whom she became the mother of the divinities concerned inmaintaining order among, at once, gods and men.

Themistocles, celebrated Athenian general and statesman; rose topolitical power on the ostracism of Aristides, his rival; persuaded thecitizens to form a fleet to secure the command of the sea against Persianinvasion; commanded at Salamis, and routed the fleet of Xerxes, andafterwards accomplished the fortification of the city in spite of theopposition of Sparta, but falling in popular favour was ostracised, andtook refuge at the court of Artaxerxes of Persia, where he died in highfavour with the king (520-453 B.C.).

Theobald, Lewis, Shakespearian critic, born at Sittingbourne, Kent;bred to the law by his father, an attorney, but took to literature; wrotea tragedy; contributed toMist's Journal, and in 1716 began histri-weekly paper, theCensor; roused Pope's ire by his celebratedpamphlet, “Shakespeare Restored,” an exposure of errors in Pope'sedition, and although ruthlessly impaled in his “Dunciad,” of which hewas the original hero, made good his claim to genuine Shakespearianscholarship by his edition, in 1733, of the dramatist's works, an editionwhich completely superseded Pope's (1688-1744).

Theocracy, government of a State professedly in the name and underthe direction as well as the sanction of Heaven.

Theocrates, great pastoral poet of Greece, born at Syracuse; was thecreator of bucolic poetry; wrote “Idyls,” as they were called,descriptive of the common life of the common people of Sicily, in athoroughly objective, though a truly poetical, spirit, in a style whichnever fails to charm, being as fresh as ever; wrote also on epic subjects(300-220 B.C.).

Theodicy, name given to an attempt to vindicate the order of theuniverse in consistency with the presence of evil, and specially to thatof Leibnitz, in which he demonstrates that this is the best of allpossible worlds.

Theodora, the famous consort of theRoman Emperor Justinian I. (q. v.), who, captivated by her extraordinary charms of wit andperson, raised her from a life of shame to share his throne (527), a highoffice she did not discredit; scandal, busy enough with her early years,has no word to say against her subsequent career as empress; the poor andunfortunate of her own sex were her special care; remained to the lastthe faithful helpmate of her husband (508-548).

Theodore, “King of Corsica,” otherwise Baron Theodore de Neuhoff,born in Metz; a soldier of fortune under the French, Swedish, and Spanishflags successively, whose title to fame is his expedition to Corsica,aided by the Turks and the Bey of Tunis, in 1736, to aid the islanders tothrow off the Genoese yoke; was crowned King Theodore I., but in a fewmonths was driven out, and after unsuccessful efforts to regain hisposition came as an impoverished adventurer to London, where creditorsimprisoned him, and where sympathisers, including Walpole, subscribed forhis release (1686-1756).

Theodore, bishop of Mopsuestra, in Cilicia, born at Antioch; was abiblical exegete, having written commentaries on most of the books of theBible, eschewing the allegorical method of interpretation, and acceptingthe literal sense; he held Nestorian views, and his writings wereanathematised; he was a friend of St. Chrysostom;b. 429.

Theodoret, Church historian, born at Antioch; as bishop of theSyrian city, Cyrus, gave himself to the conversion of the Marcionites; aleader of the Antioch school of theology, he took an active part in theNestorian and Eutychian controversies, and was deposed by the so-calledrobber-council of Ephesus, but was reinstated by the Council of Chalcedonin 451 (about 390-457).

Theodoric, surnamed the Great, founder of the monarchy of the Ostro-or East Goths, son of Theodemir, the Ostrogothic king of Pannonia; wasfor ten years during his youth a hostage at the Byzantine Court atConstantinople; succeeded his father in 475, and immediately began topush the fortunes of the Ostrogoths; various territories fell into hishands, and alarm arose at the Imperial Court; in 493 advanced upon Italy,overthrew Odoacer, and after his murder became sole ruler; was now themost powerful of the Gothic kings, with an empire embracing Italy,Sicily, and Dalmatia, besides German possessions; as a ruler provedhimself as wise as he was strong; became in after years one of the greatheroes of German legend, and figures in the “Nibelungenlied” (455-526).

Theodosius I., the Great, Roman emperor; was the son of Theodosiusthe Elder, a noted general, whose campaigns in Britain and elsewhere heparticipated in; marked out for distinction by his military prowess he,in 379, was invited by the Emperor Gratian to become emperor in the East,that he might stem the advancing Goths; in this Theodosius wassuccessful; the Goths were defeated, conciliated, had territory concededto them, and became in large numbers Roman citizens; rebellions in theWestern Empire and usurpations of the throne compelled Theodosius toactive interference, which led to his becoming sole head of the empire(394), after successfully combating the revolutionaries, Franks andothers; was a zealous Churchman, and stern suppressor of the “ArianHeresy”; the close of his reign marks the beginning of the end of theRoman Empire, for his death opened the floodgates of barbarian invasion,and from this date begins the formation of the new kingdoms of Europe(346-395).

Theognis, an elegiac poet of Megara; flourished in the second halfof the 6th century B.C.; lost his possessions during a revolution atMegara, in which the democrats overpowered the aristocrats, to whichparty he belonged; compelled to live in exile, he found solace in thewriting of poetry full of a practical and prudential wisdom, bitterlybiased against democracy, and tinged with pessimism.

Theology, the science which treats of God, particularly as Hemanifests Himself in His relation to man in nature, reason, orrevelation.

Theophrastus, a peripatetic philosopher, born in Lesbos; pupil,heir, and successor of Aristotle, and the great interpreter and expounderof his philosophy; was widely famous in his day; his writings werenumerous, but only a few are extant, on plants, stars, and fire;d. 286B.C.

Theosophy (lit. divine wisdom), a mystic philosophy of verydifficult definition which hails from the East, and was introduced amongus by Madame Blavatsky, a Russian lady, who was initiated into itsmysteries in Thibet by a fraternity there who professed to be the solecustodiers of its secrets as the spiritual successors of those to whom itwas at first revealed. The radical idea of the system appears to bereincarnation, and the return of the spirit to itself by a succession ofincarnations, each one of which raises it to a higher level until, byseven stages it would seem, the process is complete, matter has becomespirit, and spirit matter, God has become man, and man God, agreeablysomewhat to the doctrine of Amiel, that “the complete spiritualisation ofthe animal element in us is the task of our race,” though with them itseems rather to mean its extinction. The adherents of this system, withtheir head-quarters at Madras, are numerous and wide-scattered, and forman organisation of 300 branches, having three definite aims: (1) Toestablish a brotherhood over the world irrespective of race, creed,caste, or sex; (2) to encourage the study of comparative philosophy,religion, and science; and (3) to investigate the occult secrets ofnature and the latent possibilities of man. The principal books inexposition of it are, “The Secret Doctrine,” “Isis Unveiled,” “The Key toTheosophy,” by Mme. Blavatsky; “Esoteric Buddhism,” “The Occult World,”&c., by Sinnett; “The Ancient Wisdom,” “The Birth and Evolution of theSoul,” &c., by Annie Besant.

Therapeutæ, a Jewish ascetic sect in Egypt, who lived a life ofcelibacy and meditation in separate hermitages, and assembled for worshipon Sabbath.

Thermo-dynamics, name given to the modern science of the relationbetween heat and work, which has established two fundamental principles,that when heat is employed to do work, the work done is the exactequivalent of the heat expended, and when the work is employed to produceheat, the heat produced is exactly equivalent to the work done.

Thermopylæ (i. e. “the hot gates”), a famous pass in N. Greece,the only traversable one leading southward into Thessaly, lies 25 m. N.of Delphi, and is flanked on one side by Mount Oeta, and on the other bythe Maliac Gulf (now the Gulf of Zeitouni); for ever memorable as thescene of Leonidas' heroic attempt with his 300 Spartans to stem theadvancing Persian hordes under Xerxes (480 B.C.); also of Greece'sfutile struggles against Brennus and the Gauls (279 B.C.), and Philipthe Macedonian (207 B.C.)

Thersites, a deformed Greek present at the siege of Troy,distinguished for his insolent raillery at his betters, and who was slainby Achilles for deriding his lamentation over the death ofPenthesilea (q. v.).

Theseus, legendary hero of Attica, and son of Ægeus, king of Athens;ranks second to Hercules, captured the Marathonian bull, and slew theMinotaur (q. v.) by the help ofAriadne (q. v.); wagedwar against the Amazons, and carried off the queen; assisted at theArgonautic expedition, and is famed for his friendship for Perithous,whom he aided against the Centaurs.

Thespis, the father of Greek tragedy, hence Thespian art for thedrama.

Thessalonians, Epistle to the, epistles of St. Paul to the Church atThessalonica; of which there are two; the first written from Corinthabout A.D. 53 to exhort them to beware of lapsing, and comforting themwith the hope of the return of the Lord to judgment; the second, within afew months after the first, to correct a false impression produced by itin connection with the Lord's coming; they must not, he argued, neglecttheir ordinary avocations, as though the day of the Lord was close athand; that day would not come till the powers of evil had wrought theirworst, and the cup of their iniquity was full; this is the first purelydogmatic epistle of St. Paul.

Thessalonica. SeeSalonica.

Thessaly, the largest division of ancient Greece, a wide, fertileplain stretching southward from the Macedonian border to the Maliac Gulf,and entirely surrounded by mountains save the Vale of Tempe in the NE.between Mounts Ossa and Olympus; was conquered by Philip of Macedon inthe 4th century B.C., and subsequently incorporated in the Roman Empire,on the break up of which it fell into the hands of the Venetians, andeventually of the Turks (1335), and remained a portion of the OttomanEmpire till 1881, when the greater and most fertile part was ceded toGreece. Chief town, Larissa.

Thetford (4), a historic old market-town on the Norfolk and Suffolkborder, at the confluence of the Thet and Little Ouse, 31 m. SW. ofNorwich; a place of importance in Saxon times, and in Edward III.'s reignan important centre of monasticism; has interesting ruins, a notableCastle Hill, and industries in brewing, tanning, &c.

Thetis, in the Greek mythology the daughter ofNereus (q.v.) and Doris, who being married against her will to Peleus, became themother of Achilles; she was therefore aNereid (q. v.), andgifted with prophetic foresight.

Theuriet, André, modern French poet and novelist, born at Marly leRoi, near Paris; studied law, and in 1857 received a post in the officeof the Minister of Finance; has published several volumes of poems,dealing chiefly with rustic life, but is more widely known by his novels,such as “Mademoiselle Guignon,” “Le Mariage de Gérard,” “Deux Soeurs,”&c., all of them more or less tinged with melancholy, but also inspiredby true poetic feeling;b. 1833.

Thialfi, in the Norse mythology the god of manual labour, Thor'shenchman and attendant.

Thierry, Jacques Nicolas Augustin, French historian, born at Blois;came early under the influence of Saint-Simon, and during 1814-17 livedwith him as secretary, assimilating his socialistic ideas and ventilatingthem in various compositions; Comte became his master next, and historyhis chief study, an outlet for his views on which he found in theCenseur Européen, and theCourrier Français, to which hecontributed his “Letters on French History” (1820); five years laterappeared his masterpiece, the “Conquest of England,” to be followed by“Letters on History” and “Dix Ans d'Études” (1835), in which same year hewas appointed librarian at the Palais Royal; in 1853 appeared his “TiersÉtat,” the last of his works; has been called the “father of romantichistory,” and was above all a historical artist, giving life and colourto his pictures of bygone ages, but not infrequently at the cost ofhistoric accuracy (1795-1856).

Thiers, Louis Adolphe, French statesman and historian, born atMarseilles, of parents in poor circumstances; studied law at Aix, becameacquainted with Mignet the historian; went with him to Paris, and took tojournalism; published in 1827 his “History of the French Revolution,”which established his rank as a writer; contributed to the Julyrevolution; supported Louis Philippe, and was in 1832 elected a deputyfor Aix; obtained a post in the ministry, and eventually head; was sweptout of office at the revolution of 1848; voted for the presidency ofLouis Napoleon, but opposed thecoup d'état; withdrew from public lifefor a time; published in 1860 the “History of the Consulate and theEmpire” a labour of years; entered public life again, but soon retired;at the close of the Franco-German War raised the war indemnity, and sawthe Germans off the soil; became head of the Provisional Government, andPresident of the Republic from 1871 to 1873; his histories are veryone-sided, and often inaccurate besides; Carlyle's criticism of his“French Revolution” is well known, “Dig where you will, you come towater” (1795-1877).

Thing, name for a legislative or judicial assembly among theScandinavians.

Thinker, The, defined to be “one who, with fresh and powerfulglance, reads a new lesson in the universe, sees deeper into the secretof things, and carries up the interpretation of nature to higher levels;one who, unperturbed by passions and undistracted by petty detail, cansee deeper than others behind the veil of circumstance, and catchglimpses into the permanent reality.”

Thirlmere, one of the lakes in the English Lake District, inCumberland, 5 m. SE. of Keswick; since 1885 its waters have beenimpounded for the use of Manchester, the surface raised 50 ft. byembankments, and the area more than doubled.

Thirlwall, Conop, historian, born at Shepney; was a precociouschild, was educated at the Charterhouse, had Grote for a school-fellow,and was a student of Trinity College, Cambridge; called to the bar, buttook orders in 1827, having two years previously translatedSchleiermacher's “Essay on St. Luke,” and was thus the first to introduceGerman theology into England; wrote a “History of Greece,” which, thoughsuperior in some important respects, was superseded by Grote's as wantingin realistic power, a fatal blemish in a history; was a liberal man, andbishop of St. David's for half a lifetime (1797-1875).

Thirty Years' War, the name given to a series of wars arising out ofone another in Germany during 1618-48; was first a war of Catholicsagainst Protestants, but in its later stages developed into a strugglefor supremacy in Europe. On the Catholic side were Austria, variousGerman Catholic princes, and Spain, to whom were opposed successivelyBohemia, Hungary, Denmark, Sweden, and France; originated in Bohemia,where the Protestants were goaded to revolt against the intolerance ofthe empire, Moravians and Hungarians came to their assistance, but theimperial forces were too powerful and the rising was suppressed, only tobe renewed in 1624, when Denmark espoused the Protestant cause, butstruggled vainly against Catholic armies under Wallenstein and Tilly. Thetactless oppression of the Emperor Ferdinand again fanned into flame thefires of rebellion; Swedish armies now came to the assistance of theProtestants, and under Gustavus Adolphus waged successful war against theemperor, but the death of Gustavus at Lützen (1632) turned the tide infavour of the imperial forces; the German Protestant prince made adisadvantageous peace in 1635, but Sweden, now joined by France,continued the struggle against the Austrian empire. Turenne and Condébecame the heroes of the war, and a series of decisive victories rolledback the imperial armies, and by 1848 were converging upon Austria, whendiplomacy brought the war to an end by the Peace of Westphalia, the chiefgains of which were the securing of religious tolerance and therecognition of the independence of Switzerland and the United Provinces.

Thisbe. SeePyramus.

Thistle, Order of the, an order of Scottish knighthood, sometimescalled the Order of St. Andrew, instituted in 1687 by James VII. ofScotland (James II. of England); fell into abeyance during the reign ofWilliam and Mary, but was revived by Queen Anne in 1703; includes thesovereign, 16 knights, and various officials. The principal article inthe insignia is a gold collar composed of thistles intertwined withsprigs of rue.

Tholuck, Friedrich August, theologian, born at Breslau; came underthe influence ofNeander (q. v.) and became professor of Theology atHalle, where he exercised a considerable influence over the many studentswho were attracted from far and near by his learning and fervour(1799-1877).

Thom, William, a minor Scottish vernacular poet, author of “TheMitherless Bairn,” &c.; was a native of and hand-loom weaver at Aberdeen;endured much hardship and poverty (1799-1848).

Thomas, Ambroise, French composer, born at Metz; proved himself abrilliant student at the Paris Conservatoire; became professor ofComposition in 1852, and nine years later succeeded Auber as director ofthe Conservatoire; a prolific writer in all forms of musical composition,but has won celebrity mainly as a writer of, operas, the most popular ofwhich are “La Double Échelle,” “Mignon,” “Hamlet,” &c.; was decoratedwith the Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour in 1880 (1811-1896).

Thomas, Arthur Goring, composer, born near Eastbourne; studied atthe Paris Conservatoire and Royal Academy for Music, London; becamepopular through the merit of his operas “Esmeralda,” “Nadeshda,” thecantata “Sun-worshippers,” and songs; committed suicide (1851-1892).

Thomas, George Henry, American general, born in Virginia; a man offine character, lacking none of the sterner stuff of the soldier, butblended with modesty and gentleness; universally popular in the army,which he joined in 1840 and continued in till his death, rising to begeneral of a division through gallantry in the Indian frontier wars andin the Civil War, in which, at the battle of Nashville (1864), hecompletely routed the Confederate forces; had command of the militarydivision of the Pacific at the time of his death (1816-1870).

Thomas, St., the Apostle, is represented in art as bearing a spearin his hand, and sometimes an arrow, a book, and a carpenter's square.

Thomas the Rhymer. SeeRhymer, Thomas the.

Thomasius, Christian, a German jurist, born at Leipzig; was thefirst to prelect on jurisprudence in the German tongue, on which account,as on account of his advanced theological views, he encountered no smallpersecution; became at length professor of Jurisprudence at Halle, hisinfluence on the study of which was considerable (1655-1728).

Thomism, the doctrine ofThomas Aquinas (q. v.),particularly in reference to predestination and grace.

Thoms, William John, a noted antiquary and bibliographer, born inWestminster; a clerk for 20 years in the Chelsea Hospital andsubsequently in the House of Lords, where during 1863-1882 he wasdeputy-librarian; his leisure was given to his favourite pursuits, andbore fruit in many volumes dealing with “folk-lore” (a word of his owninvention) and the like; was secretary of the Camden Society, and in 1849founded, and continued to edit till 1872,Notes and Queries(1803-1885).

Thomson, Sir Charles Wyville, zoologist, born at Bonsyde,Linlithgow; educated at Merchiston Castle, Edinburgh, and at theuniversity there; a lecturer on botany at Aberdeen (1850), professor ofNatural History in Queen's College, Cork (1853), of Geology at Belfast(1854), and of Natural History in the University of Edinburgh (1870);accompanied theChallenger expedition (1872-1876) as head of thescientific department; knighted 1876; wrote “The Depths of the Sea” and“The Voyage of theChallenger” (1830-1882).

Thomson, George, a noted collector of songs, who set himself togather in one work every existing Scotch melody; his untiring zealresulted in the publication of 6 vols. of Scotch songs, the words ofwhich had been adapted and supplied by a host of writers, includingScott, Campbell, Joanna Baillie, and above all, Robert Burns, whocontributed upwards of 120; Haydn, Beethoven, Mozart, Weber, and otherswere engaged to supply instrumental preludes and codas; also publishedcollections of Irish songs and Welsh melodies; was a native of Limekilns,Fife, and for 60 years principal clerk to the Board of Trustees,Edinburgh (1759-1851).

Thomson, James, the poet of the “Seasons,” born, the son of theparish minister, at Ednam, Roxburghshire; was educated and trained forthe ministry at Edinburgh University, but already wooing the muse, he,shortly after his father's death in 1725, went to London to push hisfortune; his poem “Winter,” published in the following year, hadimmediate success, and raised up a host of friends and patrons, and whatwith tutoring and the proceeds of “Summer,” “Spring,” “Autumn,” variousworthless tragedies, and other products of his pen, secured a fairliving, till a pension of £100 from the Prince of Wales, to whom he haddedicated the poem of “Liberty,” and a subsequent £300 a year asnon-resident Governor of the Leeward Islands, placed him in comparativeaffluence; the “Masque of Alfred,” with its popular song “RuleBritannia,” and his greatest work “The Castle of Indolence” (1748), werethe outcome of his later years of leisure; often tediously verbose, notinfrequently stiff and conventional in diction and trite in itsmoralisings, the poetry of Thomson was yet the first of the 18th centuryto shake itself free of the town, and to lead, as Stopford Brooke says,“the English people into that new world of nature which has enchanted usin the work of modern poetry” (1700-1748).

Thomson, James, the poet of pessimism, born, a sailor's son, atPort-Glasgow, and brought up in an orphanage; was introduced toliterature byMr. Bradlaugh (q. v.), to whoseNationalReformer he contributed much of his best poetry, including his gloomyyet sonorous and impressive “The City of Dreadful Night,” besides essays(1834-1882).

Thomson, John, the artist minister of Duddingston, born at Dailly,in Ayrshire; succeeded his father in the parish of Dailly (1800), andfive years later was transferred to Duddingston parish, near Edinburgh;faithful in the discharge of his parochial duties, he yet found time tocultivate his favourite art of painting, and in the course of his 35years' pastorate produced a series of landscapes which won him widecelebrity in his own day, and have set him in the front rank of Scottishartists (1778-1840).

Thomson, Joseph, African explorer, born at Thornhill, studied atEdinburgh University, and in 1878 was appointed zoologist to the RoyalGeographical Society's expedition to Lake Tanganyika, which, after thedeath of the leader, Keith Johnston, at the start, he, at the age of 20,carried through with notable success; in 1882 explored with importantgeographical results Massai-land, and subsequently headed expeditious upthe Niger and to Sokoto, and explored the Atlas Mountains; publishedinteresting accounts of his various travels (1858-1895).

Thomson, Sir William, Lord Kelvin, great physicist, born at Belfast;studied at St. Peter's College, Cambridge; was senior wrangler in 1845,and elected professor of Natural Philosophy in Glasgow in 1846; it is inthe departments of heat and electricity he has accomplished his greatestachievements, and his best-known work is the invention of thesiphon-recorder for the Atlantic cable, on the completion of which, in1866, he was knighted, to be afterwards raised to the peerage in 1892; hehas invented a number of ingenious and delicate scientific instruments,as well as written extensively on mathematical and physical subjects;b. 1824.

Thor, in the Norse mythology “the god of thunder; the thunder washis wrath, the gathering of the black clouds is the drawing down ofThor's angry brows; the fire-bolt bursting out of heaven is theall-rending hammer flung from the hand of Thor; he urges his loud chariotover the mountain tops—that is the peal; wrathful he 'blows in hisbeard'—that is the rustling of the storm-blast before the thunderbegin”; he is the strongest of the gods, the helper of both gods and men,and the mortal foe of the chaotic powers.

Thoreau, Henry David, an American author who, next to his friend andneighbour Emerson, gave the most considerable impulse to the“transcendental” movement in American literature, born in Concord, wherehis life was mostly spent, of remote French extraction; was withdifficulty enabled to go to Harvard, where he graduated, but withoutdistinction of any sort; took to desperate shifts for a living, butsimplified the problem of “ways and means” by adopting Carlyle's plan of“lessening your denominator”; the serious occupation of his life was tostudy nature in the woods around Concord, to make daily journal entriesof his observings and reflections, and to preserve his soul in peace andpurity; his handicrafts were unwelcome necessities thrust upon him; “Whatafter all,” he exclaims, “does the practicalness of life amount to? Thethings immediate to be done are very trivial; I could postpone them allto hear this locust sing. The most glorious fact in my experience is notanything I have done or may hope to do, but a transient thought or visionor dream which I have had”; his chief works are “Walden,” the account ofa two years' sojourn in a hut built by his own hands in the Concord Woodsnear “Walden Pool,” “A Week on the Concord and Merrimac River,” essays,poems, etc. (1817-1862).

Thorn (27), a town and fortress of the first rank in West Prussia,on the Vistula, 115 m. NW. of Warsaw; formerly a member of theHanseatic League (q. v.); was annexed by Prussia in 1815; thebirthplace of Copernicus; carries on a brisk trade in corn and timber.

Thornbury, George Walter, a miscellaneous writer, author of numerousnovels, “Songs of the Cavaliers and Roundheads,” “Life of Turner,” “Oldand New London,” etc.; born in London, where his life was spent inliterary work (1828-1876).

Thornhill, Sir James, an English artist of the school of Le Brun,born at Woodland, Dorsetshire; treated historical subjects in allegoricalfashion, and was much in request for decorative work, his most notableachievements being the decoration of the dome of St. Paul's, of rooms inHampton Court, Blenheim House, and Greenwich Hospital; wassergeant-painter to Queen Anne, and was knighted by George I.; member ofParliament from 1719 till his death (1676-1734).

Thornycroft, Hamo, sculptor, born in London; has done statues ofGeneral Gordon (1885), John Bright (1892), and Oliver Cromwell (1899);b. 1850.

Thorough, name given by theEarl of Strafford (q. v.) to ascheme of his to establish absolute monarchy in England.

Thorwaldsen, Bertel, an eminent Danish sculptor, born nearCopenhagen, the son of a poor Icelander; won a Government scholarship atthe Academy of Copenhagen in 1793, which enabled him to study in Rome,where he was greatly inspired by the ancient Greek sculptures, and firedwith the ambition of emulating the classical masters; Canova encouragedhim, and a fine statue of Jason established his reputation; his lifehenceforth was one of ever-increasing fame and prosperity. Denmarkreceived him with highest honour in 1819, but the milder Italian climatebetter suited his health, and he returned to Rome, where he executed allhis great works; these deal chiefly with subjects chosen from the Greekmythology, in which he reproduces with marvellous success the classicspirit and conception; executed also a colossal group of “Christ and theTwelve Apostles,” “St. John Preaching in the Wilderness,” and otherreligious subjects, besides statues of Copernicus and Galileo, and thecelebrated reliefs “Night” and “Morning”: bequeathed to his country hislarge fortune and nearly 300 of his works, now in the Thorwaldsen Museum,one of the great sights of Copenhagen (1770-1844).

Thoth, the Egyptian Mercury, inventor of arts and sciences;represented as having the body of a man and the head of a lamb or ibis.

Thou, Jacques-Auguste de, a celebrated historian, born at Paris;enjoyed the favour of Henry III., and by Henry IV. was appointed keeperof the royal library; his history of his own times is a work of greatvalue as a clear and remarkably impartial survey of an interesting periodof European history (1553-1617).

Thousand Islands, 2000 islands which stud the river St. Lawrencebelow Kingston, at the outlet of the river from Lake Ontario.

Thrace, in ancient Greece, was a region, ill defined, stretching N.of Macedonia to the Danube, and W. of the Euxine (Black Sea); appearsnever to have been consolidated into one kingdom, but was inhabited byvarious Thracian tribes akin to the Greeks, but regarded by them asbarbarians; since the capture of Constantinople by the Turks the northernportion of Thrace has been annexed to Eastern Roumelia, while theremainder has continued a portion of the Turkish empire.

Thrasybulus, famous Athenian general and democratic statesman; cameto the front during the later part of the Peloponnesian War; took anactive share in overturning the oligarchy of the Four Hundred, and inrecalling Alcibiades (411 B.C.); was exiled by the Thirty Tyrants, andwithdrew to Thebes, but subsequently was permitted to return, and laterwas engaged in commanding Athenian armies against Lesbos and in supportof Rhodes; was murdered (389 B.C.) by natives of Pamphylia.

Three Hours' Agony, a service held on Good Friday from 12 noon till3 o'clock to commemorate the Passion of Christ.

Three Rivers (9), capital of St. Maurice Co., Quebec, 95 m. NE. ofMontreal; does a considerable trade in lumber, iron-ware, &c.; is theseat of a Roman Catholic bishop.

Thring, Edward, a celebrated educationist, born at Alford Rectory,Somersetshire; educated at Eton and Cambridge, where he obtained aFellowship; entered the Church, and served in various curacies till in1853 he began his true lifework by an appointment to the head-mastershipof Uppingham School, which he raised to a high state of efficiency, andstamped with the qualities of his own strong personality, as did Arnoldat Rugby; published various educational works, “The Theory and Practiceof Teaching,” “Addresses,” “Poems and Translations,” &c. (1821-1887).

Throgmorton, Sir Nicholas, English diplomatist; was ambassador inParis under Elizabeth, and afterwards to Scotland; fell into disgrace asinvolved in an intrigue for the marriage of Mary, Queen of Scots, withthe Duke of Norfolk (1513-1571).

Thucydides, historian of the Peloponnesian War, born in Athens nineyears after the battle of Salamis, of a wealthy family; was in Athensduring the plague of 430 B.C.; was seized, but recovered; served asnaval commander in 424 in the Peloponnesian War, but from neglect of dutywas banished; returned from exile 20 years after; his great achievementis his history, all derived from personal observation and oralcommunication, the materials of which were collected during the war, andthe whole executed in a style to entitle it to rank among the noblestliterary monuments of antiquity; it is not known how or when he died, buthe died before his history was finished.

Thugs, a fraternity of professed worshippers of the goddess Kali,the wife of Siva, who, professedly to propitiate her, practised murder,and lived on the spoils of the victims.Thuggee, a name for thepractice, originally by strangling and at times by poisoning.

Thule, Ultima, name given by the ancients to the farthest N. part ofEurope, which they conceived as an island.

Thun (6), a quaint old town of Switzerland, on the Aar, 17 m. SE. ofBern, and barely 1 m. distant from Lake of Thun (12 m. by 2 m.); has a12th-century castle, &c.

Thunderer, name given to theTimes, from certain powerful articlesin it ascribed to the editor, Captain Edward Stirling.

Thurgau (105), a canton of Switzerland, on the NE. frontier, whereLake Constance for a considerable distance forms its boundary;inhabitants are mainly Protestant; country is hilly but not mountainous,fertile, and traversed by the river Thur, a tributary of the Rhine;capital Frauenfeld.

Thurible, a censer suspended by chains and held in the hand by apriest during mass and other offices of the Romish Church.

Thüringia, originally the territory of the Thuringians (an ancientGerman tribe), now an integral portion of the German empire, occupies acentral position, with Saxony on its N. and E., and Bavaria on the S.; aconsiderable portion of it is covered by the Thuringian Forest.

Thurles (5), a town of Tipperary, on the Suir, 87 m. SW. of Dublin;is the seat of a Catholic archbishop, college, and cathedral; in thevicinity are the fine ruins of Holy Cross Abbey.

Thurlow, Edward, Baron, a noted lawyer and politician of GeorgeIII.'s reign, born, a clergyman's son, at Bracon-Ash, Norfolk; quittedCambridge without a degree, and with a reputation for insubordination andbraggadocio rather than for scholarship; called to the bar in 1754, hesoon made his way, aided by an imposing presence, which led Fox toremark, “No man ever was so wise as Thurlow looked”; raised hisreputation by his speeches in the great Douglas case, and throughinfluence of the Douglas family was made a King's counsel; enteredParliament in 1768; became a favourite of the king, and rose through theoffices of Solicitor-General and Attorney-General to the LordChancellorship in 1778, being raised to the peerage as Baron; lost hisposition during the Coalition Ministry of Fox and North, but was restoredby Pitt, who, however, got rid of him in 1792, after which hisappearances in public life were few; not a man of fine character, butpossessed a certain rough vigour of intellect which appears to have madeconsiderable impression on his contemporaries (1732-1806).

Thursday, fifth day of the week, dedicated toThor (q. v.).

Thursday Island, a small island in Normanby Sound, Torres Strait,belonging to Queensland, and used as a Government station; has a fineharbour, Port Kennedy, largely used for the Australian transit trade;also the centre of valuable pearl fisheries.

Thurso (4), a seaport in Caithness, at the mouth of the ThursoRiver, 21 m. NW. of Wick; does a brisk trade in agricultural produce,cattle, and paving stones.

Thyrsus, an attribute of Dionysus, being a staff or spear entwinedwith ivy leaves and a cone at the top; carried by the devotees of the godon festive occasions; the cone was presumed to cover the spear point, awound from which was said to cause madness.

Tian-Shan (“Celestial Mountains”), a great mountain range of CentralAsia, separating Turkestan from Eastern and Chinese Turkestan; highestsummit Kaufmann Peak, 22,500 ft.

Tiber, a river of Italy celebrated in ancient Roman history, risesin the Apennines, in the province of Arezzo, Tuscany; rapid and turbid inits upper course, but navigable 100 m. upwards from its mouth; flowsgenerally in a S. direction, and after a course of about 260 m. entersthe Mediterranean about 15 m. below Rome.

Tiberius, second Roman emperor, born at Rome; was of the Claudianfamily; became the step-son of Augustus, who, when he was five years old,had married his mother; was himself married to Agrippina, daughter ofAgrippa, but was compelled to divorce her and marry Augustus's daughterJulia, by whom he had two sons, on the death of whom he was adopted asthe emperor's successor, whom, after various military services in variousparts of the empire, he succeeded A.D. 14; his reign was distinguishedby acts of cruelty, specially at the instance of the minister Sejanus,whom out of jealousy he put to death; given up to debauchery, he wassuffocated in a fainting fit by the captain of the Prætorian Guards inA.D. 37, and succeeded by Caligula; it was during his reign Christ wascrucified.

Tibert, Sir, the cat in “Reynard the Fox.”

Tibet (6,000), a country of Central Asia, and dependency of Chinasince 1720, called by the natives themselves Bod or Bodyul, comprises awide expanse of tableland, “three times the size of France, almost ascold as Siberia, most of it higher than Mount Blanc, and all of it,except a few valleys, destitute of population”; enclosed by the loftyranges of the Himalaya and Kuen-lun Mountains, it has been leftpractically unexplored; possesses great mineral wealth, and a largeforeign trade is carried on in woollen cloth (chief article ofmanufacture); polyandry and polygamy are prevailing customs among thepeople, who are a Mongolic race of fine physique, fond of music anddancing, jealous of intrusion and wrapt up in their own ways and customs;the government, civil and religious, is in the hands of the clergy, thelower orders of which are numerous throughout the country; a variation ofMongol Shamanism is the native religion, but Lamaism is the officialreligion of the country, and the supreme authority is vested in the DalaiLama, the sovereign pontiff, who resides at Lhassa, the capital.

Tibullus, Albius, Roman elegiac poet, a contemporary of Virgil andHorace, the latter of whom was warmly attached to him; he accompaniedMessala his patron in his campaigns to Gaul and the East, but had noliking for war, and preferred in peace to cultivate the tendersentiments, and to attune his harp to his emotions.

Tichborne, a village and property of Hampshire, which becamenotorious in the “seventies” through a butcher, from Wagga Wagga, inAustralia, named Thomas Castro, otherwise Thomas Orton, laying claim toit in 1866 on the death of Sir Alfred Joseph Tichborne; the “Claimant”represented himself as an elder brother of the deceased baronet, supposed(and rightly) to have perished at sea; the imposture was exposed after alengthy trial, and a subsequent trial for perjury resulted in a sentenceof 14 years' penal servitude. Orton, after his release, confessed hisimposture in 1895.

Ticino (127), the most southerly canton of Switzerland, lies on theItalian frontier; slopes down from the Lepontine Alps in the N. tofertile cultivated plains in the S., which grow olives, vines, figs, &c.;the inhabitants speak Italian, and the canton, from the mildness of itsclimate and richness of its soil, has been called the “ItalianSwitzerland,” embraces most of Lakes Lugano and Maggiore, and istraversed by the St. Gothard Railway.

Ticino, a river of Switzerland and North Italy; springs from the S.side of Mount St. Gothard, flows southwards through Lake Maggiore and SE.through North Italy, joining the Po 4 m. below Pavia, after a course of120 m.

Tickell, Thomas, a minor English poet, born at Bridekirk,Cumberland; enjoyed the friendship and favour of Addison, who praised himin theSpectator, and held till his death the appointment of secretaryto the Lords Justices of Ireland; his poetry does not count for much inthe history of English literature, but he was happy in the composition ofoccasional poems,e. g. “The Prospect of Peace,” “The Royal Progress,”and in ballads, such as “Colin and Lucy,” &c., and his translation of thefirst book of the “Iliad” was so good as to rouse the jealousy of Pope(1686-1740).

Ticknor, George, American man of letters, born in Boston; studied invarious European cities, where he was received in the best literarycircles, and of which he has left in his journal interesting impressions;held the professorship of French and Spanish in Harvard University for anumber of years; published in 1849 his “History of Spanish Literature,”the standard work on the subject; also wrote lives of Lafayette andPrescott, &c. (1791-1871).

Ticonderoga (3), a township of New York, on Lake Champlain, 100 m.N. of Albany; has various factories, mines in the vicinity, &c.; a placeof much prominence during the struggles with the French and later duringthe revolutionary war.

Tieck, Ludwig, German poet, born in Berlin; was one of the foundersof the Romantic school in Germany, was a friend of the Schlegels andNovalis; wrote novels and popular tales and dramas; his tales, inparticular, are described by Carlyle as “teeming with wondrous shapesfull of meaning; true modern denizens of old fairyland ... shows a gaysouthern fancy living in union with a northern heart;... in the provinceof popular traditions reigns without a rival” (1773-1853).

Tientsin (950), an important city and river-port of China, on thePei-ho, 34 m. from its mouth and 80 m. SE. of Peking, of which it is theport; since 1858 has been one of the open treaty ports, and in 1861 aBritish consulate was established; three months of the year the Pei-ho isfrozen over; there is an increasing transit trade with Russia.

Tierra del Fuego, a compact island-group at the southern extremityof the South American continent, from which it is separated by the Straitof Magellan; the most southerly point isCape Horn (q. v.); ofthe group Tierra del Fuego, sometimes called King Charles South Land,belongs partly to the Argentine and partly to Chile, to which also belongthe other islands, except Staten Island, an Argentine possession; savefor a few fertile plains in the N., where some sheep-farming goes on, theregion is bleak, barren, and mountainous, with rocky, fiord-cut coastsswept by violent and prolonged gales; scantily peopled by now harmlessIndians of a low type.

Tiers État (third estate), name given to the Commons section in theStates-General of France.

Tiflis (105), capital of a mountainous, forest-clad government (875)of the same name and of Russian Caucasia, on the Kar, 165 m. SE. of theBlack Sea; is a city of considerable antiquity and note, and owes muchto-day to the energy of the Russians, who annexed it in 1802; noted forits silver and other metal work.

Tigris, an important river of Turkey in Asia; rises in the mountainsof Kurdistan, flows SE. to Diarbekir, E. to Til (where it receives theBitlis), and hence SE. through a flat and arid country, till, after acourse of 1100 m., it unites with the Euphrates to form the Shat-el-Arab,which debouches into the Persian Gulf 90 m. lower; is navigable for 500m. to Bagdad; on its banks are the ruins of Nineveh, Seleucia, andCtesiphon.

Tilbury Fort, on the Essex bank of the Thames, opposite Gravesend;the main defence of the river above Sheerness; in 1886 extensive docks,quays, a tidal basin, &c., were opened.

Tillotson, John Robert, archbishop of Canterbury, born in Sowerby,Yorkshire, of a Puritan family, and trained on Puritan lines; studied atClare Hall, Cambridge, came under the influence ofCudworth (q.v.), conformed to the Established Church at the Restoration and becameking's chaplain and a prebend of Canterbury, till at length he rose to bedean and primate; was an eloquent preacher, a man of moderate views, andrespected by all parties; his “Sermons” were models for a time, but areso no longer (1630-1694).

Tilly, Johann Tserklaes, Count of, one of the great generals of theThirty Years' War (q. v.), born in Brabant; was designed for thepriesthood and educated by Jesuits, but abandoned the Church for thearmy; was trained in the art of war by Parma and Alva, and proved himselfa born soldier; reorganised the Bavarian army, and, devoted to theCatholic cause, was given command of the Catholic army at the outbreak ofthe Thirty Years' War, during the course of which he won many notablebattles, acting later on in conjunction with Wallenstein, whom in 1630 hesucceeded as commander-in-chief of the imperial forces, and in thefollowing year sacked with merciless cruelty the town of Magdeburg, adeed which Gustavus Adolphus was swift to avenge by crushing the Catholicforces in two successive battles—at Breitenfeld and at Rain—in thelatter of which Tilly was mortally wounded (1559-1632).

Tilsit (25), a manufacturing town of East Prussia, on the Memel orNiemen, 65 m. NE. of Königsberg; here was signed in 1807 a memorabletreaty between Alexander I. of Russia and Napoleon, as the result ofwhich Friedrich Wilhelm III. of Prussia was deprived of the greater partof his dominions.

Timbuctoo (20), an important city of the Western Soudan, situated atthe edge of the Sahara, 8 m. N. of the Upper Niger, at the centre of fivecaravan routes which lead to all parts of North Africa; carries on alarge transit trade, exchanging European goods for native produce; wasoccupied by the French in 1894.

Timoleon, a celebrated general of ancient Greece, born, of a noblefamily, in Corinth, about 395 B.C.; ardently espoused the cause of theGreeks in Sicily, who were in danger of forfeiting their liberties to theCarthaginians, and headed an army to Syracuse, where he defeated anddrove out Dionysius the Younger (344), subsequently cleared the island ofthe oppressors, and brought back order and good government, after whichhe quietly returned to private life, and spent his later years atSyracuse, beloved by the Sicilians as their liberator and benefactor;d. 337 B.C.

Timon of Phlius, a Greek philosopher, a disciple ofPyrrho(q. v.), flourished 280 B.C.; wrote a satirical poem on the wholeGreek philosophy up to date, which is the source of our knowledge of hismaster's opinions. Also the name of a misanthrope of Athens, acontemporary of Socrates.

Timor (500), the largest of the long chain of islands whichstretches eastward from Java, of volcanic formation, mountainous, wooded,and possessing deposits of various metals, but mainly exports maize,sandal-wood, wax, tortoise-shell, &c.; population consists chiefly ofPapuans, whose native chiefs are the real rulers of the island, whichbelongs, the W. portion of it to Holland and the E. to Portugal; E. ofTimor lies a group of three low-lying islands of coral formation, knownas Timor-Laut or Tenimber Islands (25); Dutch possession.

Timothy, a convert of St. Paul's, associate and deputy, to whom, asin charge of the Church at Ephesus, he wrote two epistles in the intervalbetween his imprisonment and death at Rome, the First Epistle to directhim in the discharge of his pastoral duties, and the Second to invite himto Rome, and counsel him, should he not be dead before he arrived.

Timur the Tartar. SeeTamerlane.

Tindal, Matthew, English deistical writer, born in Devonshire;studied at Oxford, became Fellow of All Souls', was first a Protestant,then a Catholic, and then a free-thinker of a very outspoken type,exhibited in a polemic which provoked hostility on all sides; his mostfamous work was “Christianity as old as Creation; or, the Gospel aRepublication of the Religion of Nature,” a work which did not attackChristianity, but rationalised it (1656-1733).

Tinewald, The, name of the Manx Parliament.

Tinnevelli (23), a town of Madras Presidency, SE. India, capital ofa district (1,916) of the same name; lies 50 m. N. of Cape Comorin, andadjoins Pallamcotta, head-quarters of the British military andgovernment; is a centre of Protestant mission work, and possesses a Sindtemple and a Hindu college.

Tintagel Head, a rocky headland, 300 ft high, on the W. Cornishcoast, 22 m. W. of Launceston; associated with the Arthurian legend asthe site of King Arthur's castle and court; 6 m. distant lies Camelford,the famous Camelot.

Tintern Abbey, one of the most beautiful ruined abbeys of England,founded by the Cistercian monks in 1131 on the Wye, in Monmouthshire, 5m. above Chepstow; associated with Wordsworth's great poem, “Linescomposed a few miles above Tintern Abbey.”

Tintoretto, baptizedJacopo Robusti, a famous Italian artist,one of Ruskin's “five supreme painters,” born at Venice; save for a fewlessons under Titian he seems to have been self-taught; took for hismodels Titian and Michael Angelo, and came specially to excel in grandeurof conception and in strong chiaroscuro effects; amongst his most notablepictures are “Belshazzar's Feast,” “The Last Supper,” “The Crucifixion,”“The Last Judgment,” “The Resurrection,” &c.; some of these are ofenormous size (1518-1594).

Tipperary (173), a south-midland county of Ireland, in the provinceof Munster, stretching N. of Waterford, between Limerick (W.) andKilkenny (E.); possesses a productive soil, which favours a considerableagricultural and dairy-farming industry; coal is also worked; the Suir isthe principal stream; the generally flat surface is diversified in the S.by the Galtees (3008 ft.) and Knockmeledown (2609 ft.), besides smallerranges elsewhere; county town Tipperary (7), 110 m. SW. of Dublin; notedfor its butter market.

Tippoo Saib, son ofHyder Ali (q. v.), whom he succeeded inthe Sultanate of Mysore in 1782; already a trained and successful warriorin his father's struggles with the English, he set himself withimplacable enmity to check the advance of British arms; in 1789 invadedTravancore, and in the subsequent war (1790-1792), after a desperateresistance, was overcome and deprived of half of his territories, andcompelled to give in hostage his two sons; intrigued later with theFrench, and again engaged the English, but was defeated, and his capital,Seringapatam, captured after a month's siege, himself perishing in thefinal attack (1749-1799).

Tipton (29), an iron-manufacturing town of Staffordshire, 8½ m. NW.of Birmingham.

Tiraboschi, Girolamo, an Italian writer, who for some time filledthe chair of Rhetoric at Milan University, and subsequently becamelibrarian to the Duke of Modena; is celebrated for his exhaustive surveyof Italian literature in 13 vols., a work of the utmost value(1731-1794).

Tiresias, in the Greek mythology a soothsayer, who had been struckblind either by Athena or Hera, but on whom in compensation Zeus hadconferred the gift of prophecy, and length of days beyond the ordinaryterm of existence.

Tirnova (11), a fortified town of Bulgaria, 35 m. SSE. of Sistova;is the seat of the Bulgarian patriarch; formerly the State capital.

Tiryns, an ancient city of Greece, excavated by Schliemann in1884-1885; situated in the Peloponnesus, in the plain of Argolis, 3 m.from the head of the Argolic Gulf; legend associates it with the earlylife of Hercules; has ruins of a citadel, and of Cyclopean wallsunsurpassed in Greece.

Tischendorf, Constantin von, biblical scholar, born in Saxony; spenthis life in textual criticism; his great work “Critical Edition of theNew Testament” (1815-1874).

Tisiphone, one of the threeFuries (q. v.).

Titania, the wife of Oberon and the queen of the fairies.

Titanium, a rare, very hard metal, always found in combination.

Titans, in the Greek mythology sons of Uranos and Gaia, beings ofgigantic strength, and of the dynasty prior to that of Zeus, who made waron Zeus, and hoped to scale heaven by piling mountain on mountain, butwere overpowered by the thunderbolts of Zeus, and consigned to a limbobelow the lowest depths of Tartarus; they represent the primitive powersof nature, as with seeming reluctance submissive to the world-orderestablished by Zeus, and symbolise the vain efforts of mere strength tosubvert the ordinance of heaven; they are not to be confounded with theGiants, nor with their offspring, who had learned wisdom from the failureof their fathers, and who, Prometheus one of them, represented the ideathat the world was made for man and not man for the world, and that allthe powers of it, from highest to lowest, were there for his behoof.

Tithonus, in the Greek mythology son of Laomedon, who was wedded toEos, who begged Zeus to confer on him immortality but forgot to beg foryouth, so that his decrepitude in old age became a burden to him; he waschanged into a cicada.

Titian, Vecellio, great Italian painter, born at Capo del Cadore,the prince of colourists and head of the Venetian school; studied atVenice, and came under the influence of Giorgione; he was a master of hisart from the very first, and his fame led to employment in all directionsover Italy, Germany, and Spain; his works were numerous, and rich invariety; he was much in request as a portrait-painter, and he paintedmost of the great people he knew; he ranks with Michael Angelo andRaphael as the head of the Italian renaissance; lived to a great age(1477-1576).

Titiens, Teresa, a famous operatic singer, born of Hungarian parentsin Hamburg; made herdébut in 1849 at Altona, in the character ofLucrezia Borgia (1849), and soon took rank as the foremost singer on theGerman lyric stage; appeared with triumphant success in London (1858),and henceforth made her home in England, associated herself with themanagement of Mapleson; visited America in 1875; her commanding physiqueand powerful acting, together with her splendid voice, made her an idealinterpreter of such tragic characters as Norma, Fidelio, Margarita,Ortrud, &c. (1834-1877).

Titmarsh, Michael Angelo, pseudonym assumed for a series of years byThackeray.

Titus, a convert of St. Paul, a Greek by birth, appears to haveaccompanied St Paul on his last journey, and to have been with him at hisdeath; Paul's Epistle to him was to instruct and encourage him during hisministry in Crete.

Titus, Flavius Vespasianus, Roman emperor, born at Rome, the son ofVespasian, served in Germany and Britain, and under his father in Judæa;on his father's elevation to the throne persecuted the Jews, laid siegeto Jerusalem, and took the city in A.D. 70; on his accession to thethrone he addressed himself to works of public beneficence, and becamethe idol of the citizens; his death was sudden, and his reign lasted onlythree years; during that short period he won for himself the title of the“Delight of Mankind” (40-81).

Tityus, a giant whose body covered nine acres of land, son of Zeusand Gaia, who for attempting to force Latona was punished in the netherworld by two vultures continually gnawing at his liver.

Tiverton (11), an interesting old town of Devonshire, pleasantlysituated between the Exe and Loman, 12 m. N. by E. of Exeter; possessespublic baths, assembly rooms, almshouses, and a 17th-centurygrammar-school; noted for its lace manufactures.

Tivoli (9), a town of Italy, known to the ancients as Tibur,beautifully situated on the Teverone, 18 m. E. of Rome; was much resortedto by the wealthy Roman citizens, and is celebrated by Horace; is full ofinteresting remains.

Tlaxcala (138), a State of North Mexico, and formerly an Aztecrepublic; capital, Tlaxcala (4); has woollen manufactures.

Tobago (21), one of theWindward Islands (q. v.), the mostsoutherly of the group; a British possession since 1763, politicallyattached to Trinidad; is hilly, picturesque, and volcanic; exports rum,molasses, and live-stock.

Tobit, The Book of, a book of the Apocrypha giving account of thelife and vicissitudes of a pious Israelitish family in the Assyriancaptivity, that consisted of Tobit, Anna his wife, and Tobias his son;all three are held up to honour for their strict observance of the Law ofthe Lord and their deeds of charity to such as loved it, and notable forthe prominence given in it to the ministry of angels, both good and bad,among the former Raphael and among the latter Asmodeus, and is the workof a Jew whose mind was imbued with Oriental imagery.

Tobolsk (20), a town and government (1,313), of W. Siberia,picturesquely planted at the confluence of the Irtish and Tobol, 2000 m.E. of St. Petersburg; has a cathedral, barracks, theatre, prison forSiberian slaves, &c.

Toby, Uncle, the hero of Sterne's “Tristram Shandy,” a retiredcaptain, distinguished for his kindness, gallantry, and simplicity.

Tocantins, one of the great rivers of Brazil, rises in the State ofGoyaz; flows northwards, and after a course of 1500 m. enters the estuaryof the Pará, one of the mouths of the Amazon, 138 m. from the Atlantic;receives the Araguay from the S., an affluent 1600 m. long.

Tocqueville, Alexis Clérel de, French economist, born at Verneuil,of an old Norman family, bred to the bar, and specially distinguished asthe author of two works in high repute, “La Democratie en Amérique” and“L'Ancien Régime et la Révolution”; died at Cannes, leaving much of hiswork unfinished (1805-1861).

Todhunter, Isaac, mathematician, born at Rye; educated at UniversityCollege, London, and at Cambridge, where he graduated senior wrangler andSmith's prizeman in 1848; elected Fellow and principal mathematicallecturer of his college (St. John's), and soon became widely known ineducational circles by his various and excellent handbooks and treatiseson mathematical subjects (1820-1884).

Todleben, Eduard Ivanovitch, a noted Russian general of Germandescent, who, trained in the engineer corps, greatly distinguishedhimself by his defensive operations at Sebastopol during its siege by theFrench and English in the Crimean War, and subsequently by the reductionof Plevna, his greatest achievement, which brought to a close the warwith Turkey in 1877; subsequently became commander-in-chief in Bulgaria(1818-1884).

Todmorden (25), a cotton town prettily situated amid hills on theborder of Lancashire and Yorkshire, on the Calder, 21 m. NE. ofManchester; coal abounds in the vicinity.

Toga, an outer garment, usually of white wool like a large blanket,folded about the person in a variety of ways, but generally with theright arm free, thrown over the left shoulder, and hanging down the back;it was at once the badge of manhood and Roman citizenship.

Togoland, a German protectorate on the Slave Coast, in Upper Guinea,Gold Coast Colony on the W., and Dahomey on the E.; exports palm-oil andivory.

Tokay (5), a Hungarian town on the Theiss, 130 m. NE. of Pesth;greatly celebrated for its wines, of which it manufactures 34 differentsorts.

Tokyo orTokei (1,376), formerly called Yeddo, capital of theJapanese Empire, situated on a bay of the same name on the SE. coast ofHondo, and partly built on the delta of the river Sumida; is for the mostpart flat and intersected by canals and narrow irregular streets, and hasa finely-wooded river-side avenue 5 m. long; on account of frequentearthquakes most of the houses are of light bamboo structure, which,however, renders them liable to destructive fires; has a fine castle,government offices, university, and some 700 schools and colleges; as thepolitical, commercial, and literary metropolis it possesses anovershadowing influence over the national life of the empire. Yokohama,17 m. distant, is the port of entry.

Tola, a weight in India for gold and silver, equal to 180 grainstroy.

Toland, John, political and deistical writer, born in Derry, ofCatholic parents; abandoned the Catholic faith; studied at Leyden andOxford; his first work, “Christianity not Mysterious,” which created agreat stir, and was burned in Ireland by the common hangman; it wassucceeded, along with others, by “Nazarenus,” which traced Christianityto conflicting elements in the early Church; he was a disciple of Locke(1669-1722).

Toledo (20), a city of Spain, capital of a province (360), andformer capital of the kingdom, occupies a commanding site amid hills, onthe Tagus, 40 m. SW. of Madrid; within and without presents a sombre andimposing appearance; is the see of the primate of Spain, and possesses anoble Gothic cathedral, ruins of the Cid's castle, and remains of theMoorish occupation (712-1085); the manufacture of sword-blades, famous inRoman times, is still carried on in a government establishment a mile outof the city.

Toledo (131), capital of Lucas County, Ohio, on the Maumee River, 80m. W. of Lake Erie; is a busy centre of iron manufactures, and does alarge trade in grain, flour, lumber, &c., facilitated by a fine harbour,canal, and railway systems.

Toleration Act, a statute passed in 1689 to relieve all Dissentersfrom certain penalties, except Roman Catholics and Unitarians.

Tolstoi, Count Leo, novelist, social reformer, and religious mystic,born in Tula, of a noble family; served for a time in the army, soonretired from it, and travelled; married, and settled on his estate nearMoscow in 1862; his two great works are “War and Peace” (1865-68) and“Anna Karenina” (1875-78); has written many works since, all more or lessin a religious vein, and in the keenest, deepest sympathy with thesoul-oppression of the world, finding the secret of Christianity to liein the precept of Christ, “Resist not evil,” and exemplifying that as theprinciple of his own life;b. 1828.

Tommy Atkins, the British soldier, as Jack Tar is the Britishsailor, from a hypothetical name inserted in a War Office schedule at onetime issued to each soldier.

Tomsk (37), a town and government (1,300) of W. Siberia, on theTom, 55 m. from its confluence with the Obi; has a university, and is animportant depôt on the trade-route to China.

Tone, Theobald Wolfe, Irish patriot, born in Dublin; called to thebar in 1789; found a congenial sphere for his restless, reckless naturein the disturbed politics of his time, and was active in founding the“United Irishmen,” whose intrigues with France got him into trouble, andforced him to seek refuge in America, and subsequently France, where heschemed for a French invasion of Ireland; eventually was captured by theEnglish while on his way with a small French squadron against Ireland;was condemned at Dublin, but escaped a death on the gallows by committingsuicide in prison (1763-1798).

Tonga Islands orFriendly Islands (19), an archipelago in theS. Pacific, 250 m. SE. of Fiji; Tonga-tabu is the largest; volcanic andfruit-bearing; missionary enterprise (Wesleyan Methodist) has done muchto improve the mental, moral, and material condition of the natives, whobelong to the fair Polynesian stock, and are a superior race to the othernatives of Polynesia, but are diminishing in numbers. SeeFriendly Islands.

Tongaland (100), a native State on the E. coast of South Africa,stretching N. of Zululand.

Tongking, Tonquin, orTonkin (9,000), a fertile northernprovince ofAnnam (q. v.), ceded to France in 1884; is richlyproductive of rice, cotton, sugar, spices, &c., but has an unhealthyclimate.

Tongres (9), an episcopal city of Belgium, 12 m. NW. of Liège; itschurch of Notre Dame dates from 1240.

Tonnage and Poundage, the name given to certain duties first leviedin Edward II.'s reign on everytun of imported wine, and on everypound weight of merchandise exported or imported; Charles I.'s attemptto levy these without parliamentary sanction was one of the complaints ofhis Long Parliament; were swept away by the Customs Consolidation Act of1787.

Tooke, John Horne, baptismal nameJohn Horne, born, the son ofa well-to-do poulterer, in London; graduated at Cambridge, and to pleasehis father took holy orders in 1760, but after some years, during whichhe had tutored abroad, zealously assisted Wilkes in his election toParliament, and successfully encountered “Junius”; he abandoned theChurch and studied for the bar, to which, on account of his holy orders,he was refused a call; became an active political free-lance, andacquired great popularity as a strenuous advocate of parliamentaryreform; entered Parliament in 1801, but in the following year wasexcluded by an Act making it illegal for any one in priest's orders to bereturned; inherited the fortune and assumed the name of his friendWilliam Tooke of Purley; is best known as the author of the “Diversionsof Purley,” “a witty medley of etymology, grammar, metaphysics, andpolitics” (1736-1812).

Toole, John Lawrence, a celebrated comedian, born in London, wherehe was educated at the City School, and afterwards put to business, butsoon took to the stage, serving his apprenticeship and gaining aconsiderable reputation in the provinces before making his appearance atSt. James's Theatre in London in 1854; became the leading low-comedian ofhis day, and in 1880 took over the management of the Folly Theatre, whichhe re-named Toole's Theatre; has unrivalled powers of blending pathoswith burlesque, and in such characters as Paul Pry, Caleb Plummer,Chawles, &c., is a special favourite all over the English-speaking world;b. 1832.

Toom Tabard. SeeTabard.

Tope, the popular name in Buddhist countries for a species ofcupola-shaped tumulus surmounted by a finial, in shape like an openparasol, the emblem of Hindu royalty; these parasol finials were oftenplaced one upon the top of the other until a great height was reached;one in Ceylon attains a height of 249 ft., with a diameter of 360 ft.;were used to preserve relics or to commemorate some event.

Topeka (34), capital of Kansas, on the Kansas River, 67 m. W. ofKansas City; is a spacious, well laid out town, the seat of an Episcopalbishop, well supplied with schools and colleges, and busy with themanufacture of flour, heavy iron goods, &c.

Töpffer, Rudolf, caricaturist and novelist of Geneva, where hefounded a boarding-school, and became professor of Rhetoric in the GenevaAcademy; author of some charming novels, “Nouvelles Genévoises,” “LaBibliothèque de mon Oncle,” &c. (1799-1846).

Toplady, Augustus Montague, hymn-writer, born at Farnham, Surrey;became vicar of Broad Hembury, Devonshire, in 1768; was an uncompromisingCalvinist, and opponent of the Methodists; survives as the author of“Rock of Ages,” besides which he wrote “Poems on Sacred Subjects,” andcompiled “Psalms and Hymns,” of which a few are his own (1740-1778).

Torgau (11), a fortified town of Prussia, on the Elbe, 70 m. SW. ofBerlin; has a church consecrated by Luther, and in the town-church thewife of the great reformer lies buried; scene of a victory of Frederickthe Great over the Austrians in November 1760.

Toronto (181), the second city of Canada, and metropolis of the W.and NW. regions, capital of Ontario; situated on a small bay on the NW.coast of Lake Ontario, 315 m. SW. of Montreal; is a spacious andhandsomely built city, with fine churches, a splendidly equippeduniversity, Parliament buildings, law courts, theological colleges,schools of medicine and music, libraries, &c.; does a large shipping andrailway trade in lumber, fruit, grain, coal, &c.

Torquay (26), a popular watering-place of South Devon, on Tor Bay,23 m. S. of Exeter; with a fine climate and beautiful surroundings, hassince the beginning of the century grown from a little fishing village tobe “the Queen of English watering-places”; a great yachting centre, &c.

Torquemada, Thomas de, a prior of a Dominican monastery who becamein 1483, during the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella, head of theInquisition, a “holy office” he administered with merciless cruelty(1420-1498).

Torres Strait separates Australia from New Guinea, 80 m. broad, andfrom its numerous islands, shoals, and reefs is exceedingly difficult tonavigate.

Torres-Vedras (5), a town of Portugal, 26 m. N. of Lisbon;celebrated for the great lines of defence Wellington constructed in 1810,and behind which he successfully withstood the siege of the French underMassena, thus saving Lisbon, and preparing the way for his subsequentexpulsion of the French from the Peninsula.

Torricelli, Evangelista, a celebrated Italian physicist; devotedhimself to science, and attracted the attention of Galileo, whom hesubsequently succeeded as professor at the Florentine Academy; discoveredthe scientific principle of the barometer, which is sometimes called theTorricellian tube, and made notable advances in mathematical and physicalscience (1608-1647).

Torrington (3), a market-town of North Devon, built on an eminenceoverlooking the Torridge, 10 m. SW. of Barnstaple; manufactures gloves;was the scene of a Parliamentary victory in 1646, during the greatrebellion.

Torture, Judicial, torture to extort a confession, practised inEngland till 1588, and in Scotland by thumbscrews and the boot till 1690.

Tory, the old name for a Conservative in politics, generally of verydecided type; originally denoted an Irish robber of the English inIreland.

Totemism, division of a race into tribes, each of which has its ownTotem, or animal, as the symbol of it and the name, and as such treatedwith superstitious veneration, as involving religious obligation.

Totnes (4), a quaint old market-town of Devonshire, overlooking theDart, 29 m. SW. of Plymouth; has interesting Norman and other remains; acentre of agricultural industry.

Toul (12), a strongly-fortified town of France, on the Moselle, 20m. W. of Nancy; has a noble Gothic cathedral and lace and hatmanufactures; was captured by the Germans in 1870.

Toulon (74), chief naval station of France, on the Mediterranean,situated 42 m. SE. of Marseilles; lies at the foot of the Pharon Hills,the heights of which are strongly fortified; has a splendid 11th-centurycathedral, and theatre, forts, citadel, 240 acres of dockyard, arsenal,cannon foundry, &c.; here in 1793 Napoleon Bonaparte, then an artilleryofficer, first distinguished himself in a successful attack upon theEnglish and Spaniards.

Toulouse (136), a historic and important city of South France,capital of Haute-Garonne, pleasantly situated on a plain and touching onone side the Garonne (here spanned by a fine bridge) and on the other theCanal du Midi, 160 m. SE. of Bordeaux; notable buildings are thecathedral and Palais de Justice; is the seat of an archbishop, schools ofmedicine, law, and artillery, various academies, and a Roman Catholicuniversity; manufactures woollens, silks, &c.; in 1814 was the scene of avictory of Wellington over Soult and the French. Under the name of Tolosait figures in Roman and mediæval times as a centre of learning andliterature, and was for a time capital of the kingdom of the Visigoths.

Tourcoing (65), a thriving textile manufacturing town of France, 9m. NE. of Lille.

Tournaments, real or mock fights by knights on horseback in proof ofskill in the use of arms and in contests of honour.

Tournay (35), a town of Hainault, Belgium, on the Scheldt, 35 m. SW.of Brussels; in the 5th century was the seat of the Merovingian kings,but now presents a handsome modern appearance; has a fine Romanesquecathedral and flourishing manufactures of hosiery, linen, carpets, andporcelain.

Tourneur, Cyril, a later Elizabethan dramatist, who seems to haveled an adventurous life, and whose “Atheist's Tragedy” and “Revenger'sTragedy” reach a high level of dramatic power, and have been greatlypraised by Swinburne; wrote also the “Transformed Metamorphosis” andother poems; lived into James I.'s reign; almost nothing is known of hislife.

Tours (60), a historic old town of France, on the Loire, 145 m. SW.of Paris; presents a spacious and handsome appearance, and contains anoble Gothic cathedral, archbishop's palace, Palais de Justice, besidesancient châteaux and interesting ruins; is a centre of silk and woollenmanufactures, and does a large printing trade; suffered greatly by theRevocation of the Edict of Nantes and during the Franco-German War;became the seat of government after the investment of Paris and until itscapitulation to the Germans.

Tourville, Anne Hilarion de Cotentin, Count de, a French naval hero,born at Tourville, La Manche; entered the navy in 1660, established hisreputation in the war with the Turks and Algerines, and in 1677 won avictory over the Dutch and Spanish fleets; supported James II. in 1690,and in the same year, as commander of the French Channel fleet, inflicteda crushing defeat on the Dutch and English; but off Cape La Hogue in1692, after a five days' engagement, had his fleet all but annihilated, amemorable victory which freed England from the danger of invasion byLouis XIV.; was created a marshal in 1693, and a year later closed hisgreat career of service by scattering an English mercantile fleet andputting to flight the convoy squadron under Sir George Rooke (1642-1701).

Toussaint L'Ouverture, a negro hero of Hayti, born, the son of anAfrican slave at Breda; took part in the native insurrection of 1791, andin 1797 became a general of brigade in the service of the French, and bygallant soldiership cleared the English and Spanish out of Hayti; becamepresident for life of the republic of Hayti, and began to work for thecomplete independence of the island; in 1801, when Napoleon endeavouredto re-introduce slavery, he revolted, but was subdued by a strong Frenchforce and taken to France, where he died in prison; is the subject of awell-known sonnet by Wordsworth (1743-1803).

Tower Hamlets, a parliamentary division of London E. of the city,originally a group of hamlets at one time within the jurisdiction of theLieutenant of the Tower.

Towers of Silence, towers in Persia and India, some 60 ft. inheight, on the top of which the Parsees deposit their dead to be gnawedby vultures.

Townshend, Charles, Viscount, statesman, born at Raynham, Norfolk;succeeded to the title on his father's death, and after taking his seatin the Upper House turned Whig, and soon became prominent in the party;was one of the commissioners who arranged the Scottish Union; accompaniedMarlborough as joint-plenipotentiary to the Gertruydenburg Conference(1709); got into political trouble for signing the Barrier Treaty whileacting as ambassador to the States-General; under George I. rose to highfavour, became acknowledged leader of the Whigs, passed the SeptennialAct, but after 1721 was eclipsed in the party by the greater abilities ofWalpole, and after unpleasant rivalries was forced to withdraw from theministry (1730); gave himself then to agricultural pursuits (1674-1738).

Townshend, Charles, statesman and orator, grandson of preceding;entered Parliament in 1747 as a Whig, and after his great speech againstthe Marriage Bill of 1753 ranked among the foremost orators of his day;held important offices of State under various ministers, Bute, Chatham,and Rockingham, and as Chancellor of the Exchequer in 1767 wasresponsible for the imposition of the paper, tea, and other duties on theAmerican colonies which provoked the War of Independence and led to theloss of the colonies; a man of brilliant gifts and noted wit, but led bywhat Burke termed “an immoderate love of fame” to play “the weathercock”in politics; died when on the point of attaining the premiership(1725-1767).

Towton, a village of Yorkshire, 3 m. SE. of Tadcaster, where in1461 Edward IV. at the head of the Yorkists completely routed theLancastrians under the Duke of Somerset.

Toynbee Hall, an institution in Whitechapel, London, founded in 1885for the social welfare of the poor in the district, established in memoryof Arnold Toynbee (1852-1883), who had come under Ruskin's influence andtook a deep interest in the working-classes, his zeal for whose benefitshortened his days.

Tractarianism, the tenets of the High Church party in the EnglishChurch advocated in “Tracts for the Times,” published at Oxford between1833 and 1841, the chief doctrine of which was that the Church, throughits sacraments in the hands of a regularly-ordained clergy, is the onlydivinely-appointed channel of the grace of Christ.

Trade, Board of, a Government office which, as now constituted,dates from 1786, but whose functions within recent times have beenconsiderably widened; consists of a president (a Cabinet minister), andex officio the Lord Chancellor, Archbishop of Canterbury, First Lord ofthe Treasury, the principal Secretaries of State, Chancellor of theExchequer, the Speaker, and others, but the actual work of the Board isleft in the hands of the president and his secretarial staff; comprisesfive departments: (1) statistical and commercial; (2) railway; (3)marine; (4) harbour; (5) financial.

Trafalgar, Cape, on the S. coast of Spain, at the NW. entrance ofthe Strait of Gibraltar; scene of naval engagements in which Nelson losthis life after inflicting (October 21, 1805) a crushing defeat on thecombined fleets of France and Spain.

Trajan, Marcus Ulpius, Roman emperor, born in Spain; his great deedsin arms won him a consulship in 91, and in 97 Nerva invited him to be hiscolleague and successor; a year later he became sole emperor, ruled theempire with wisdom and vigour, set right the finances, upheld animpartial justice, and set on foot various schemes of improvement;suppressed the Christians as politically dangerous, but with no fanaticextravagance; remained above all a warrior and true leader of thelegions, and crowned his military fame by his successful conquest ofDacia, in commemoration of which he is said to have erected the famousTrajan Column, which still stands in Rome (56-117).

Trajan's Column, a column erected by Trajan in the Forum at Rome inmemory of his victory over the Dacians, and sculptured with the story ofhis exploits, is 125 ft. in height, and ascended by 185 steps; wassurmounted by a statue of Trajan, for which Pope Sextus V. substitutedone of St. Peter.

Transcaucasia, an extensive tract of Russian territory stretching E.and W. between the Caucasus (N.) and Turkey in Asia and Persia (S.). SeeCaucasia.

Transcendentalism, name now principally employed to denote the greatdoctrine of Kant and his school, that there are principles ofa prioriderivation, that is, antecedent to experience, that are regulative andconstitutive of not only our thoughts but our very perceptions, and theoperation of which is antecedent to and sovereign over all our mentalprocesses; which principles are denominated the categories of thought;the name is also employed to characterise every system which groundsitself on a belief in a supernatural of which the natural is but theembodiment and manifestation. SeeNatural Supernaturalism.

Transmigration, the doctrine prevalent in the East, that the soul isimmortal, and that when it leaves the body at death it passes intoanother, a transition which in certain systems goes under the name ofreincarnation.

Transubstantiation, the doctrine of Roman Catholics as defined bythe Council of Trent, that the bread and wine of the Eucharist is, afterconsecration by a priest, converted mystically into the body and blood ofChrist, and is known as the docrine of the Real Presence.

Transvaal, formerlySouth African Republic (1350), a country ofSE. Africa, stretching northwards from the Vaal River, and bounded N. byMatabeleland, E. by Portuguese E. Africa and Swaziland, S. by Natal andthe Orange River Colony, and W. by Bechuanaland and BechuanalandProtectorate; comprises elevated plateaux, but is mountainous in the E.;about the size of Italy; has a good soil and climate favourable foragriculture and stock-raising, to which latter the inert Dutch farmerchiefly devotes himself; its chief wealth, however, lies in its extremelyrich deposits of gold, especially those of the “Rand,” of which itexports now more than any country in the world; its advance since thegold discoveries has been great, but the trade is almost entirely in thehands of the British immigrants;Johannesburg (q. v.) is thelargest town, and Pretoria (15) the seat of Government. In 1856 theregion was settled by Dutch farmers, who had “trekked” from Natal(recently annexed by Britain) to escape British Rule, as in 1835, for asimilar reason, they had come from the Cape to Natal. Fierce encounterstook place with the native Basutos, but in the end the “Boers” made goodtheir possession. In 1877 the Republic, then in a disorganised andimpoverished condition, and threatened with extinction by the natives,came under the care of the British, by whom the natives were reduced andthe finances restored. In 1880 a rising of the Boers to regain completeindependence resulted in the Conventions of 1881 and 1884, by which theindependence of the Republic was recognised, but subject to the right ofBritain to control the foreign relations. Within recent years agitationswere carried on by the growing “Uitlander” population to obtain a sharein the government to which they contributed in taxes the greater part ofthe revenue, and a succession of attempts were made by the BritishGovernment to get the Boers to concede the franchise to the “Uitlanders”and remedy other grievances; but the negotiations connected therewithwere suddenly arrested by an ultimatum of date 9th October 1899,presented to the British Government by the Transvaal, and allowing themonly 48 hours to accept it. It was an ultimatum they were bound toignore, and accordingly, the time having expired on the 11th, war wasdeclared by the Boers. It proved a costly and sanguinary one to bothsides in the conflict; but the resistance of the Boers was ultimatelyovercome, and hostilities ceased in May 1902. Previously to this, theColony had been annexed by Great Britain (1900). It is at present (1905)administered by a Governor, Lieutenant-Governor, and an ExecutiveCouncil; but it is proposed that, in the near future, representativeinstitutions should be granted.

Transylvania (2247), eastern division of the Austrian Empire; is atableland enclosed NE. and South by the Carpathians, contains wide tractsof forests, and is one-half under tillage or in pasture; yields largecrops of grain and a variety of fruits, and has mines of gold, silver,copper, iron, &c., though the manufactures and trade are insignificant;the population consists of Roumanians, Hungarians, and Germans; it wasunited to Hungary in 1868.

Trapani (32), an ancient seaport of Sicily, known in Roman times asDrepanum, in the NW., 40 m. W. of Palermo; presents now a handsomemodern appearance, and trades in wheat, wine, olives, &c.

Trappists, an order of Cistercian monks founded in 1140 at LaTrappe, in the French department of Orne, noted for the severity of theirdiscipline, their worship of silence and devotion to work, meditation,and prayer, 12 hours out of the 24 of which they pass in the latterexercise; their motto is “Memento Mori”; their food is chieflyvegetables.

Trasimene Lake, a historic lake of Italy; lies amid hills betweenthe towns Cortona and Perugia; shallow and reedy, 10 m. long; associatedwith Hannibal's memorable victory over the Romans 217 B.C.

Travancore (2,557), a native State in South India, under Britishprotection, between the Western Ghâts and the Arabian Sea; it isconnected with the Madras Presidency; it is traversed by spurs of theWestern Ghâts, beyond which, westward, is a plain 10 m. wide, coveredwith coco-nut and areca palms; the population mainly Hindus; there arenative Christians and some black Jews; Trivandrum is the capital.

Traviata, an opera representing the progress of a courtezan.

Trebizond (50), a city and thriving seaport NE. of Asia Minor, theoutlet of Persia and Armenia, on the Black Sea; is walled, and outsideare various suburbs; manufactures silks.

Trelawney, Edward John, friend of Shelley and Byron; entered thenavy as a boy, but deserted and took to adventure; met with Shelley atPisa; saw to the cremation of his body when he was drowned, and went withByron to Greece; was a brave, but a restless mortal; wrote “Recollectionsof the Last Days of Shelley and Byron” (1792-1881).

Trelawney, Sir Jonathan, one of the seven bishops tried under JamesII.; is the hero of the Cornish ballad, “And shall Trelawney die?”d.1721.

Trench, Richard Chevenix, archbishop of Dublin, born in Dublin;educated at Harrow and Trinity College, Cambridge; took orders; becamecurate to Samuel Wilberforce, and wrote “Notes on the Miracles andParables” and “The Study of Words”; was Dean of Westminster before hebecame archbishop (1807-1886).

Trenck, Baron von, general, first in the service of Austria, then ofRussia; dismissed from both; commanded a regiment of pandours in theAustrian Succession War in the interest of Maria Theresa; tried tocapture Frederick the Great; was caught, tried, and condemned to prison,escaped, was captured, and took poison; had a cousin with a similar fate(1711-1749).

Trent, an English river, rises in NW. of Staffordshire, flows NE.,and unites with the Ouse, 15 m. W. of Hull.

Trent (21), an Austrian town in S. of Tyrol, in a valley on theAdige, 60 m. N. of Verona; has an Italian appearance, and Italian isspoken.

Trent, Council of, an oecumenical council, the eighteenth, held atTrent, and whose sittings, with sundry adjournments, extended from 13thDecember 1545 until 4th December 1563, the object of which was to definethe position and creed of the Church of Rome in opposition to thedoctrines and claims of the Churches of the Reformation.

Trenton (73), capital of New Jersey State, on the Delaware River, 57m. SW. of New York; divided into two portions by Assanpink Creek, andhandsomely laid out in broad, regular streets; public buildings include astate-house, federal buildings, &c.; is the great emporium in the UnitedStates of crockery and pottery manufactures.

Trepanning, an operation in surgery whereby portions of the skullare removed by means of an instrument called a trepan, which consists ofa small cylindrical saw; resorted to in all operations on the brain.

Trevelyan, Sir George Otto, politician and man of letters, born atRothley Temple, Leicestershire, son of Sir Charles Trevelyan (adistinguished servant of the East India Company, governor of Madras,baronet, and author) and Hannah, sister of Lord Macaulay; educated atHarrow and Cambridge, and entered Parliament as a Liberal in 1865; hasheld successively the offices of parliamentary secretary to the Board ofAdmiralty, Chief Secretary for Ireland, Chancellor of the Duchy ofLancaster with a seat in the Cabinet, and Secretary for Scotland;resigned his seat in 1897; has written “Life and Letters of LordMacaulay,” “Early History of Charles James Fox,” “The AmericanRevolution,” &c., all of which are characterised by admirable lucidityand grace of style;b. 1838.

Trèves (36), a famous old city of Prussia, beautifully situated onthe Moselle, 69 m. SW. of Coblenz; held to be the oldest city in Germany,and claiming to be 1300 years older than Rome; is full of most strikingRoman remains, and possesses an interesting 11th-century cathedral,having among many relics the celebrated seamless “Holy Coat,” said tohave been the one worn by Christ; manufactures woollens, cottons, andlinens, and wine.

Tribunes, in ancient Rome officers elected by the plebs to preservetheir liberties and protect them from the tyranny of the aristocraticparty, their institution dating from 493 B.C., on the occasion of acivil tumult.

Trichinopoli (91), capital of a district of same name in MadrasPresidency, on the Kaveri, 56 m. inland; is a fortified town, with animposing citadel, barracks, hospital, &c.; noted for its cheroots andjewellery; seat of a Roman Catholic bishopric and college.

Tricolour, a flag adopted by the French Revolutionists in 1789, andconsisting of three vertical stripes, blue, white, and red, the blue nextthe staff.

Trident, originally a three-pronged fork used by fishermen, and atlength the symbol, in the hands of Poseidon and Britannia, of sovereigntyover the sea.

Trieste (158), an ancient town and still the first seaport ofAustro-Hungary; at the head of the NE. arm of the Adriatic, 214 m. SW. ofVienna; an imperial free city since 1849; consists of an old and a newtown on the level fronting the sea; has a fine harbour and extensivemanufactures, embracing shipbuilding, rope-making, &c.

Trim, Corporal, Uncle Toby's attendant in “Tristram Shandy.”

Trimurti, the Hindu trinity, embracingBrahma the Creator,Vishnu the Preserver, andSiva (q. v.) the Destroyer;represented sometimes as a body with three heads, that of Brahma in thecentre, of Vishnu on the right, and of Siva on the left.

Trincomalee (10), an important naval station and seaport on the NE.coast of Ceylon, 110 m. NE. of Kandy; possesses barracks, officialresidences, and a splendid harbour, a haven of shelter to shipping duringthe monsoons, and is strongly fortified.

Trinidad (208), the largest of the Windward Islands, and mostsoutherly of theAntilles (q. v.), lies off the mouth of theOrinoco, 7 m. from the coast of Venezuela; is of great fertility, with ahot, humid, but not unhealthy climate; sugar, coffee, tobacco, and cocoaare the chief exports; a source of great wealth is a wonderful pitch lakewhich, despite the immense quantities annually taken from it, shows noperceptible diminution; inhabitants are mainly French; taken by theBritish in 1797, and forms, with Tobago, a crown colony; capital, Port ofSpain.

Trinitarians, name applied to those who believe in an ontological aswell as those who believe in a theological trinity, that is to say, whorecognise the like principle pervading the universe of being.

Trinity, the doctrine, variously interpreted, that in the godhead ordivine nature there are three persons, respectively denominated Father,Son, and Spirit—Father, from whom; Son, to whom; and Spirit, throughwhom are all things; is essentially triunity in unity.

Tripitaka, (the three baskets), name given to the collection of thesacred books of Buddhism, as being formed of three minor collections,bearing the Sutras on discipline, the Vinaya on doctrine, and theAbidharma on metaphysics.

Tripod, seat with three legs on which the priestess of Apollo satwhen delivering her oracles.

Tripoli (17), a seaport of Syria, 40 m. NE. of Beyrout; a place ofgreat antiquity, and successively in the hands of the Phoenicians,Crusaders, and Mamelukes; it has many interesting Saracenic and otherremains; its trade is passing over to Beyrout.

Tripoli (1,000), a province (since 1835) of Turkey, in North Africa,most easterly of the Barbary States; stretches northwards from the LibyanDesert, lies between Tunis (W.) and Fezzan (E.), with which latter, asalso with Barca, it is politically united; carries on a brisk caravantrade with Central Africa; capital, Tripoli (20), situated on a spit ofrocky land jutting into the Mediterranean; surrounded by high walls, andMoorish in appearance.

Triptolemus, in the Greek mythology the favourite ofDemeter(q. v.), the inventor of the plough, and of the civilisation therewithconnected; played a prominent part in the Eleusinian Mysteries; wasfavoured by Demeter for the hospitality he showed her when she was inquest of her daughter.

Trismegistus (thrice greatest), the Egyptian Hermes, regarded as thefountain of mysticism and magic.

Tristan da Cunha, the largest of three small islands lying out inthe South Atlantic, about 1300 m. SW. of St. Helena; 20 m. incircumference; taken possession of by the British in 1817, and utilisedas a military and naval station during Napoleon's captivity on St.Helena; now occupied by a handful of people, who lead a simple,communistic life.

Tristram, Sir, one of the heroes of mediæval romance, whoseadventures form an episode in the history of the Round Table.

Triton, in the Greek mythology a sea deity, son of Poseidon andAmphitrite; upper part of a man with a dolphin's tail; often representedas blowing a large spiral shell; there were several of them, and wereheralds of Poseidon.

Tritratna, name given to theBuddhist trinity,Buddha,the Dharma, and theSangha (q. v.).

Trochu, Louis Jules, a distinguished French general, who came to thefront during the Crimean end Italian campaigns, but fell into disfavourfor exposing in a pamphlet (1867) the rotten state of the French army;three years later, on the outbreak of the Franco-German War, wasappointed Governor of Paris, and, after the proclamation of the Republic,general of the defence of the city till its capitulation, after which heretired into private life (1815-1896).

Trollope, Anthony, English novelist; belonged to a literary family;his mother distinguished as a novelist no less; educated at Winchesterand Harrow; held a high position in the Post Office; his novels werenumerous; depict the provincial life of England at the time; the chiefbeing “Barchester Towers,” “Framley Parsonage,” and “Dr. Thorne”; wrote a“Life of Cicero,” and a biography of Thackeray; he was an enthusiasticfox-hunter (1815-1882).

Tromp, Cornelius, Dutch admiral, son of succeeding, born atRotterdam; fought many battles with the English and proved himself aworthy son of a heroic father; was created a baron by Charles II. ofEngland (1675); aided the Danes against Sweden, and subsequentlysucceeded Ruyter as lieutenant admiral-general of the United Provinces(1629-1691).

Tromp, Martin Harpertzoon, famous Dutch admiral, born at Briel;trained to the sea from his boyhood, in 1637 was createdlieutenant-admiral, and in two years' time had twice scattered Spanishfleets; defeated by Blake in 1652, but six months later beat back theEnglish fleet in the Strait of Dover, after which he is said to havesailed down the Channel with a broom to his masthead as a sign he hadswept his enemies from the seas; in 1653 Blake renewed the attack andinflicted defeat on him after a three days' struggle; in June and JulyTromp was again defeated by the English, and in the last engagement offthe coast of Holland was shot dead (1597-1653).

Tromsö, a town (6) and island (65) of Norway, in the NW.

Trondhjem (29), an important town, the ancient capital of Norway, onTrondhjem Fjord, 250 m. N. of Christiania; is well laid out with broadlevel streets, most of the houses are of wood; possesses a fine13th-century cathedral, where the kings of Norway are crowned; carries ona flourishing trade in copper ore, herrings, oil, &c.; is stronglyfortified.

Trophonius, in Greek legend, along with his brother Agamedes, thearchitect of the temple of Apollo at Delphi; had a famous oracle in acave in Boeotia, which could only be entered at night.

Tropics, two parallels of latitude on either side of the equator,which mark the limits N. and S. of the sun's verticality to the earth'ssurface, the distance being in each case 23½°; the northern tropic iscalled the Tropic of Cancer, and the southern the Tropic of Capricorn.

Troppau (21), capital of Austrian Silesia, 184 m. E. of Vienna;contains a castle, gymnasium, and an extensive library; manufactureslinen and woollen textiles, beetroot sugar, &c.

Trossachs, a romantic pass in the Perthshire Highlands, 8 m. W. ofCallander, stretching for about a mile between Lochs Katrine and Achray,is charmingly wooded; is celebrated by Sir Walter Scott in his “Lady ofthe Lake.”

Troubadours, a class of poets who flourished in Provence, EasternSpain, and Northern Italy from the 11th to the 13th century, whose songsin the Langue d'Oc were devoted to subjects lyrical and amatory, and whonot infrequently were men of noble birth and bore arms as knights, and assuch were distinguished from the Jongleurs, who were mere strollingminstrels.

Trouvères, a class of ancient poets in Northern France, who like theTroubadours of Southern France were of court standing, but whose poems,unlike those of the Troubadours, were narrative or epic.

Trowbridge (12), a market-town of Wiltshire, 25 m. NW. of Salisbury;has a fine 15th-century Perpendicular church, in which the poet Crabbe isburied; has woollen and fine cloth manufactures.

Troy, a city of Troas, a territory NW. of Mysia, Asia Minor,celebrated as the scene of the world-famous legend immortalised by the“Iliad” of Homer in his account of the war caused by the rape of Helen,and which ended with the destruction of the city at the hands of theavenging Greeks.

Troy (61), capital of Rensselaer County, New York, on the HudsonRiver, 5 m. above Albany; possesses handsome public buildings, and is abusy centre of textile, heavy iron goods, and other manufactures; hasdaily steamship service with New York.

Troyes (50), a quaint old town of France, capital of the departmentof Aube, on the Seine, 100 m. SE. of Paris; possesses a fine FlamboyantGothic cathedral, founded in 872, several handsome old churches, a largepublic library; has flourishing manufactures of textile fabrics, andtrades in agricultural produce; here in 1420 was signed the Treaty ofTroyes, making good the claims of Henry V. of England to the Frenchcrown.

Truck-system, the paying of workmen's wages in goods in place ofmoney; found useful where works are far distant from towns, but liable tothe serious abuse from inferior goods being supplied; Acts of Parliamenthave been passed to abolish the system, but evasions of the law are notuncommon.

Trumbull, Jonathan, an American patriot, judge and governor ofConnecticut, who supported the movement for independence with great zeal;was much esteemed and consulted by Washington, whose frequent phrase,“Let us hear what Brother Jonathan says,” gave rise to the appellation“Brother Jonathan” (1710-1785).

Trunnion, Commodore Hawser, an eccentric retired naval officer inSmollett's “Peregrine Pickle,” affects the naval commander in hisretirement.

Truro (11), an episcopal city and seaport of Cornwall; exportslargely tin and copper from surrounding mines; its bishopric was revivedin 1876, and a handsome Early English cathedral is nearing completion;has also infirmary, old grammar-school, libraries, &c.

Tuam (4), a town of Galway, Ireland, 129 m. NW. of Dublin; is theseat of an Anglican bishop and of a Catholic archbishop.

Tübingen (13), a celebrated university town of Würtemberg, 18 m. SW.of Stuttgart; is quaint and crowded in the old town, but spreads out intospacious and handsome suburbs, where is situated the new university.Under Melanchthon and Reuchlin the old university became a distinguishedseat of learning, and later, during the professorship ofBaur (q.v.), acquired celebrity as a school of advanced biblical criticism,which gave great stimulus to a more rationalistic interpretation of theScripture narratives; has now an excellent medical school; also bookprinting and selling, and other industries are actively carried on.

Tucker, Abraham, author of “The Light of Nature Pursued”; educatedat Oxford and the Inner Temple, but possessed of private means betookhimself to a quiet country life near Dorking and engaged in philosophicalstudies, the fruit of which he embodied in seven volumes of miscellaneoustheological and metaphysical writing (1705-1774).

Tucuman, a north-central province (210) and town (26) of theArgentine Republic, the latter on the Rio Sil, 723 m. NW. of BuenosAyres.

Tudela (9), ecclesiastical city of Spain, on the Ebro, 46 m. NW. ofSaragossa.

Tudor, the family name of the royal house that occupied the Englishthrone from 1485 (accession of Henry VII.) to 1603 (death of QueenElizabeth), founded by Owen Tudor, a Welsh gentleman, who became Clerk ofthe Household, and subsequently the husband of Catherine of Valois, widowof Henry V.; their son, Edmund, Earl of Richmond, married MargaretBeaufort, a direct descendant of Edward III., and became the father ofHenry VII.

Tula (64), capital of a government (1,409) of the same name inCentral Russia, 107 m. S. of Moscow, the residence of a military and of acivil governor, the seat of a bishop, and a busy centre of firearms,cutlery, and other manufactures.

Tulchan Bishops, bishops appointed in Scotland by James VI. to drawthe Church revenues for his behoof in part, a tulchan being “a calf-skinstuffed into the rude similitude of a calf” to induce the cow to give hermilk freely; “so of the bishops, which the Scotch lairds were glad toconstruct and make the milk come without disturbance.”

Tulle (15), a town of France, capital of the dep. of Corrèze, 115 m.NE. of Bordeaux; possesses a cathedral, episcopal palace, &c.; chiefmanufacture firearms; the fine silk fabric which takes its name from itis no longer manufactured here.

Tunbridge (10), a market-town of Kent, 11 m. SW. of Maidstone, witha fine old castle, a notable grammar-school, and manufactures of fancywood-wares.

Tunbridge Wells (28), a popular watering-place on the border of Kentand Sussex, 34 m. SE. of London; with chalybeate waters noted for upwardsof 250 years.

Tunis (1,500), a country of North Africa, slightly larger thanPortugal; since 1882 a protectorate of France; forms an easterncontinuation of Algeria, fronting the Mediterranean to the N. and E., andstretching S. to the Sahara and Tripoli; is inhabited chiefly by BedouinArabs; presents a hilly, and in parts even mountainous, aspect; itsfertile soil favours the culture of fruits, olives, wheat, and esparto,all of which are in gradually increasing amounts exported; fine marblehas been recently found, and promises well. The capital is Tunis (134),situated at the SW. end of the Lake of Tunis, a few miles SE. of theruined city ofCarthage (q. v.); is for the most part a crowdedunwholesome place, but contains well-supplied bazaars, finely decoratedmosques, the bey's palace, a citadel, and is showing signs of improvementunder French management.

Tunstall (16), a market-town of Staffordshire, 4½ m. NE. ofNewcastle-under-Lyme, is a coal-centre, with manufactures of earthenwareand iron.

Tupper, Martin, author of “Proverbial Philosophy,” born inMarylebone; bred to the bar; wrote some 40 works, but the “Philosophy”(1838), though dead now, had a quite phenomenal success, having sold inthousands and hundreds of thousands, as well as being translated intovarious foreign languages (1810-1889).

Turenne, Vicomte de, a famous marshal of France, born at Sedan ofnoble parentage; was trained in the art of war under his uncles Mauriceand Henry of Nassau in Holland, and entered the French service in 1630under the patronage of Richelieu; gained great renown during the ThirtyYears' War; during the wars of theFronde (q. v.) first sidedwith the “Frondeurs,” but subsequently joined Mazarin and the courtparty; crushed his former chief Condé; invaded successfully the SpanishNetherlands, and so brought the revolt to an end; was createdMarshal-General of France in 1660; subsequently conducted to a triumphantissue wars within Spain (1667), Holland (1672), and during 1674 conqueredand devastated the Palatinate, but during strategical operationsconducted against the Austrian general Montecuculi was killed by acannon-ball (1611-1675).

Turgot, Anne Robert Jacques, French statesman, born at Paris, ofNorman descent; early embraced the doctrines of thephilosophe party,and held for 13 years the post of intendant of Limoges, the affairs ofwhich he administered with ability, and was in 1774 called by Louis XVI.to the management of the national finances, which he proceeded to do oneconomical principles, but in all his efforts was thwarted by theprivileged classes, and in some 20 months was compelled to resign andleave the matter to the fates, he himself retiring into private life(1727-1781).

Turin (230), a celebrated city of North Italy, a former capital ofPiedmont, 80 m. NW. of Genoa; although one of the oldest of Italiancities it presents quite a modern appearance, with handsome streets,statues, squares, gardens, a Renaissance cathedral, palaces, university(over 2000 students), large library, colleges and museums, &c.;manufactures are chiefly of textiles; has an interesting history from thetime of its first mention in Hannibal's day.

Turkestan, a wide region in Central Asia, divided by the Pamirplateau into sections: (1)Western Turkestan, which embraces RussianTurkestan (3,342), theKhanates of Khiva (q. v.) andBokhara (q. v.), and Afghan Turkestan. (2)EasternTurkestan (600), formerly called Chinese Tartary; unproductive inmany parts, and but sparsely populated; produces some gold, and aconsiderable quantity of silk, besides linens and cottons.

Turkey orthe Ottoman Empire, a great Mohammedan Stateembracing wide areas in Eastern Europe and Western Asia, besides theprovince of Tripoli in North Africa, and the tributary States Bulgariaand Eastern Roumelia, Bosnia and Herzegovina (under Austria), Cyprus(under Britain), Samos and Egypt (practically controlled by Britain).European Turkey (4,786), which during the last 200 years has beengradually losing territory, now comprises a narrow strip of land betweenthe Adriatic (W.) and the Black Sea (E.), about twice the size ofEngland; is traversed by the Dinaric Alps and Pindus Mountains, whichstrike southwards into Greece, while offshoots from theBalkans(q. v.) diversify the E.; climate is very variable, and is marked byhigh winds and extremes of cold and heat; the soil is remarkably fertileand well adapted for the cultivation of cereals, but agriculturalenterprise is hampered by excessive taxation; there is abundance of theuseful metals; is the only non-Christian State in Europe.AsiaticTurkey (16,000) is bounded N. by the Black Sea, S. by the ArabianDesert and the Mediterranean, E. by Persia and Transcaucasia, and W. bythe Archipelago; has an area more than ten times that of Turkey inEurope, is still more mountainous, being traversed by the Taurus,Anti-Taurus, and the Lebanon ranges; is ill watered, and even the valleysof the Euphrates, Tigris, and Jordan are subject to great drought in thesummer; embracesAsia Minor (q. v.),Syria (q. v.),Palestine (q. v.), and the coast strips of Arabia along the RedSea and the Persian Gulf; chief exports are fruits, silk, cotton, wool,opium, &c. The population of the Ottoman Empire is of a mostheterogeneous character, embracing Turks, Greeks, Slavs, Albanians,Armenians, Syrians, Arabs, Tartars, &c. The government is a puredespotism, and the Sultan is regarded as the Caliph or head of Islam;military service is compulsory, and the army on a war footing numbers notless than 750,000, but the navy is small; since 1847 there has beenconsiderable improvement in education; the finances have long beenmismanaged, and an annual deficit of two millions sterling is now a usualfeature of the national budget; the foreign debt is upwards of 160millions. From the 17th century onwards the once wide empire of the Turkshas been gradually dwindling away. The Turks are essentially a warlikerace, and commerce and art have not flourished with them. Theirliterature is generally lacking in virility, and is mostly imitative anddevoid of national character.

Turner, Charles Tennyson, an elder brother of Alfred Tennyson; a manof fine nature and delicate susceptibility as a poet, whose friendshipand “heart union” with his greater brother is revealed in “Poems by TwoBrothers” (1808-1879).

Turner, Joseph Mallord William, great English landscape painter,born probably in London, the son of a hairdresser; had little education,and grew up illiterate, as he remained all his days; took to art from hisearliest boyhood; soon became acquainted with the artist class, and cameunder the notice of Sir Joshua Reynolds; began to exhibit at 15; waselected Associate of the Royal Academy at 24, and made an Academician at28; he took interest in nothing but art, and led the life of a recluse;was never married, and was wedded solely to his work; travelled much inEngland and on the Continent, sketching all day long; produced inwater-colour and oil scene after scene, and object after object, as theyimpressed him, and represented them ashe saw them; being a man ofmoderate desires he lived economically, and he died rich, leaving hismeans to found an asylum for distressed artists; of his works there is nospace to take note here; yet these are all we know of the man, and theystamp him as a son of genius, who saw visions and dreamed dreams; heearly fascinated the young Ruskin; Ruskin's literary career began withthe publication of volume after volume in his praise, and in hisenthusiasm he characterised him as the “greatest painter of all time”(1775-1851). SeePerugino.

Turner, Sharon, historian, born in London, where he led a busy lifeas an attorney; devoted his leisure to historical studies, the first ofwhich were “History of Anglo-Saxons” and “History of England from theNorman Conquest to the Death of Elizabeth,” essays, &c. (1768-1847).

Turpin, Dick, a felon executed at York for horse-stealing;celebrated for his ride to York in Ainsworth's “Rookwood.”

Tuscany (2,274), a department of Italy, formerly a grand-duchy, liesS. and W. of the Apennines, fronting the Tyrrhenian Sea on the W.;mountainous in the N. and E., but otherwise consisting of fertile daleand plain, in which the vine, olive, and fruits abound; silk is animportant manufacture, and the marble quarries of Siena are noted; formeda portion of ancientEtruria (q. v.); was annexed to Sardiniain 1859, and in 1861 was incorporated in the kingdom of Italy. Capital,Florence.

Tusculum, a ruined Roman city, 15 m. SE. of Rome; at one time afavourite country resort of wealthy Romans; Brutus, Cæsar, Cicero, andothers had villas here; was stormed to ruins in 1191; has manyinteresting remains.

Tussaud, Madame, foundress of the famous waxwork show in London,born at Berne, and trained in her art in Paris; patronised by the sisterof Louis XVI.; was imprisoned during the Revolution, and in 1802 came toLondon (1760-1850).

Tweed, a famous river of Scotland, rises in the S. of Peeblesshire,and flows for 97 m. in a generally north-eastward direction; enters theGerman Ocean at Berwick; is a noted salmon river, and inseparablyassociated with the glories of Scottish literature and history.

Twickenham (16), a town of Middlesex, on the Thames, 11½ m. SW. ofLondon; a fashionable resort in the 18th century; the dwelling-place ofPope, Horace Walpole, Turner, and others.

Twiss, Sir Travers, jurist and economist, born in Westminster;professor of Political Economy at Oxford, and subsequently of Civil Law;drew up in 1884 a constitution for the Congo Free State; his writingsinclude “View of the Progress of Political Economy since the SixteenthCentury,” “International Law,” “The Law of Nations,” all of which rank asstandard and authoritative works (1809-1897).

Twist, Oliver, hero of Dickens's novel of the name.

Tyche, the Greek name of the Latin goddess Fortuna, represented withvarious attributes to symbolise her fickleness, her influence, hergenerosity, &c.

Tyler, Edward Burnet, a distinguished anthropologist, born atCamberwell; in 1856 he travelled through Mexico in company with HenryChristy, the ethnologist; five years later published “Anahuac; or, Mexicoand the Mexicans”; in 1883 became keeper of the Oxford University Museumand reader in Anthropology; in 1888 was appointed Gifford Lecturer atAberdeen, and in 1891 president of the Anthropological Society; his greatworks are “Researches into the Early History of Mankind” and “PrimitiveCulture”;b. 1832.

Tyler, John, president of the United States, born in Charles CityCounty, Virginia; became a barrister; elected vice-president of theUnited States in 1840, and on the death of Harrison succeeded to thepresidential office; showed much independence and strength of mind,exercising his veto on several occasions; theAshburton (q. v.)Treaty and the annexation of Texas were the principal events of hispresidency; made strenuous endeavours to secure peace in 1861, butfailing sided with the South, and was a member of the ConfederateCongress (1790-1862).

Tyler, Wat, a tiler in Dartford, Kent, who roused into rebellion thelong-discontented and over-taxed peasantry of England by striking dead in1381 a tax-gatherer who had offered insult to his young daughter; underTyler and Jack Straw a peasant army was mustered in Kent and Essex, and adescent made on London; the revolters were disconcerted by the tact ofthe young kingRichard II. (q. v.), and in a scuffle Tyler waskilled by Walworth, Mayor of London.

Tyndal, John, physicist, born in co. Carlow, Ireland; succeededFaraday at the Royal Institution; wrote on electricity, sound, light, andheat, as well as on the “Structure and Motion of the Glaciers,” inopposition to Forbes, whose theory was defended in strong terms byRuskin; wrote also “Lectures on Science for Unscientific People,” muchpraised by Huxley (1820-1893).

Tyne, river of North England, formed by the confluence near Hexhamof the N. Tyne from the Cheviots, and the S. Tyne, which rises on CrossFell, in E. Cumberland; forms the boundary between Durham andNorthumberland, and after a course of 32 m. enters the sea betweenTynemouth and South Shields.

Tynemouth (28 township, 46 borough), a popular watering-place ofNorthumberland, at the mouth of the Tyne, 9 m. E. of Newcastle; has afine sweep of promenaded shore, an aquarium, pier, lighthouse, baths,&c.; North Shields and several villages lie within the boroughboundaries.

Typhon, in the Greek mythology a fire-breathing giant, struck by athunderbolt of Jupiter, and buried under Etna.

Tyrants, in ancient Greece men who usurped or acquired supremeauthority in a State at some political crisis, who were despotic in theirpolicy, but not necessarily cruel, often the reverse.

Tyrconnel, Richard Talbot, Earl of, a Catholic politician andsoldier, whose career during the reigns of Charles II. and James II. is arecord of infamous plotting and treachery in support of the CatholicStuarts; was created an earl and lord-deputy of Ireland by James II.;fled to France after the battle of the Boyne (1625-1691).

Tyre, a famous city of ancientPhoenicia (q. v.), about 30m. N. of Acre; comprised two towns, one on the mainland, the other on anisland opposite; besieged and captured in 332 B.C. by Alexander theGreat, who connected the towns by a causeway, which, by silting sands,has grown into the present isthmus; its history goes back to the 10thcentury B.C., when it was held by Hiram, the friend of Solomon, andsustained sieges by Nebuchadnezzar and others; was reduced by CæsarAugustus, but again rose to be one of the most flourishing cities of theEast in the 4th century A.D.; fell into ruins under the Turks, and isnow reduced to some 5000 of a population.

Tyrol (929), a crownland of Austria; lies between Bavaria (N.) andItaly (S. and W.); traversed by three ranges of the Alps and by therivers Inn and Adige; it is famed for the beauty of its scenery;inhabited by Catholic Germans and Italians; sheep-farming, mining, andforest, fruit, and wine cultivation are the chief industries; capitalInnsbruck (q. v.).

Tyrone (171), a central county of Ulster, Ireland; is hilly,picturesque, and fertile in the lower districts; a considerable portionis taken up by barren mountain slopes and bogland, and agriculture isbackward; coal and marble are wrought; Omagh is the capital, and Strabaneand Dungannon are prosperous towns.

Tyrone, Hugh O'Neil, Earl of, a notable Irish rebel; assumed thetitle of “The O'Neil,” and offered open rebellion to Queen Elizabeth'sauthority, but, despite assistance from Spain, was subdued by Essex andMountjoy; was permitted to retain his earldom, but in James I.'s reignwas again discovered intriguing with Spain; fled the country, and had hislands confiscated;d. 1616.

Tyrrhenian Sea, an arm of the Mediterranean, stretching betweenCorsica, Sardinia, and Sicily on the W., and Italy on the E.

Tyrtæus, a lyric poet of ancient Greece, of the 7th century B.C.,and whose war-songs greatly heartened the Spartans in their struggle withthe Messenians.

Tyrwhitt, Thomas, English scholar, the son of an English Churchcanon, born in London; was a Fellow of Merton in 1755, and in 1762 becameclerk to the House of Commons, a post, however, which proved too arduousfor him, and in 1768 he resigned; the remainder of his life was given toliterary pursuits; produced the first adequate edition of Chaucer (1775),besides an edition of Aristotle's “Poetics,” and books on Chatterton's“Rowley Poems,” &c. (1730-1786).

Tytler, Patrick Fraser, historian, son of Alexander Fraser Tytler, alord of Session under the title of Lord Woodhouselee, author of the“Elements of History” (1747-1813), born in Edinburgh; abandoned the barfor literature, and established his fame by his scholarly “History ofScotland”; wrote biographies of Wycliffe, Raleigh, Henry VIII., &c.;received a Government pension from Sir Robert Peel (1791-1849).

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